DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING

MH 2333 BASIC MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING LAB

LAB MANUAL

INDEX
S.No
1
2

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

PAGE NO

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM AND PORT TIMING

DIAGRAM
PERFORMNCE TEST ON 4-STROKE DIESEL
ENGINE

3
17

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON 4-STROKE DIESEL

ENGINE

24

MORSE TEST ON MULTICYLINDER PETROL

ENGINE

34

RETARDATION TEST TO FIND FRICTIONAL

POWER OF A DIESEL ENGINE

41

DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY
MEASUREMENT USING REDWOOD VISCOMETER

46

DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT

51

PERFORMANCE

TEST

ON

VAPOUR

COMPRESSION AIRCONDITION TEST RIG

56

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM

63

10

PERFORMANCE STUDY IN A REFRIGERATOR

WITH CALORIMETER

69

1. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM AND PORT TIMING DIAGRAM

1.a. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM

AIM:
To draw the valve timing diagram for the given four stroke diesel engine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Measuring tape
2. Scale
3. Feeler gauge

ENGINE SPECIFICATION :

Make

kirloskar

Cylinder

Single

Position

Vertical

Cooling agent

Water

Stroke

110 mm

Bore

80 mm

Break power

5 HP

Cubic capacity

550 cc

DESCRIPTION:

Four Strokes of engine

Valve Timing Diagram of Four Stroke Engine

The four-stroke cycle

1=TDC
2=BDC
A: Intake
B: Compression
C: Power
D: Exhaust

THEORY:
The time valves in a 4-stroke engine cycle actually open and close can be measured by angles. These
angles can be easily read using a valve-timing diagram.
To see how valve-timing works in a 4-stroke engine cycle, lets show piston motion as a circle. In this
simple cycle, each stroke is shown as a semi-circle.
This intake valve opens at top dead center, and closes at bottom dead center. The blue line shows that
period and it matches the intake stroke.
The exhaust valve opens at bottom dead center, then closes at top dead center before the new air-fuel
mixture enters the cylinder.
In practice, the intake valve usually opens earlier than top dead center, and stays open a little past
bottom dead center.
The exhaust valve opens a little before bottom dead center, and stays open a little past top dead center.
When the valves actually open and close, can be measured by angles. To make these angles easier to
read, lets use a spiral instead of a circle.
This intake valve opens 12 before the piston reaches top dead center.
And it closes 40 after bottom dead center.
The exhaust valve opens 47 before bottom dead center - and stays open - until 21 past top dead
center. This gives exhaust gases more time to leave.
By the time the piston is at 47 before bottom dead center on the power stroke, combustion pressures
have dropped considerably and little power is lost by letting the exhaust gases have more time to exit.
When an intake valve opens before top dead center and the exhaust valve opens before bottom dead
center, it is called lead.
When an intake valve closes after bottom dead center, and the exhaust valve closes after top dead
center, it is called lag.
On the exhaust stroke, the intake and exhaust valve are open at the same time for a few degrees around
top dead center. This is called valve overlap. On this engine, it is 33.
Different engines use different timings. Manufacturer specifications contain the exact information.
Opening and closing of Inlet Valve:
6

The inlet valve is made to open 10degree to 30degree before the piston reaches the Top Dead Center
(TDC) during Suction Stroke and is allowed to close only after 30degree to 40degree after the piston
reaches
and
leaves
the
BDC
in
the
beginning
of
compression
stroke.
Reason The reason for doing this is to facilitate silent operation of the engine under high speeds. The
inlet valves are made to operate slowly to avoid noise and hence sufficient time should be provided for
the air-fuel mix to get into the cylinder. Thus valves are made to open before the actual BDC.
Since the inlet valve is a small opening sufficient mixture doesnt enter the cylinder in such short time,
as the piston reaches BDC. Thus the inlet valve is kept open for some time period of time after BDC, to
facilitate sufficient flow
of charge into the cylinder.
Opening and closing of Exhaust Valve:
The exhaust valve is made to open 30degree to 60degree before the TDC in the exhaust stroke and
allowed to close only after 80 to 10 in0 the beginning of the suction stroke.
Reason The gases inside the cylinder posses a higher pressure even after the expansion stroke. This
higher pressure enables it to move out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve reducing the work that
needs to be done by the engine piston in pushing out these gases. Thus the exhaust valve is made to
open before the piston reaches the BDC thus enabling the gases to escape outside on its own and the
remaining gases are pushed out by the upward motion of the piston. When the piston reaches the TDC,
if the exhaust valve is closed like in actual timing diagram, a certain amount of exhaust gases will get
compressed and remain inside the cylinder and will be carried to the next cycle also. To prevent this,
the exhaust valves are allowed to close only a certain time after the piston reaches the TDC.
FORMULA:
Crank Angle() = ( 360 / C ) X L
Where,
=

Crank Angle

L = Arc length of the fly wheel in mm

C = Circumference of the flywheel mm
OBSERVATION:

Sl No

Event

Inlet valve opens(IVO)

Inlet valve closes(IVC)

Exhaust valve opens(EVO)

Exhaust valve closes(EVC)

Pumping starts(PS)

Pumping ends(PE)

Position

Arc Length
mm

Angle
(Deg)

PROCEDURE:
1. The Inlet and Exhaust valves are identified first.
2.

The TDC and BDC positions of the piston are found as follows. The flywheel is rotated and
when the piston reaches an arbitrarily chosen location in the cylinder a mark is made on the
flywheel against a fixed mark on the frame. The flywheel is rotated and when the piston comes
to the same mark in its downward stroke a mark is made on the flywheel against the fixed mark
chosen. The midpoint of these two marks gives the TDC position of the piston and the
diametrically opposite position gives the BDC

3. The correct direction of rotation is found from the sequence of opening and closing of the inlet and
exhaust valves.
4. The circumference of the flywheel is determined using the measuring tape.
5. The flywheel is rotated and the point at which the inlet valve starts opening is found out and its
position is marked on the flywheel against the fixed mark.
6. Similarly the position at which it closes is also found out.
7. The same procedure is repeated for the exhaust valve.

8. The distances of the opening and closing of the two valves are measured with respect to the dead
center and converted into angles using the relation given above.

RESULT:
The valve timing of the given four stroke engine is found out and the diagram is drawn.
Duration of suction stroke

Duration of compression stroke =

Duration of expansion stroke

Duration of exhaust stroke

Duration of valve overlap

=
1.b. PORT TIMING DIAGRAM

10

AIM:
To draw the port timing diagram for the given two stroke engine.

TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Measuring tape
2. Scale

ENGINE SPECIFICATION :

Make

Rajdoot

Cylinder

Single

Position

Vertical

Cooling agent

Air

Stroke

58 mm

Bore

62 mm

Cubic capacity

175 cc

11

FIXING THE DEAD CENTRES:

The flywheel is rotated and when the piston reaches an arbitrarily chosen location in the
cylinder a mark is made on the flywheel against a fixed mark on the frame. The flywheel is rotated and
when the piston comes to the same mark in its downward stroke a mark is made on the flywheel against
the fixed mark chosen. The midpoint of these two marks gives the TDC position of the piston and the
diametrically opposite position gives the BDC
IDENTIFICATION OF POSTS:
The port which has more area and is nearer to the TDC is the exhaust port and the other one is
the inlet port. Normally the export port is the bigger than the inlet port.
DIRECTION OF ROTATION:
As the port opening and closing are symmetrical about the dead centre any arbitrary direction of
rotation may be selected.

12

PORT TIMING DIAGRAM:

The Two-stroke cycle

1=TDC
2=BDC
A:intake/scavenging
B:Exhaust
C:Compression
D: Expansion(power)

13

FORMULA:
Crank Angle() = ( 360 / C ) X L
Where,
=

Crank Angle

L = Arc length of the fly wheel in mm

C = Circumference of flywheel

PROCEDURE:
1. The flywheel is turned in any arbitrary direction.
2. During the downward traverse position when it just uncovers a port it is marked as the opening
of the port on the flywheel.
3. The rotation is further continued until the piston covers the port during its upward travel.
4. A mark is made on the flywheel against the fixed mark. This gives the closing of the port.
5. The same procedure is repeated for other ports also.

14

OBSERVATION:

SL NO

EVENT

Inlet port open(IPO)

Inlet port closes(IPC)

Exhaust port opens(EPO)

Exhaust port closes(EPC)

Transfer port opens(TPO)

Transfer port closes(TPC)

POSITION

15

ARC
LENGTH
mm

ANGLE
(DEG)

RESULT:
Thus the port time for the given two stroke engine is found out and the port timing diagram is
drawn.
Duration of suction stroke

Duration of compression stroke

Duration of expansion stroke

Duration of exhaust stroke

Scavenging period

2. PERFORMNCE TEST ON 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Aim:
To conduct the performance test on comet diesel engine and to draw the characteristic curves.
16

Apparatus required
Comet engine set up
Stop watch
Tachometer
Engine specification
Make

Comet

Cylinder

Two

Position

Vertical

Cooling agent

Water

Stroke

110mm

Bore

80 mm

Break power

10 HP

Speed

1500 rpm

DESCRIPTION
A four-stroke engine, also known as four-cycle, is an internal combustion engine in which
the piston completes four separate strokesintake, compression, power, and exhaustduring two
separate revolutions of the engine's crankshaft, and one single thermodynamic cycle.
Today,

the

internal

combustion

engine

(ICE)

is

used

in motorcycles, automobiles, boats, trucks,aircraft, ships, heavy duty machinery, and in its original
intended use as stationary power both for kinetic and electrical power generation. Diesel engines are
found in virtually all heavy duty applications such as trucks, ships, locomotives, power generation, and
stationary power. Many of these diesel engine are two-cycle with power ratings up to 105,000 hp
(78,000 kW).
The four cycles refer to intake, compression, combustion (power), and exhaust cycles that occur
during two crankshaft rotations per power cycle of the four-cycle engines. The cycle begins at Top
17

Dead Centre (TDC), when the piston is farthest away from the axis of the crankshaft. A cycle refers to
the full travel of the piston from Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
1. INTAKE stroke: on the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston descends from the top of
the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel
and air, or just air in a diesel engine, is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder
through the intake port. The intake valve(s) then close. The volume of air/fuel mixture that is drawn
into the cylinder, relative to the volume of the cylinder is called, the volumetric efficiency of the
engine.
2. COMPRESSION stroke: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of
the cylinder compressing the air, or fuel-air mixture into the combustion chamber of the cylinder head.
3. POWER stroke: this is the start of the second revolution of the engine. While the piston is close to
Top Dead Center, the compressed airfuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, usually by a spark
plug, or fuel is injected into the diesel engine, which ignites due to the heat generated in the air during
the compression stroke. The resulting massive pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air
mixture forces the piston back down toward bottom dead centre.

18

4. EXHAUST stroke: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead center while
the exhaust valve is open. This action evacuates the burnt products of combustion from the cylinder by
expelling the spent fuel-air mixture out through the exhaust valve(s).

Formulae used:
1. Break power(B.P)
BP

V X I / (1000 X g)

Break power in KW
Volt meter reading in volts
Ammeter reading in Amps
Generator efficiency (80%)

Where
BP
V
I
g

2. Total fuel consumption

TFC

( X/ t) X ( s/1000) X 3600 Kg/ hr

Where,
X
t
s

Fuel consumption in cc
time for 40cc of fuel consumption in sec
specific gravity of diesel(0.83)

3. Specific fuel consumption ( SFC)

SFC

TFC/ BP

Kg/KW -hr

Where,
TFC
Total fuel consumption in kg/hr
BP
Break power in KW
4. Break thermal efficiency (bth)
bth

(BP X 3600 ) / (TFC X CV)

Where,
TFC
CV

Total fuel consumption in kg/hr

Calorific value in kJ/Kg (43000)
19

X 100

5. Mechanical efficiency (m)

m

BP / IP

X 100

Where,
IP
IP
BP
FP

=
-

BP + FP
Indicated power in kw
Break power in KW
Frictional power in kw ( from BP Vs TFC Graph)

PROCEDURE:
1. The maximum load for which the engine can be loaded is found.
2. The fuel lubricating oil and cooling levels are checked.
3. Decompression level is engaged and the engine is cranked. As soon as flywheel rotates with
Considerable speed ,decompression lever is disengaged to start the engine.
4. The load can be altered by the field rheostat and the voltage is maintained at 220V.
5. The time taken for 40cc fuel consumption is noted down by using stopwatch.
6. The reading is noted down for different ammeter reading.
7. Using these values BP, TFC, SFC,m, and b are found.
8. These various parameters are plotted on a graph with respect to the change in break power.
GRAPH:
Break power

VS

Total fuel consumption

Break power

VS

Specific fuel consumption

Break power

VS

Break thermal efficiency

Break power

VS

Mechanical efficiency

20

TABULATION

21

SL
NO

LOAD
W S
KG KG

Break
Power
KW

Time for 40
cc of fuel
consumption
t Sec.

Total fuel
consumption
T.F.C KG/Hr

22

Specific fuel
consumption
S.F.C
KG/KW-Hr

Break
Thermal
efficiency
bth

Mechanical
efficiency
mech

RESULT:

The performance test on the comet engine was conducted and the characteristic curves were
drawn

3. HEAT BALANCE TEST ON 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Aim:
To conduct the heat balance test on comet diesel engine and to draw the heat balance sheet.
Apparatus required:
Comet engine set up
Stop watch
Tachometer
Engine specification:

Make

Comet

Cylinder

Two

Position

Vertical

Cooling agent

water

Stroke

110mm

Bore

80 mm
23

Break power

10 HP

Speed

1500 rpm

DIAGRAM:
Four-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
The four-stroke diesel engine is similar to the fourstroke gasoline engine. They both follow an
operating cycle that consist of intake, compression, power, and exhaust strokes. They also share similar
systems for intake and exhaust valves. The components of a diesel engine are shown in figure 1-6.
The fuel and air mixture in a diesel engine is compressed to about one twentieth of its original volume
while in a gasoline engine the fuel and air mixture is only compressed to about one eighth of its original
volume. The diesel engine must compress the mixture more tightly to generate enough heat to ignite the
fuel and air mixture.

24

Figure 1-7- The components of a diesel engine

25

Figure 1-7.-Diesel and gasoline engines compression strokes.

26

Figure 1-8.-Diesel and gasoline engines intake strokes.

Figure 1-9.-Diesel and gasoline engines regulation of power.

27

The air and fuel then mix in the combustion chamber (fig. 1-8). The engine speed and the power output
of a diesel engine are controlled by the quantity of fuel admitted to the combustion chamber. The
amount of air is constant. On the gasoline engine, the speed and power output is regulated by limiting
the air and fuel mixture entering the engine (fig. 1-9). A diesel engine is much more efficient than a
gasoline engine, such as the diesel engine does not require an ignition system due to the heat generated
by the higher compression, the diesel engine has a better fuel economy due to the complete burning of
the fuel, and the diesel engine develops greater torque due to the power developed from the highcompression ratio.
DIESEL ENGINE INTAKE STROKE.The piston is at top dead center at the beginning of the intake stroke, and, as the piston moves
downward, the intake valve opens. The downward movement of the piston draws air into the cylinder,

28

and, as the piston reaches bottom dead center, the intake valve closes (fig. 1-10, view A).

Figure 1-10.-Four-stroke cycle diesel engine.

Formulae used:

1. Heat supplied (Qs)

Qs = mf

X CV

mf = ( X/ t) X ( s/1000)

Kg/sec
29

Where,
X
t
s
CV

Fuel consumption in cc =40cc

time for 40cc of fuel consumption in sec
specific gravity of diesel(0.83)
Calorific value in kJ/Kg (43000)

2. Heat convert to break power (Qa)

Qa =BP

V X I / (1000 X g)

Break power in KW
volt meter reading in volts
Ammeter reading in Amps
Generator efficiency (80%)

Where
BP
V
I
g

3. Heat carried away by cooling water:

Qw = mw Cpw (TwoTwi)
Where,
Amount of water collected(4Kg)
mw --- Flow rate of water in kg/sec =

Time taken (t)

Cpw --- specific heat capacity of water in KJ/KgK

Two

Cooling water outlet temp in C

Twi

Cooling water inlet temp in C

4. Heat carried away by exhaust gas:

Qg
mg

=
=

ma
Where
Cd
A
G
Hw
a

mg Cpg (TgoTgi)

ma + mf
= Cd X A 2 X gXhwX aXw kg/sec
-

Co-efficent of discharge = 0.64

Area of Pipe = /4 (0.04)2 = 0.0013 m2
Acc. Due to gravity = 9.81m/sec2
h1 h2 in m.
Density of air = 1.162 kg/m3
30

w
Tgo
Tgi
5.

Density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Exhaust gas outlet temperature
Exhaust gas inlet temperature

Unaccounted heat loss (Qu)

Qu
=
Qs-(Qa+Qw+Qg)

TABULATION:SL NO

LOAD
W KG

S KG

TIME FOR
COLLECTIN
G 4KG OF
OUTLET
WATER SEC

HEAT
SUPPLIED
BY Qs

HEAT
CONVERTED
TO BREAK
POWER Qa

KW

KW

TIME FOR
40CC OF
FUEL
CONSUMPTI
ON t SEC

COOLING
WATER
OUTLET
TEMP C

HEAT
CARRIED
AWAY BY
COOLING
WATER QB
KW
%
31

MANOMETE
R READING
H1
CM

HEAT
CARRIED
AWAY BY
EXHAUST
GAS Qc
KW
%

H =H1-H2
X 10m

EXHAUST
GAS TEMP
Tgo C

H2 CM

UNACCOUNTED
HEAT LOSSES Qu

KW

PROCEDURE:1. The max load to which the engine can be loaded is found.
2. The fuel, lubricating oil, cooling water levels are checked.
3. The engine is cranked and started by engaging decompression lever.
4. Engine is loaded upto mad load by adding weights to the hanger.
5. The spring balance reading is noted for each load.
6. The speed of the engine is maintained at 500 rpm for each loadings
7. Time taken for 40 CC fuel consumption, cooling water outlet temperature and exhaust gas
temperature are noted.
8. Time taken for collecting 4 kg of outlet water and temp is noted.
9. Repeat the Experiment for various loads and take down the readings.
10. Tabulate the reading and calculate the Qs,Qa,Qw,Qg & Qu

32

GRAPH;Load Vs Heat losses.

33

RESULT:-

Thus the heat balance test on comet engine by Air flow method and the heat balance sheet are
drawn.

4. MORSE TEST ON MULTICYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

AIM:
To conduct the morse test on 4 stroke, 4 cylinder petrol engine for determining frictional power.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Fiat engine setup
Tacho meter
stop watch
ENGINE SPECIFICATION:Make

Fiat

Cylinder

Four

Position

Vertical

Cooling Agent

Water

Stroke

75 mm

Bore

68 mm

Break Power

42 HP

Speed

4500 RPM

WORKING PRINCIPLE:.
34

In four stroke engine the work is obtained only during one stroke out of these for a single cylinder
engine or for every cylinder individually for multi cylinder engine.If you have any automobile vehicle
or machine,then you better know the above terms.But ever you know,which are these strokes and how it
perform? Interested to go deep in topic? Read below description.

35

01) Suction Stroke.

This is first stroke of your engine. During this stroke the piston is moved downward from Top
Dead Centre by means of crankshaft which is rotate by electric motor. This movement increases the
size of combustion space thereby reducing the pressure inside the cylinder, as the result, the higher
pressure of the outside atmosphere forces the air into combustion space through suction valve. The
exhaust valve remain closed in this stroke. A carburettor is put in the passage of incoming air which
supplies a controlled quantity of fuel to this air. This air-fuel mixture thus comes in engine cylinder.
02) Compression Stroke.
This is second stroke of your engine. The air-fuel mixture is compressed during this upward
stroke. The compression, forces the fuel into closer combination with air. Heat is produced due to
compression aids the combustion of fuel. Just a little before the end of compression stroke the mixture
is ignited by a spark produced by spark plug. During this stroke suction and exhaust valve remain
closed.
03) Power Stroke.
This is third stroke of your engine. You may call it as Expansion Stroke also. The air-fuel
mixture which burns at the end of compression stroke expands due to heat of combustion. This
expansion of burnt air-fuel mixture exerts pressure in the cylinder and on the piston, and under this
impulse the piston moves downward thus doing useful work. Suction and exhaust valve remain closed
during this stroke.
04)Exhaust Stroke.
This is last stroke of your engine. During this stroke the suction valve remain closed while the
exhaust valve opens. The greater part of burnt gases escapes because of their own expansion. The
upward movement of piston pushes the remaining gases out of the open exhaust valve. Thus complete
the exhaust stroke and one cycle of engine.
Number of cycles are depend upon the rotation per minute of your engine.Higher the R.P.M.,higher the
36

work done carried out by engine.I hope,this information will better help you to understand the working
of your four stroke engine.

DIAGRAM:
The 4 Stroke Petrol Engine
.

37

FORMULA USED:1. Torque

T

= R x S x g Nm

Where
R
S
G

Radius of Dynamometer, 0.32 m

Load, kg
Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

2. Brake Power: (BP)

BP

= 2NT
--------KW
60000

Where
N
T

- Engine speed rpm.

- Engine Torque in Nm.

3. Indicated Power:
IP
= IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4
IP1 = BP1 BP (2+3+4) Kw
IP2 = BP
BP (1+3+4) Kw
IP3 = BP
BP (1+2+4) Kw
IP4 = BP
BP (1+2+3) Kw
4. Frictional Power (FP)
FP

IP BP kW

PROCEDURE:
38

1.

The engine is started by using ignition switch & starter motor.

2.

At first all four cylinders are running & speed is kept at 1200 rpm by using throttle valve

3.

Valve of hydraulic load is measured

4.

Then, the first cylinder is cut off & speed is maintained by decreasing the load

5.

This is done by closing the valve for the hydraulic load dynamometer

6.

The valve of load is noted down.

7.

Similarly second, third & fourth cylinders are cut off & procedure is repeated.

TABULATION:-

CONDITION

LOAD
KG

SPEED
(rpm)

TORQUE
Nm

39

BREAK
POWER
KW

INDICATED
POWER KW

FRICTIONAL
POWER KW

40

RESULT:
Thus the Morse test was conducted on four cylinder petrol engine & frictional power is
determined.
5. RETARDATION TEST TO FIND FRICTIONAL POWER OF A DIESEL ENGINE
AIM:
To conduct a retardation test on ruston diesel engine and to determine the frictional power.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Ruston engine setup
Tachometer
Weights

ENGINE SPECIFICATION:Make

Ruston

Cylinder

Single

Position

Horizontal

Cooling Agent

Water

Stroke

267 mm

Bore

143 mm

Speed

500 rpm

41

DIAGRAM

42

FORMULA USED:-

1. Brake torque (Tb)

(Tb)
2.

load x radius

Frictional torque (Tf)

Tf
=
Tb t3
----------Nm
T2-t3
Where
T2,t3 -

from graph

3. Frictional Power (FP)

FP

2NTf
--------60000

KW

PROCEDURE:
1. Start the engine observing all precautions without load.
2. Adjust the speed to rated valve
3. Cut off fuel supply & note time taken for every 100 mm retardation
4. Repeat the procedure for 25% load
5. Calculate frictional torque & frictional power.

TABULATION

43

SL NO

DROP IN
SPEED
RANGE (rpm)

FALL IN
SPEED(rpm)

TIME TAKEN
FOR FALL IN
SPEED AT 0%
LOAD
( sec)

44

TIME TAKEN
FOR FALL IN
SPEED AT 25%
LOAD
( sec)

FRICTIONAL
POWER KW

RESULT:

Thus retardation test on a ruston diesel engine was conducted & frictional power was
determined.

45

6. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT USING REDWOOD

VISCOMETER
Aim:
To determine the kinematic viscosity of the given oil at various
temperatures by means of Redwood viscometer.

Apparatus:
Redwood viscometer
Thermometer
50cc receiving flask
Stop watch

Theory:
The viscosity is a measure of the internal resistance to the flow of fluids. It is measured in poise.
The kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to its density at the given
temperature and the unit is m/S. The time required for the given quantity of oil to flow through an
orifice is a function of its kinematic viscosity. The time required in seconds for 50cc of oil to gravitate
through the orifice or jet or redwood viscometer at given temp is expressed as its viscosity in redwood
seconds at that temperature.

Description:
The redwood viscometer comprises of vertical cylindrical cup with an axial jet at the bottom.
The jet can be closed by a ball valve / stopper. There is a marker near the top of the cup to control the
level to which the test oil should be filled in the cup. There is a thermometer, which measures the oil
temperature. The cup is surrounded by a water jacket. An electric heater coil can heat the wateR. A
regulator /auto transformer can control the input energy to the coil. A stirrer in the jacket maintains

46

uniform temperature of the bath. The jacket is integral with the housing . There are leveling screws at
the base of the housing to ensure that the jet is exactly vertical.

TABULATION

SL NO

TEMP OF WATER =
TEMP OF OIL C

TIME FOR 40ML

COLLECTION OF
OIL
t SEC

KINEMATIC
VISCOSITY
m/S

Formula:
Viscosity (V) = ( Ct B/t) X 10 m/s
Where,
C & B are empirically determined constants
t-

time taken for 50 ml fall of liquid.

Time (t) Sec

34 100

Value of B
1.76

Value of C
0.0026

>100

0.5

0.00247

47

DIAGRAM:

48

Procedure:
1. The oil cup of the viscometer is cleaned well and the given oil is filled into the cup.
2. The 50cc collecting flask is placed in position below the orifice.
3. The water is heated to maintain the oil at different temperatures using electric heater.
4. The temp at which both oil and water are equal is noted.
5. The ball valve is opened and the time taken to drain 50cc of oil is noted.
6. The same procedure is repeated to find the viscosity of the oil at different temperatures and the
results are tabulated.

Graph:

Temperature

Vs

Kinematic viscosity

49

RESULT:

The viscosity of the given oil was found at different temperatures and a graph was drawn between
temperature & kinematic viscosity.
7. DETERMINATION OF FLASH AND FIRE POINT
Aim:

To determine the flash and fire point of the given fuel sample.
50

Apparatus required:
Ables flash and flash point apparatus
Thermometer
Electric heater
Flame exposure device.

Theory:
Flash point
The flash point of an oil is the minimum at which sufficient flammable vapour is driven of to
flash when brought into contact with a flame.
Fire point
The fire point of an oil is the minimum at which in flammable vapours will continue to form
and steadily burn once ignited.
Description:
The Ables apparatus consist of a cast iron heating vessel which is surrounded by an electric heating
coil. The oil cup with an insulated handle has a filling mark,the cup can be placed on the heating
vessel. The equipment has provision for supply of the gas for testing flame and regulator to control the
heating rate of the oil.

DIAGRAM:

51

The Ables apparatus

52

Procedure:

1. Clean and dry all parts of the cup and its accessories thoroughly before the test is started.
2. Fill the cup with the sample of oil to the tested upto the level indicated by the filling mark.
3. Insert the thermometer into the sample to note the temperature.
4. Light and adjust the test flame.
5. Connect the heater to the main through the regulator
6. Adjust the rate of heating as 25 C per minute.
7. The temperature of the oil reaches the temperatures of about 25 C below the expected
flash point temperature apply the test flame at regular intervals say every 2 C temperature
rise.
8. When the application of the test flame results to district momentry flash in the cup over the

oil surface, note down the temperatures. This is the Flash Point of the given oil.
9. Continue applying the test flame over the oil surface. When there occurs a continuous
flame on the oil surface which is alive for at least 5 seconds note down the temperature.
This is the Fire point of the given oil.

53

TABULATION
Sample 1

Flash point

Fire point C

Flash point

Fire point C

Sample 2

54

RESULT:
The flash and fire point of the given sample was determined using Ables apparatus.

8. PERFORMANCE TEST ON VAPOUR COMPRESSION

AIRCONDITION TEST RIG
55

AIM:
To conduct a performance test and to find out the actual and theoretical COP of a given Air-conditioning
unit.
THEORY:
Atmospheric air always contains water vapour. The content of water vapour in air also plays an
important role in comfort air-conditioning. The science which deals with the study of the behavior of air and
water vapour mixture is known as psychrometry. The properties of water vapour and air mixture are known as
psychometric properties. The few psychometric properties are discussed.

(1) Dry air

The mixture of nitrogen and oxygen neglecting the water vapour and other gases is known as
dry air. The volumetric composition of dry air is 77% of nitrogen and 23% oxygen.
(2) Moist air
It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The maximum quantity of water vapour that can be
present in air depends upon the temperature of the air.
(3) Moisture
The water vapour present in the air is known as moisture and its quantity in air is an important
factor in all air-conditioning systems.
(4) Dry-bulb temperature
The temperature of air measured by ordinary thermometer is known as Dry bulb temperature
(5) Wet-bulb temperature
The temperature of air measured by thermometer when its bulb is covered with wet cloth and is
exposed to a current of air is known as wet-bulb temperature. The difference between the dry-bulb and
wet bulb temperature is known as wet-bulb depression. The wet bulb depression will be zero when the
air becomes saturated.
(6) Dew point temperature
It is defined as the temperature at which the moisture present in the air begins to
condense when the air is cooled.
(7) Specific humidity
It is the mass of water vapour present with one kg of dry air.
(8) Relative humidity
It is equal the ratio of actual volume of water vapour in a given volume to the mass of water vapour if
the same volume of air is saturated at same temperature.

(9) Degree of saturation

This is defined as the ratio of mass water vapour in unit mass of dry air to mass of water vapour in unit mass
of dry air when air is saturated at same temperature.
56

Introduction:
Air Conditioning for human comfort or industrial process requires certain processes to be carried out on air to
vary the psychometric properties of air to requirements. These processes may involve the mixing of air streams,
heating of air, cooling of the air, humidifying air, and dehumidifying air and combination of the process. All such
processes are studies with the given air-condition test rig.
DESCRIPTION:
The vapour compression air condition test rig is designed for exclusive study of refrigerant properties
while air conditioning an environment of correct temperature, humidity and air movement. The test rig consists
of a closed type compressor, energy meter to measure electrical input to the compressor and heater, pressure
gauges, and thermocouple sensor fitted at respective locations, digital temperature indicator, air cooled
condenser, an expansion valve, etc. Air-cooled type evaporator. The air is passed by a Axial flow fan through the
duct. The expanded refrigerant passes through the coil fixed in the duct. The passing air comes in contact with
the coil.
A Multiple air heater is provided in the duct for dehumidification. Wet and dry bulb temperatures are
measured at the inlet and outlet section of the duct. The flow of air is measured using an Anemometer.
The whole unit with panel and air circulation system mounted on a trolley with caster wheels. The
pipelines are suitably colour to indicate different states of the gas.

57

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the main power supply to test-rig.

2. Switch on the condenser fan, compressor and blower.
3. Allow the system to run for about 3 minutes to attain steady condition.
4. Note down the atmospheric temperature.
5. Allow the system to run for about 10 minutes.
6. Note down the pressures p1, p2, p3 & p4 and corresponding temperature T1, T2, T3 &T4.
7. Note down the air velocity using anemometer.
8. Note down the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of air at inlet and outlet of evaporator.
9. Note down the time taken for 10 revolutions of energy meter disk.
10. Switch off the main power supply.

MODEL CALCULATION:

Experimental Calculation Method:

Energy meter constant

1200 rev/kwh

Area .D2 / 4
= 0.005 m2
Where,
D = diameter of orifice = 0.08 m
Density of air 1.16 Kg/m3
V = Anemo meter reading in m / s
Mass flow rate of air ma = ( a.RTP A V) Kg /sec
From Psychometric chart at inlet DBT & WBT Enthalpy = H1 KJ / Kg
From Psychometric chart at outlet DBT & WBT Enthalpy = H2 KJ / Kg
Drop in Enthalpy = H1 H2
Refrigeration effect = ma H KJ / Sec
Power input = 3600 n / (E t) KW

58

Where

E = Energy meter constant

n = No. of revolution of energy meter disc
t = Time taken for n revolutions
Performance of the unit = Refrigeration effect / Power input
Theoretical method

From P h Chart ( R22 )

H1
H2
H3
H4

=
=
=
=

COP = (H4 H3 ) / (H1 H2)

This is calculated using refrigerant table or refrigerant chart, using pressure and temperature.
Locate the cardinal points find out corresponding enthalpies from the p-h chart.

59

60

TABULATION: Air Conditioning Test Rig

Temperature in c

SI.

Inlet Reading

Pressures in bar

Outlet
Reading

No.
T1

T2

T3

T4

P1

P2

P3

P4

WBT

61

DBT

WBT

DBT

Time for
10 rev.
energy
meter of
compress
or

Time for
10 rev.
energy
meter of
heater

Anemo
meter
Reading

RESULT:
The performance tests on vapour compression air compression test have been carried out and the actual and theoretical COP were fond out.

62

9. VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

AIM: To conduct a Test on vapour compression refrigerator test rig and to calculate the
theoretical COP of Carnot and the efficiency of cycle.

SPECIFICATION:

Refrigerant

Tetra Flora Ethane -[R134a]

Compressor motor

1/3 HP

Rated voltage =

220 V, Single phase.

Current of 220 V

3 .1 A

FORMULA:

1. Theoritical COP = h2 - h3
h1- h2

2. Actual COP =

Refrigeration effect
Energy consumed

3. Refrigeration effect =

ms (Ti Tf)
63

Where,

M - mass of water in kg (8 Kg)

S - specific heat of water = 4.817 kJ/kgC
Ti - Initial temperature of water
Tf - Final temperature of water
4. Energy consumed = Energy consumed by compressor

3600 X1 T
t k1
K1

= No of revolutions in 1 KWH = 3000

X1

= No. of revolutions of compressor energy disc = 10

5. Relative COP

Actual COP
Theoretical COP

6. COP of Carnot cycle =

Tmin
Tmax T min

7. Efficiency of cycle =

Actual cop 100 %

Carnot COP

64

VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION TEST RIG

65

PROCEDURE:

1. The required valves are opened and rest are closed.

2. A known mass of water is taken in chiller unit
3. Initial temperature of water is noted
4. Therometers are put inside socket.
5. Unit is started and allowed to run for sterility.
6. Final temperature at various places noted
7. Tince for x revolutions of energy meter
8. Readings are tabulated.

66

Vapour Compression with Refrigeration System

S.No

Time
period
T
minutes

Refrigerated Temp
Reading (C)

Time for
energy meter
disc

Temp
in
chiller
T5

Pressure absolute (bar)

(T f)
C

T1

T2

T3

T4

Compressor
(10 rev)

[67]

P1

P2

P3

P4

Theoretical
COP

Actual
COP

RESULT: Test on Vapour compression refrigeration system was done.

10. PERFORMANCE STUDY IN A REFRIGERATOR WITH CALORIMETER

[68]

Aim :
To study the performance of refrigeration with calorimeter system
Components :
Refrigeration system:
Refrigerant, Evaporator, coils, Compressor, Condenser and Expansion valve.

Working of calorimeter system:

Calorimeter in particle physics measure the energy of incoming particles. Originally
calorimeter is derived from the latin word calor (heat). In a wider sense heat is just one form of
energy deposition high energy physicist are interested in is too small to be measured, we have to
determine the energy with different methods. Therefore,the interaction of an incoming particle
with the detector material ha to be converted into an electric signal. How this can be done is
sketched below.
Sandwich-calorimeter consist of passive absorber layers (e.g.steel plates), red in the plot. An
incoming particle loses its energy in the absorber layers, initiating a shower of secondary particle.
Interleaved active material converts the deposited energy into light.
In case of incoming electrons, or photons this cascade is a simple a multiplication of particles.
The initial electron interacts with the detector material by emitting a photon via Bremsstrahlung.
The photon carries away part of the initial particle energy, leaving twice as much particles with
roughly half energy each. After a while, the photon converts into an electron-position-pair, and
the initial electron radiates another photon. This makes 4 particles with about quarter of the initial
energy for each of them. This cascade continues until the newly created particles dont have
enough energy left to produce further particles. The sum of all these particles is then called a
shower of secondary particles.
The light produced in the active layers is proportional to the incident particles energy.It can be
detected with photo detectors, that convert light into an electric signal. The move energy the
incoming particle has, the more secondary particle it will produce, and the bigger the measured
signal will be.

[69]

Sandwich Calorimeter

Adiabatic calorimeter:An adiabatic calorimeter is a calorimeter used to examine a runaway reaction. Since the
calorimeter runs in an adiabatic environment, any heat generated by the material sample under
test causes the sample to increase in temperature. Thus fuelling the reaction.
No adiabatic calorimeter is fully adiabatic- some heat will be lost by the sample holder. A
mathematical correction factor known as the phi-factor can be adjust the calorimeter result to
account for these heat losses. The phi-factor is the ratio of the thermal mass of the sample and
sample holder to the thermal mass of the sample alone.
Reaction calorimeter:Reaction calorimeter can be used to determine maximum heat release rate for chemical process
engineering and for tracking the global kinetics of rection. There are four main method for
measuring the heat in reaction calorimeter.
Heat flow calorimeter
The cooling/heating jacket controls either the temperature of the jacket. Heat is measured by
monitoring the temperature difference between heat transfer fluid and the process fluid.
Heat balance calorimeter
The cooling/heating jacket controls the temperature of the process. Heat is measured by
monitoring the heat gained or lost by the heat transfer fluid.
Power compensation
Power compensation uses a heater placed within the vessel to maintain a constant temperature.
The energy supplied to this heater can be varied as reaction require and the calorimeter signal is
purely derived from this electrical power.

Constant flux
[70]

Constant flux calorimeter (or COFLUX as it is often termed) is derived from heat balance
calorimetry and uses specialized control mechanisms to maintain a constant heat flow (or flux)
across the vessel wall.

RESULT
Thus the performance study in a refrigerator with calorimeter was thoroughly studied.

[71]