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An Outline of the

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PHONEMICS and MORPHOLOGY

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Afar (Lankali) Language

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Note
This description of the Phononics end Morphology of the Afar (Dankali)

language makes no claims at being complete or faultless. Since writing

this section of the phonemics and morphology, I have discovered sections
and statements that need revision and a fuller description. Por example ?
there probably needs to be a fuller description of the phonetic alterants
of the phonemes /d/ and /r/. A fuller investigation must be made of the
class II causitivos.

It may be that, there is some semantic distinction

between the cla.ss II causitives that take the regular cla-ss II indicators
and those which take class I indicators or a com.bina.tion of both, A

fuller description needs to be made of the uses of the gerund, infinitive

and participle, etc.

The sections 2.2.2 on Derivation of the noun and

2.3 on Particles has not been included in this paper,

i

;7;
i

"i

TABLE OE CONTENTS
0

Introduction

0.1
0.2

The Afar People and Language

1
1

0*3
0.4

Dialects
Relation to Saho
Inf ormants

Phonemic s

1.1

Phonemic Alphabet of the Afar

(Dankali) language

1.1*1
1.1.2

No.nvocoids
Phonemes used only in foreign
loan words

1.1.3
1.1.4

Voiced syllabic vocoids

1.2
1.3

Nonphonemic phonetic phenomena

Suprasegmental phonemes

Distribution of the phonemes

General distribution in relation
to the word
Specific distribution in re
lation to the word
The following consonant clusters

1.3.1

1.3.2
1.3. 2.1

may oc cur

1.3. 2. 2

1
2

The following vowel clusters

may occur

3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4

5
5

Morphophonemic changes

5
5

Phonologic ally defined

5
6

Morphologically defined
Morphology

2.1

The Verb.

2,1.0

Division into Class I and

Class II verbs

1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2

2.1.1
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.1.1

Inflection
Regular verbs
Pormation of the four stems of
the verb

2.1.1.1.1.1
2.1.1.1.1. 2
2.1.1.1,1. 3

2.1,1.1.1. 4
2.1,1.1. 2
2.1.1.1.3
2.1.1.1.4.
2.1.1.1.5 .
2.1.1.1.6
2.1.1.1.7

2.1.1.1.8

The Perfect Stem

Imperative Stem
Imperfect Stem

7
7
7
7
7
8
9

The Jussive Stem

10

Intensive s
Causative

11
12

Benef active
Passive

15
18

Inf initive
Personal Pronominal Subject
Indicator
Pluralizer of personal Pro
nominal subject

20

21
22

2.1.1.1.9
2.1.1.1.10

Gerund or Substantive

23

Negativizer

2.1.1.1.11

Participle

24
25

''t

2.1.1.1.12
2.1.1..1.13
2.1.1.1.14

2.1.1.1.15
2,1,1,1.16

2.1.1.1.17
2.1.2
2.1. 2.1

Immediate Future "About to"

27

Conditional Indicator

28

Pronominal Object

29

Positional Prefix
Adverbial suffixes /-ka/and /ksa/
Object suffix /-im/
Derivation
Infinative indicator of Glass I

29
29
30
30

verb imperfeat

2.1.2.2
2.1. 2. 3
2,1. 2. 4
2.1.2. 5

2.1. 2. 6
2.1. 2.7
2.1.1. 2
2.1.1. 2.1

Verbal Nouns Derived from Class II

Verbs
Verbal Adjectives

/-ak/

and

/-uk/

Outline Conjugation of Defective

Verbs

33

/li'o/

and /-yo/

Conjugation of /a'ne/ 'to live,

be present i

Nouns

Native Texts

30
31
31

Negativizer

Future action

2.2
2.2.1
2. 2.1.0

2. 2.1. 5

30

32
32
33

Conjugation of

2. 2.1.3
2. 2.1.4

/a'ne/

Imperfect Participle of Class I

Verb

2.1.1. 2. 2
2.1.1, 2*3
2.1.1. 2,4
2.1.1. 2. 5

2. 2.1.1
2. 2.1. 2

plus

/kinni 'yo/

'I am'

Conjugation of /-inni'yo/

Conjugation of /li 'yo/ 'I have'

Conjugation of /-yo/
Inflection

33
34
34

34
35
35
35

Introduction,

Uses of Singular,
Plural and Unit
Distinction of sex

35

36

Gender of subject indicator in the

verb governed by the form
of the noun
36

Subject-object Relation
Formation of Singular From Unit
Form

39

Formation of plural from Unit Form

39

39
i

1.
0.

Introduction

0.1

The Afar People and language

The Afar (Dankali) language is reported to he spoken by about 250,000
natives in Eritrea., Ethiopia, and Ereh Somaliland. Of these there are

about 27,000 in Eritrea. Much of the Afar country with few exceptions
consists of vast deserts. Through much of this desert land the nomadic
Afar tribesmen wander with their herds of camel and goats in search of the
meager pasture. Along dry river beds that. occasionally flood with water
from the mountains further inland, and in other places scattered through
the deserts, grass- and bushes may be found that afford pasture for their

animals. Often in travelling across the Dankali deserts one may go by

foot or camel for two days and see less than a handful .of natives and no
signs of habitation at all. The lack of water makes life very difficult.
The polluted water holes are often a two day walk apart. -Often natives'
live as far as fifteen to twenty miles from these water holes and some of

them, usually the women, make the trip every third day to water their
beasts and to bring back heavy goat skins of water for their small palm

mat huts. In many places the Dankali natives camp under a thorn tree or'
under the shade of a large rock without even a simple palm mat hut for
shelter. The diet of the nomads consists basically, of milk and butter
with very occasional meat, and grain purchased with the money obtained
from the sale of hides,

The Afar language is of the Oushite division of the Hamitic languages.

There are some loan Arabic words and other evidence of Arabic influence,
though this, influence is not as pronounced as in the related Saho lan
guage. Apparently the Afar has certain kinships with the Galla and Som
ali languages though perhaps only through loan influence.
0.2
Dialects
There are a number of distinct dialects in the Afar. These can pro
bably be divided into three main dialects with gradations between. I have
classed them' as the Aussa dialect (of which I know very little personally
and am classing it as a separate dialect on the basis of information se
cured from hatives), the Southern Afar, and the Northern Afar. The
Southern dialect extends from Erench Somaliland northward as far as Eddwhich is about one hundred and twenty miles north along the coast from
Assab. The Northern dialect begins with Thio and extends north through
the Buri Penninsula and on to the Dahlac islands off from the main port
of Massawa. West from the coast near the Ethiopian border at Baada the

Northern dialect manifests certain affinities with the Southern dialect

and as you go south back from the co.ast the dialect takes on more of the
Southern Afar characteristics. There are minor dialectic differences be
Barassoli-Edd dialect and the dialect of Raheitatween the Assab-Beilul

are also many differences between the speech of

the nomads and of the natives in the 'more settled coastal villages. Some
of the more striking differences are 'not so much in vocabulary as in the

Erench Somaliland.

general speech intonations.

0.3

Relation to Saho
The Saho and Afar can probably be classed as one language although
!

-2The Saho is divided into three main dialects ; The Assaorta, Miniferi', and Hadu (often
called Hazu by other tribes). The Iroh and Debrimela like the above three
the extreme dialects are not mutually understandable.

are politically distinct divisions of the Saho people. However,, it is my

opinion that the Irob and Debrimela linguistically should be classed with

the Miniferi dialect. The Debrimela is very close to the Miniferi. The
differences in the Irob are probably more in intonational patterns than
1
in vocabulary or grammar.
The widest dialectical divergences exist between the Assaorta and
the Southern Afar. (I am leaving the Aussa dialect out of this classi
fication because I am not personally well enough acquainted with it. )
The Miniferi approaches the Northern Afar and is understood to quite some

extent by the people of northern Dankalia, The Hadu is far closer to the
Northern Afar and probably partakes as much of Dankali characteristics
as it does of the Saho though it has generally been classed as a dialect
of Saho. I have sometimes observed members, of the Miniferi tribe re
ferring to the Hadu as distinct from the Saho as well as from the Afar.

Perhaps that classification is partly based on cultural considerations,

but I believe it is quite an accurate description of their position lin-

guistically as the link between the Saho and Afar languages.

The Hadu

is spoken by the - smallest number of people but is probably the dialect

most readily understood by all Saho and Afar groups. The Saho-Afar dia-

lects can be classified in order of affinity as follows;

Assaorta, Mini-

feri, Irob, Hadu, Northern Afar, Southern Afar. It is my guess that the
Aussa dialect should be listed at the bottom of the list.
Inf ormants
0.4
Much of my earlier material on the Afar was obtained in Assab from
Hamed Ederis, a young man from the village of Beilul about forty miles
north of Assab. Erom him I obtained quite a collection of native folk
stories and other valuable text material. The two texts included at the
end of the morphollgy were given by Hamed Ederis although I have revised
the phonemic writing in them with the help of other informants. Although
Hamed Ederis was my chief informant in Assab, I worked at various times
with a number of other Dankali men. That work was considerably slowed by
the necessity then of working largely with monolingual informants. The
difficulty of keeping one informant in our employ for an extended period
also added to the difficulty. In my first year in Assab we worked with
fourteen different Afar informants. Their disinclination to work of any
kind along with their love of their own simple village life and especially
of the intoxicating sap of the dum palm tree, along with other factors
makes them unsteady workers at any job. Often after their first months
pay, they go back to their native villages and are never again seen by
their employers. In recent months as I have been working on the morphology, I have worked largely with Abdu Rohoman, a native from the area above
Baada
His dialect is the Northern Afar, although it has far closer affin
ities to the Southern dialect than the dialect of Thio, which can probably

1. My c onclusions on the place of the Irob and Debrimela are based on

information given to me by Hamed and not on personal investigation

3be considered the extreme Northern dialect. The native texts are written
in the Southern dialect. There seems to he. very little differences in the
morphology between the Southern and Northern dialects but the main differ
ences are in certain items of vocabulary.

1.

Phonemic s

1.1
1.1.1

Phonemic Alphabet of the Afar (Dankali) Language

Nonvocoids;

a
t

t
d

Voiced bilabial unaspirated stop. / hab/ 'dr op 5 let go t

Voiced interdental unaspirated, stop, /'duma/ 'before r
Voiceless interdental aspirated stop, /atu/ 'you I
Voiceless alveolar glottalized stop. /'ti?o/ 'Thio village f
Voiced alveolar retroflex stop. The tip of the tongue touches
just behind the hard palate and is curled back. The contact is
longer than for the

/d/.

When the

/d/

a transitional sound like an American

follows a

/r/

vowel?

there is

preceeding it very

much like the (rd) in American (hardy) only slightly further

back. In some dialects the contact is not as strong and there

is a slight forward flap though the tongue contacts the same

place, /ede'ge/ 'I know

'

S
k
1.
?

h
f
S

y
h

m
n
1

Voiced velar unaspirated stop,

Voiceless velar aspirated stop, / 'ussuk/ 'he'

Voiceless back velar glottalized stop, /soq/ . 'market i
Voiced tense pharyngeal spirant. /ar'?ot/ 'yoke1

/l/

/ha'de/

'I, he poured r
Voiceless labiodental central flat fricative, /fa 'he/ 'it
boiled'
Voiceless alveolar grooved fricative, /fas/
'axe t
Voiced alveolar grooved fricative, /'zambi/
'sin'
Voiceless alveopalatal grooved fricative. //ira'?a/
'sail t
Voiced palatal central, flat fricative, /yeme 'te/
'he came I
Voiceless glottal central flat fricative, /bah/
'bring i
Voiced bilabial rounded fricative, /alu'wa/
'animal i
Voiced bilabial frictionless nasal, /da; 'me/ 'I bought i
Voiced alveolar frictionless nasal, /'danan/
'donkey'
Voiced alveolar lateral. Tongue touches slightly further, back
Voiceless tense pharyngeal spirant,

/l/.
/ 'hayla/

than in the American

r

/di'gib/ 'wedding i

in (little).

It resembles more closely the final

'powers strength i
Voiced alveolar tap. The tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge
once between vowels. Word initially and finally and before
consonants it becomes an alveolar trill, /ra'kub/ 'adult malecamel '

Voiceless alveolar glottalized grooved affricate.

1.1.2
Phonemes used only in foreign loan words; (Becuase of rarity of
occurrance can hardly yet be considered true Afar johonemes.)
Voiced alveopalatal affricated stop. / jubba/
'coat I
D
'
v

/ro'zan/

Voiced retroflex grooved fricative,

Voiceless velar central flat fricative, /yuqulu'xe/ 'he created f

'storied house l

-4Voiceless alveopalatal unaspirated grooved affricate

1.1.3

Voiced syllabic voco.ids:

Voiced high close front -unrounded vocoid.

/li'o/ 'I have'

'he came
Voiced mid' close front unrounded vocoid,. /yeme 'te/
Voiced low open central unrounded vocoid. /a'tu/ 'you i
'I1
Voiced high close hack rounded vocoid. /a'nu/
'rain'
Voiced mid close hack rounded vocoid. /rob/

i
e

a
u

1.1.4

Suprasegmental phonemes:
Stress,

/'bada/

son

length, of vowel. Vowel length is phonemic and may not be ana

lyzed as VV because a long vowel may be followed by a short
vowel and the language pattern permits clusters of only two
vowels or two consonants, /fife/ 'I swept'
'

1.2

Nonphonemic phonetic phenomena:

The vowel following the tense pharyngeal spirants becomes, tense,

/kay'?et/ becomes (kay 1 ?e t ) go across'.
When one of the alveolar consonants preceeds the voiced alveolar
retroflex stop, /&/, it becomes retroflex. /gen'de/ becomes (gen'de),

will go'.
Word initial vowels are preceeded regularly by a glottal stop.

/ 'ay/o/

'hay' (J'ay/o)

A glottal stop occurs regularly after the imperative form of the verb
when it ends in a vowel, stop, or spirant or /y/. /fu:?/
'suck out'
1
i
(fu:?.')\ /gar'?a/ I steal (gar ?a .' )
Word final stress is accompanied by a high tone,

(giti ' te )
The free alterants of the conditional morpheme

/-ki/, /-hi/,

and

/-yi/, are accompanied by

is usually given considerable extra length.

intonation and is not phonemic.
An

/n/

that comes before a /g/ or

c ally ( tig) and ( o k )

/k/

/giti'te/

/-k/,

paths

which are

/-ka/,

a sharply rising tone which

This is a matter of sentence

within a word becomes phone ti-

1.3
1.3.1

Distribution of the phonemes:

General distribution in relation to the word.
a. There are consonant clusters of two consonants only. These may
consist of a double consonant, /or 'be/
'I entered, arrived at',
/off oyderdi te/ 'I breathed hard'. When in affixation, three consonants

'

come together, the second and third consonant are separated by a vowel.
b. There are vowel clusters of two vowels only /mahi a/ 'wages

'

When in affixation three vowels come together, one of- the vowels, usually
the third, is often dropped.

c.

Any consonant may occur word initially, word medially, or word

finally, /bah'sis/
'cause to bring'.
d. A consonant cluster may occur word medially or word finally.

/da'gayg/
e.

'minutes',

/is'kir/

'get drunk'.

A double consonant may occur word medially,

/dadday'te/

t
i
1.
is used to indicate a non-phonemic glottal stop,
writing is enclosed in ( )

'

'.

'I

Phonetic

:s

-5Word finally it is reduced to a single consonant.

spent the cool season'.

Vowel clusters may occur word medially, /roa; '/ini/

'storied
house', or word finally, /li'o/ II have ' ,
(This informaSpecific distribution in relation to the word*
1.3.2
f

tion. is based upon the examination of from eight hundred to a thousand

further examination may reveal other possible clusters.)
words

1.3. 2.1

The following consonant clusters may. occur;

a. The possible occurrence of stop plus' continuant, continuant plusstop, or of continuant plus continuant is so undistributed that I have
listed only the combinations that appear to be limited in occurrence.-

b.
bt
bd

/hab 'habte/
/istib'de/

'I began I

b?

/qab'?ita/

'leopard I

tb

tk

/'?otbi/ 'south'
/itki'bir/ 'be proud r

dg

/idgi'fis/

kt

/tik'tik/ 'drink rapidly i

/bak'?e/ 'crush, break, consume
/e?ti'te/ 'it became sour'

k?

?t
c

bb

tt
dd
gg

kk
BB

//
yy

mm
nn

11
rr
1.3. 2. 2
.ie

'watermelon I

'cause to kill'

/botto? 'te/ 'it became full of holes

/duddu'be/ 'it swelled up' (as a sprain)
/haggay'te li'o/ 'I will spend the hot season
i

/ekke'le/
/haffu'e/
/ 'ussuk/
/i/'/e/
/ 'f ayya/
/'ramma/
/kin 'ne/
/mosl'le/

'I think i
'it bloated up !

'he
i

'

she said' (some, dialects)

'up !

'down i
'he is

'

'I shaved !

/ waharri'e/

'he respected, was shy I

The following vowel clusters may occur;

/ramli'e/ 'he divined by shells i

oe-

oa

/roa; '/ini/

ue

/haffu'e/ 'it bloated up

/kumbui 'se/ 'he clenched

io

ui

The following double consonants have been observed;

/osb'be/ 'I heard'

/mahi 'a/ wages

/li ' o/ iI have t
/hembo ele/ t it

ia

1.4

The following combinations of stop plus stop have' been observed;

will froth up i
'storied house i
i

his fist

Morphophonemic changes

Phonologic ally defined;

1.4.1
Assimilation is found in the following circumstances;
a. When in affixation a /g/ preceeds an /s/ or /t/, the voiced /g/
is replaced by voiceless /k/.

/dag/ root of verb 'dig' plus the causative suffix

/sis/

becomes
...J

-6-

/dak' sis/

'cause to dig'

/bu'rug/ root of verb 'to die of itself' plus the suffix

/te/

becomes

/buruk'te/

'it, she died of itself'

/ha'lig/ root of verb 'to swell' (as grain in water) plus the suffix
/te/ becomes /balik'te/ 'it swelled up'.
/sug/ root of verb 'to stay, stop, remain' plus /te/ becomes /suk'te/
'you stopped'.

b. In affixation when /m/ preceeds /t/, the /m/ may be replaced by

The /m/ and /n/ are in free variation though the change to /n/
before /t/ is more common in the Southern Afar dialect than in the
Northern- dialect
/dam/ stem of verb 'to buy' plus the suffix /te/

/dain'te/ in free variation with /dasm'te/ 'she bought'.

c. When an /n/ preceeds an /l/ at word boundaries, the /n/ may be
replaced by /l/. / 'f ahut tan let/ may become /'fahut tal lei/ 'the water
becomes

that is coming to a boil'

d. When

/t/

is suffixed to a stem final

/s/, /d/,

is replaced by the final consonant of the stem.

or

/d/,

the

/t/

Thus ;

/mahas 'se/ instead of /mahas'te/ 'how are you (morning)

/had'da/ instead of '/had'ta/ 'you (sg. ) poured'
/ebbid'de/ instead of /ebbid'te/ 'you (sg.) sweated'
/ged'da/ instead of /ged'ta/ 'you (sg. ) go'.
1.4.2

Morphologically defined;

a. In the verbs when a word final stressed syllable ends in /a/, /e/,
or /y/, an /-h/ is. added. This /-h/ is invariable when the verb preceeds
a form of the verb /a'ne/. It is usual elsewhere but may be omitted.

(The Saho tends to omit this

an/ I
' went ' .

/-h/

more than the Northern Afar.) /ge'deh

b. When in the perfect stem of the verb an /// occurs as the final
stem consonant, this /// is usually reduced to /s/ in the imperative form.
This reduction is usual in the Northern dialect but not absolute.

Perfect

Imperative

/lomoy'/e/ 'he sold'

/lo 'mos/ 'sell'
/dagoy '/e/ 'it became small
/da'gos/ 'become, small' (The reduction of
the /y/ here is due to the fact that there are no final consonant clusters
in the imperative of the verb.)

c. In the imperfect stem of the verb of class II the final /-e/ of

the first person singular and third person singular masculine forms when
conjugated with the form of the verb /a'ne/ may be replaced by an
Thus ;

/aq'meh

an/ or /aq'mah an/ 'I ate'

,/ab'leh an/ or/ab 'lah an/ 'I saw1
/anaki'seh an/ or /anaki'sah an/ 'I
/ad'heh an/ or /ad 'hah an/ 'I said'

fell'

d. When in prefixation the causative /y/ preceeds a voiceless /t/.,

the .voiceless /t/ may be replaced by voiced /d/. /it'fe?/ 'repay' with
the causative prefix /y/ becomes /iydi'fe?/ 'cause to repay'.

-7e,

In some dialects the

/s/

is replaced by the

///

phoneme.

Morphology

2.1 The Verb

Division into class I and class II verbs
The. Afar verbs may be conveniently divided into class I and class
II. The bulk of class I verbs are consonant initial though there is
also a considerable number of vowel initial class I verbs. The distin
guishing feature of class I verbs is the fact that the pronominal subject

2.10

indicator is- suffixed to the verb. The distinguishing feature of class

II verbs is the fact that the pronominal subject indicator is prefixed
to the verb,

All class II verbs are vowel initial.

Glass I

/ged'de/ you (sg. ) went1

/alif'te/ 'you (sg. ) closed

/ali'fe/

'he closed1

Class II

/tar'ga'?u/ 'let her cut',

'I know
/ada 'ge/
'you (sg, ) know
/ tada 'ge/
2.1,1

Inflection

2.1.1.1- Regular Verbs

2.1.1.1.1 formation of the four stems of the verb
The inflection of the Afar verb is based on four stems., the perfect,
imperative, imperfect, and jussive. In class I verbs the other three

stems may be predicated from the perfect stem.

The formation of the 'four stems of the verbs of class II, however,
is far more complicated than that of class I verbs. Although there are
tendencies that prove helpful in determining what the various stems
will be, they are not all predictable. The consonants are the stable
factor in the verbs and in class II the vowels often change to form
one of the other stems. Because of this fact the class II verbs can
well be considered, as consonant basic. lhus; the class II verbs have
been listed alphabetically under the first consonant rather than under
the initial vowel. In affixation morjohemes which are prefixed to the

first stem consonant but which follow the initial stem vowel have been
classed as prefixed rather than infixes. Morphemes which are suffixed
to the last consonant of the stem but which are followed by the final
stem vowel have been classed as suffixed rather than infixes.

2.1.1.1.1.1

The perfect stem

The perfect stem is used as the basis for forms which express action
viewed as complete. It does not of necessity involve a temporal idea as
forms based on the perfect stem may be used to describe action in the

past,, present, or future, .Conveying as it does the idea of completeness

it is more frequently use.d to denote actions that have already taken
place.

The perfect stem of class I verbs with the pronominal subject

-8indicator suffix is always stressed on tlie final syllable. This form

may have consonant cluster, vowel clusters > or long vowels.
/ge 'dem fa 'de/
he wanted to go i

/ge 'deh

ka;

kay'eyo/ 'going, him I-will-call ' (I will go for this

purpose and call him. )

/abeh'te/ 'it spoiled'

/alif'te/

'she shut'

The final perfect stem vowel of class II verbs like those of class

/e/.

I is always
verb), may

The initial vowel of the perfect stem of a class II

be any vowel except

/a/.

These two features are the distinguish

ing marks of the perfect stem of class II verbs.

The stress on all the

forms of the perfect stem with the pronominal subject prefix is on the

final syllable.
the stem.
vowel

/i/

There is a tendency for the same vowel to appear through

That is, for example, a class II verb which begins with the
usually retains the /i/ for all its vowels except for the final

/e/

stem indicator. The same is usually true of the other vowels. However, this . is only a tendency and there seems to be no possible formation
of rule S' that will describe the many cases in which the initial' vowel is
not carried throughout the stem.
ClassII

Perfect

/ o sgo 're/
/iniki se/
/ub 'le/
/ed 'he/
/ o $ga '.?e/

I hit'

I fell'

I looked
I said'

I buried

Imperative stem
2.1.1.1.1. 2
The imperative stem is used in forms which express a command.

/ge d/
/o ' qom/

'go

'

'eat

The imperative stem of class I verbs is formed by dropping the final

vowel of the perfect stem. A long vowel of the perfect is usually reduced
to a short vowel. A final double consonant or consonant cluster immedi--ately proceeding the final

/e/

is reduced to a single consonant.

Perfect

Imperative

/ka'le/ 'I cut off'

/moQ/le/ 'I shaved'

/kal/
/mol/

'cut off'

/kay 'ye/ 'I called by name

'shave '
/kay/ 'call by name i

/he/

/hay/ 'put '

I put

'

The imperative of class II verbs may form the stem by simply dropping
the final /e/ of the perfect stem. This., subject to the modifications
listed belovf, is the most common method of forming the imperative stem
of these verbs-.
Class II
Perfect

/irge ' ?e/

/igi 'fe/

/uhuru 'se/

Imperative

I cut down
I killed by blow
I plowed '

Although the dropping of the final

/ir 'ge ?/ 'cut down'

'kill by bl ow
/i'gif/
/ubu 'rus/ 'plow (with oxen)
/e/ of the perfect stem to
1

-9form the imperative is the most common change, many of the verbs also

change one or more of the vowels in the imperative form. These changes
do not seem to follow any regular pattern and so the imperative form must

always he listed*

The formation of the imperative of the verb

/eme'te/

'I came', /am/ 'come' is very irregular. Apart from a few irregular verbs
such as this the chief unpredictable feature of these imperative stems is
the vowel changes.
In the imperative stem long vowels, of the perfect stem are usually
shortened. Double consonants or consonant clusters immediately preceeding
the final /e/ of the perfect stem are reduced to single consonants as for
With the exception of the final /h/ which may freely be
suffixed to, or not suffixed to the vowel or /y/ final imperative forms,
there cannot be a final cluster of consonants in the imperative form.
(see 1.4.2 on page 6). The consonant cluster of the perfect stem is

class I verbs.

usually broken by the insertion of a vowel, usually the preceeding stem

If the consonant cluster is /y// the /y/ is dropped and the ///
is reduced to /s/. In a few forms the /e/ is not dropped but is replaced

vowel.

by another vowel plus

/y/.

This seems to occur only in a few irregular

verbs.
Class II
Perfect

/e 'he/
/ o ' de/
/er 'de/
/or 'be/
2.1.1.1.1. 3

Imperative

I gave
'I tied
I
' ran '
'I went at night

/u 'huy/

'give

/u'diy/

' tie '

run '

/e 'rid/
/o 'rob/

go at night '

Imperfect stem

The imperfect stem is used as the basis for forms that express in:ompleted action. The stem itself does not convey a definite temporal
Idea and forms based on this stem may be used to express action in the

past, present, or future. This stem is more generally used to describe

present or future action though it may. also describe past action of an
Inc omple te d nature
'T return' or 'I will return'
/ ay du ra/
/ge 'dak en/ I
' used to go '
/ge ' da/ I go or 'I will go '
The imperfect stem of class I verbs is formed by changing the final
!q/ vowel of the perfect stem to /a/. The stress pattern remains the same
is that of the perfect.
If the perfect stem of the verb consists of a

'

'

lonosyllabic word ending in

)laced by /ay/.

/e/, in

the imperfect form the

/e/

is re-

Class I
Perfect

/ka'le/ 'I' cut off'

/mosle/ 'I shaved'
/ge 'de/ 'I went'
/he/ I put '

Imperfect

/ka 'la/
/mo ; 'la/
/ge 'da/
/hay 'a/ .

I cut, will cut . off

'I shave '

I go, will go 1
'I put, will put'

-10The imperfect stem of class II verbs is formed Toy changing, the first
and sometimes other vowels of the perfect stem.
The initial vowel is
xegularly changed to /a/. The final /e/ of the perfect stem is retained.
This final /e/ may in some .dialects freely fluctuate with /a/ in the
first person singular and third person masculine singular forms of the
verb when -conjugated with the forms of /a'ne/. (See page 6,- paragraph c).
The other vowels of the imperfect stem are usually the same as those of
the perfect stem. However, in a small number of class II verbs the mid
vowels may also change. This change from the vowels of the perfect stem
is usually to

/a/

but it may also be to

/i/.

Regular formations of the imperfect of class II verbs

Perf e c t
Imperfect

/ibbi'de/

'I held, arrested

'I milked'

/idigi'le/

/osb'be/

'I heard1
/oqo'?e/ 'I carried on shoulder'
/ ohku 'me/ I settled, judged

/ulus 'se/

I kneaded (bread)

/abbi'de/

'I hold, arrest1

/adigi'le/ 'I milk'

/asbbe/

'I hear1

/aqo'?e/ 'I carry on shoulder1

/ahku 'me/
/alu; *se/

I settle,

judge

I knead (bread)

Irregular formations of the imperfect of class II verbs

Perfect

/erne 'ne/

Imperfect

'I had faith in,

believed'

/esle'me/
/erne 'te/

'I remembered'

/ami 'ne/
/asli'me/.

'I came '

/eshes'se/ 'I pointed out i

/ama'te/
/ashas'se/

/yoy/os'me/

/yay/as

'It spoiled

'I have faith in ?

believe i
'I remember'
'I come, will come'
'I point out, -am
pointing out'

'me/

'It spoils, is
spoiling, will spoil

2.1.1.1.1. 4

The Jussive Stem

The jussive stem is Used as the basis for forms which express per
mission or a question,

/'bahu/

'shall I bring?'

/'geddu/ 'let her go'

/yar'ga?u/ 'let him cut'
The jussive stem of class I verbs is formed by substituting a final
7u/ for the final /e/ of the perfect stem. The jussive is stressed on
lext to the final syllable instead of on the final syllable as in the
Derf ec t.
Class I Jussives

Perfect

/ka'le/
/mos'le/
/ali'fe/

'I cut off'

'he shaved r

Jussive

/'kalu/ 'shall.I cut off?

/'moslu/ 'let him shave t
/a'lifu/ 'shall 1 shut? !

'I shut'
The -jussive stem of class II verbs is regularly formed by changing
all the vowels of the perfect stem iio /a/ with the exception of the final
/e/ which is changed to /u/. (In Saho the final vpwel of the jussive
stem is /of ) The stress is placed on next to the final syllable.

I-

-11-

Jussives of Class II Verbs

/irge'?e/

'I cut down

Jussive
/ar'ga?u/ 'shall I cut down? or
'let me cut down

/usgu.'de/

I slaughtered

/as'gadu/

/ibbi'de/
/imli'ke/
/uJauru'se/
/undu ' ?e/

'I held, caught

'I surrendered'

/ab'badu/ 'shall I hold, catch'

/am'laku/ 'shall I surrender?'
/aha'rasu/ 'shall I plow?1
/an'da?u/ 'shall I swallow? i

Perfect

'I plowed'
I swallowed

'

'shall I slaughter?'

Intensive s
2.1.1,1. 2
a. The intensive of class I verbs is formed by reduplicating the
second stem consonant and its following vowel. However, when the second
stem consonant is preceeded by a vowel cluster, the initial consonant and
its following vowel are reduplicated.
The intensive form of the verb adds a superlative, intense aspect to

the original meaning of the verb. The intensive indicator may bo added
to all four stems, of the verb of both class I and- class II.

Class I Intensive s
Perfect

/wirigi'te/

'I was startled'

/baq_ari'te/

'I was thirsty

/undugu'le/

'I was sleepy

/unduguli ' te/

'I was sleepy1'

(benef active form)

/digas

'le/

'I punished'

Intensive
/wiririgi ' te/ 'I was intensely
startled '
/baqaqari 'te/ 'I was intensely
thirsty i

/undudugu 'le/

'I was very

sleepy i

/unduduguli ' te/

sleepy'

/digasgas

'le/

'

'I was very

(benef active )
'I punished
severely'

/diga;gas 'la/
verely'

/digas 'gaslu/

'I punish se

(Imperfect)

'shall I punish

/digas'gasl/

(jussive)
'punish severely1

/bibiaki'te/.

'-I was very sick

severely?'

/biaki'te/

'I was sick'

(benef active form)

(Imperative )

(benef active )

The intensive of class II verbs is formed by a reduplication of

the first stem consonant and its following vowel. When the verb has a

b.

cluster of two consonants initially, the second consonant of the cluster

and the following vowel are reduplicated. When the verb consists of an
initial double consonant, the consonant following the double consonant

When the initial consonant

the reduplication is of the second consonant and its

and its following vowel are reduplicated.

/d/

or /h/,
following vowel.

is

Glass II Intensives

Verb stem

/angal le/
/asgal 'le/
1

'I join'
'I mix 1

/osmo'se/
/asmo'se/

'I crushed'

/ussu'le/

I laughed'

'I crush'

Intensive
/angagal'le/ 'I join thoroughly

/asgagal'le/ 'I mix thoroughly i

/osmomo'se/
/asmomo'se/
/uisusu'le/

*1 crushed to pieces i

'I crush to pieces'

'I laughed heartily'
j

-12-

/in?e 'be/
/ulus 'se/

'I hated'.

/in?e?e 'be/

'I knoadcd'

/uluslus'se/

/undu ?e/
/igi ' f e/
/eme 'ge/
/eke 'lc/

I
' swall owe d

/undudu ' ?e

'I kneaded vigor

ously

'I swallowed hard'

'I killed brutally1

/igigi'fe/
/ememe'ge/'I filled

'I killed'
I filled'

with,

vigor'

/ ekeke 'le/ I thought hard

/yidgigi 'le/ 'he broke to pieces'

'

I
' thought

'I intensely hated

/yidgi'le/ i he broke '

/yidig'i'le/ 'he milked

/yidigigi'le/ 'he milked vigor

ously

'

/yiddigi'le/ 'it is broken

/yiddigigi 'le/ 'it is broken to

pieces' (passive)

/uhuru 'se/

/uhururu ' se/

(passive )

'

I pi owe d '

'I plowed vigor

ously

2.1.1.1.3 Causative
a. The causative of class I verbs is formed by suffixing

/is/

to

/sis/

to the transitive verbs.- These causa

tive indicators are suffixed to the final consonant of the verb root.
The final stem vowel occurs in the final position. There are a few
the. intransitive verbs and

exceptions to the occurrence of

/sis/

/is/

with intransitive verbs and of

The following three have been noted;

'draw' (as water from well)

with transitive verbs.

/sama 'lis/

/damba'?is/
/bak'?is/

'coil1 (as rope)

'crush

',

'fold' (as cloth)

c onsume

The personal pronominal indicator in the causative form of class I

verbs is suffixed to the causative indicator

person indicator

/s/.

/t/

is not suffixed to

/s/

/is/

or

but the

/sis/. The second

/t/ is replaced by

With the causative form of the verb we have the following inflec-'

tion ;
Causative class I

/dam/
/dami 'se/
/ damis ' se/
/dami ' se/
/damis 'ne/
/damis *sen/
/dami 'sen/
Root;

dissolve

'I caused to dissolve'

'you caused to dissolve

'he caused to dissolve

'we caused to

'
dissolve '

'you (pi. ) caused to dissolve

'they caused to dissolve

'

The causative indicator may be suffixed to each of the four stems

of the verb.
Root;

/da;m/

'buy'

Causative Imperative

/ dam 'sis/
/dam'sisa/

'cause to buy'
'cause to buy' (plural and polite form)

Causative imperfect

/ da ;msi 'sa/
/ da ;msis 'sa/
/ da :msi 'sa/
/da ;msis 'na/
/d. ;msis 'san(a)/
/ da ;msi 'san/

'I cause to bu.ys will cause to buy i

'you, she causes to buy
'he causes to buy i
'we cause to buy'
'you (pi.) cause to buy i

'they cause to buy

-13Causative perfect

/dasmsi 'se/

I caused to "buy'

/dasmsis 'se/

you, she caused to buy'

/dasmsi 'se/
/ da smsis 'ne/
/ da smsis 'sen/
/da smsi 'sen/

'he caused to buy 1

'we' caused to buy'

'you (pi. ) caused to buy

'they caused to buy'

Causative jussive
'let me cause to buy, (or) shall I cause to buy?
/da ;m 'sisu
'let you, her cause to buy'
/ da sm'sissu/

/da ;m 'sisu/
/dasm'sisnu/'"
/ da ;m 'sissun/
/da sm 'sisun/

'let him cause to buy1

'let us cause to buy'

'let you (pi.) cause to buy'

'let them cause to buy'

Intransitive class I verbs with

/is/

Root

/hawe sn/

causative suffix

Causative

' f orge t '

/deririg/ 'spin loosely

/hawesni'se/ 'I caused to forget'

/deririgi 'se/ 'I caused to spin
loosely

'

/do?/

perspire

/do'?is/

/f ah/

'boil

/fahi'sa/

/ayyen/

'sing, dance (for

/ayyenis 'se/ 'she danced, sang""for

/has aw/

'talk together

wedding)

'

'cause to perspire'
( imperative )

'I cause to boil'

(imperfect)

we dding )

/hasa 'wisnu/

Transitive class I verbs with

Root

/sis/

'

'shall we talk togeth

er? ( jussive )

'

causative suffix

/do sr/
/dasm/

'buy'

Causative
/dosrsi'se/ 'I caused to choose'
/da ;m 'sisu/ 'shall I cause to buy?'

/kur/

' divide '

/kursi'sa/

/rnak/

'bend '

/mak'sis/

'choose

(jussive)

'I cause to divide. '(cut

in half) (imperfect)
'cause to bend, twist'
(imperative )

b. The causatives of class II verbs are far more complicated than

the causatives of class I verbs. There'' are differences in their forma
tion in different dialects-. There also seems to be a great deal of
variety even within one dialect. Often the characteristic class I
causative suffixes instead of the class II causative prefixes are used by
the natives with class II verbs. This change to theclass I causative
suffixes was especially prominent in the imperative forms in the speech
of Abdu. Often he would use the characteristic class II indicator in the
perfect

form but the class I suffix for the imperative form. Abdu,
however, in his speech uses far more class I causative suffixes with class

II verbs than other informants .with V'/hom I have worked. Sometimes also
a combination of characteristic class I and class II infixes are used by
some natives in their speech. This sort of combination seems to be more
j

'

-14-

The following c ono fu

sions on the class II causatives are of necessity incomplete. I.have, as
yet been unahle to, adequately describe the irregular formations that' vary
so greatly in different dialects and even in the speech of one informant..-

pronounced in Southern Afar than in Northern Afar.

The regular causative indicator of class II verbs is

/ys/ or /y// prefixed to the first consonant of the stem.

/s/, /y/>

aiI(3-

Since there

can be no clusters of three consonants, the /ys/ or /y// is separated .

from the first consonant of the stem by a vowel which is the same as the

vowel of the stem which immediately follows the first stem consonant.
/s/ is prefixed to verbs of class- II whose initial stem consonant
is

/k/, /g/, / q/, /h/, /h/,

or

/rr/.

(Only one example

of

/rr/

has been

found. )

/y/ is prefixed to verbs whose initial stem consonant is any conson/y/ is prefixed to /r/ but
ant o ther than the ab ove 1
is t e d c ons onant s
not to /rr/. YYhen the /y/ is prefixed to a /w/, the /yw/ becomes /yy/.
/ys/ alternating freely with /y// is prefixed to verbs whose initial

stem vowel is long.

Although the above description applies to a large majority of class

II verbs, there are many exceptions. Following is a 'list .of some regular

formations of class II verb causatives and also a few of the many

irregular formations.
Regular -causative formations of class II verbs
Perfect

/er're/

Causative perfect

'I .loaded'*

/iqri'e/ 'I read'

/igi'le/. 'I broke'

/eke 'te/ 'I chewed'

/osko'me/ 'I won, beat
stepped on
/e ; ?e ' te/
/ussu'le/ 'I laughed
/ew '?e/ 'I went out
/idigge 'le/ 'I milked'

/irhi'de/
/ifri'de/
/iski're/
/ele 'ye/

'I slaughtered
'I judged'
'I got drunk'

I was lost'

/eyser're/ 'I caused to load'

/is'qiri'e/ 'I caused to read'
/isgi'le/ 'I caused to break'

/eshe'te/

'I caused to chew'

/oysoko'me/ 'I caused to win'

/eyse?e'te/ 'I caused to step on'
/uysusu'le/ 'I caused to laugh'

/eyye '?e/

I caused to go out

/iydiggi'le/ 'I caused to milk'

/iyriM'de/ 'I caused to slaughter r
/iyfiri'de/ 'I caused to judge'
/iysiki're/ 'I caused to get drunk
/eyle 'ye/ 'I caused to be lost'

Irregular causative formations of class II verbs

Causative perfect

Perfect

I profited
/iksi 'be/
'I gossiped t
/ik/i 'f e/
/ittiki ; 'ye/ 'I dressed
I
/ef e ' ?e/
' gave drink '
'I believed'
/erne Jne/

/en>ge/

/ihbi 'de/

'I filled'
'I held'

/ikisi 'be/ 'I caused to profit

/iskifi'se/ 'I caused to gossip
/ittiki; 'se/ 'I caused to dress
/ef e?si 'se/ 'I caused to water'
/emensi 'se/ 'I caused to believe '
/engesi 'se/ Icaused to fill '
/iydibi 'de/ ' I caused to hold'
!

-152.1.1.1,4

Benefactive

The henef active indicator for Tooth class I and classll verbs is
expressed by a suffix

/it/.

This benef active indicator is suffixed to

the final stem consonant, or to the stem plus the other affixes that
proceed- it in order of affixation. It is followed by the personal pro
nominal subject indicator and the stem vowel,
This suffix usually indicates that the action expressed in the verb
is for the benefit of the person or thing indicated in the pronominal

subject indicator,

/da ; 'me/

without the benef active

indicator suffix means simply, 'I bought' with no indication as to the
purpose of the purchase. If the buying is for the personal use of the
buyer, the benefactive suffix is added, /dasmi'te/I bought for my own
use'. When the benefactive suffix is omitted, the purpose or benefactor
of the action is either not taken into consideration, .or the- action is
for the benefit of others than the subject, or for the benefit of others
along with the subject. In not all verbs is the. idea of 'for one's own
use clearly indicated by the benefactive suffix. The benefactive indi
'
cator, however, always relates the action of the verb more directly and
personally to the subject of - the verb.
/ka?a 'la/ 'I wash' (Often ceremonial washing) (Imperfect)
/ka?ali'sa/ 'I wash, clean' (as clothes) (Imperfect causative)
. /ka?ali'ta/ 'I bathe' (Imperfect benefactive)
For example the verb

Some verbs occur usually with the benefactive suffix.

/miaki ' ta/

/wagi ' te/
/ soni ' te/

'I go in a circle

am confused' (Imperfect)

'I considered, looked over,

I dreamed (Perfect)

looked-

(Perfect)
!

Perfect causative benef actives of class I verb

/dasm/
/dasmsisi ' te/ 'I
Roots

'buy'

caused to buy for my own benefit

a. The class II verb (apparently unlike Saho) expresses the benefac

tive by the same suffix as the class I verb. The benefactive indicator
aay be suffixed to all four stems of the verb.
Benef actives of class II verbs
Perfect root
Benefactive
/irge?/ 'cut down
/arge?i'te/ 'I cut down for my use

(Imperfect)
'sell for yourself ' (Imperative )

/eslem/
/ibbid/

'sell' (Assab)

/ele 'mit/

'take, hold'

/abbidi'te lio/

/usfur/

'measure ' (grain)

/asfa'ritu/

/ususl/

'laugh

/ususli'te/
/oy/ogori ' te/

/osgor/ 'hit'

'I will take for myself

(Imperfect plus /li'o/) '
'shall I measure for myself?'
(Jussive)
'I laughed' (Perfect)
'I caused to hit for my
benefit (Perfect causative)

b. The form of the benefactive of class II verbs

'

Varies

to a consider

able extent among individuals and dialects, Abdu Rhohoman consistently

ised the /-it/ suffix with both' class I and class II verbs,. This usage
apparently is customary among some of the Afar people and it is an

16
accepted 'but not preferred . alternant usage among other Afar peopLe,

Generally speaking, the exclusive use of the

/-it/

suffix as henef active

indicator for' class II verbs while correct ana accepted, is not the
preferred or common usage by' the majority of the Afar.
The benef active indicator of most class II verbs consists of the

/tt-/, /ss-/,

etc. as described below. In some verbs there is

also a vowel change in the benef active form. This change is usually from
or from /i/ to /e/. This change is apparently not a regular
one and takes place only in a few words. A means of predicting when this
vowel change will occur has not been determined.

prefix

The benef active of class II verbs may be indicated by a /tt-/ pre

fixed to the verb stem or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed it

in order of affixation under the following circumstances:

1). When the initial stem consonant of the verb is /h/

/n/.

/?/ /g/

/q/

/r/

/bb/ /l/ /d/

and /m/ also take this benefactive indicator.

2). When the initial consonant cluster is /nd/, the /n/ being' replaced
by a /d/ and with the two /d/s being separated by the vowel of the stem.

Sometimes

3).

When the verb has an initial double consonant of /gg/ and sometimes
the /tt-/ benefactive indicator is replaced by /dd/ and the follow

/bb/,

ing double consonant is separated by a vowel.

Sometimes, especially in rapid speech, the full form of

Perfect

/ o :go 're/
/ oqo 'me/
/yaqulu 'xe/
/o : ?o 're/
/ ob 'be/
/e :me 'ne/
/ e : 'de/
/ede 'ge/

is

/tCV/.

reduced to a clitic form

/uhuru 'se/

/ttVO/

Benefactive

I plowed

/uttuhuru 'se/

1 hit

/ o :tto :go 're/

/ ottoqo 'me/
/yuttuqulu 'xe/
/ o : tto : ?o 're/
/ ottob 'be/
/ e :tte sine 'ne/

'

'I ate '

'he created'
'he hid

'I heard '

'I believed'
'I sucked milk from
breast'
I
' knew '

.'I plowed for my own

benefit 1

/esttes'de/

/e ttede 'ge/
'I sold' (Assab)
/e :le 'me/
/e stte sle 'me/
'I transplanted
/itki'le/
/ittaki 'le/
/ittigiyi 're/
/igiyi 're/
'I changed'
/itgiyi 're/ (clitic form)
I swallowed
/undu ' ?e/
/ottodode ' ?e/ (vowel change)
/iggi 'f e/
/eddegegi 'f e/ (vowel change)
'I killed'
/iggi 'le/
/eddegege 'le/
'I broke '
"
"
'I held*
/ibbi 'de/
/iddibbi 'de/
The benefactive indicator consists of the prefix /ss-/ under the

following circumstances:

1).

When the verb begins with a consonant cluster of which the initial
consonant is /s/. This /s/ is then dropped out before the consonant
that it preceeded in the stem.
2). When the verb contains an initial consonant cluster of ys/ or

/yd/.

The /y/ likewise drops out.

I.

-113). When 'the verb contains the initial consonant /y/ or

times when the initial consonant is /n/? /m/, or /l/.
Benef active
Perfect

/s/

/usgu 'de/
/iski 're/
/eshes 'se/
/esket 'te/

'I killed with knife

/ussugu 'de/

I got drunk1

/oy/o s

'it spoiled'

/issiki 're/
/essehis 'se/
/esseket ' te/
/ossos'me/ 'I became
/essedeb 'be/
/usssusu 'le/
/esseyme ?e/
/essene 'be/

'I pointed out'

'I gathered'

'me/
/eydeb 'he/
/u:su 'le/
/ eyme ' ?e/
/ene 'he/
/uq. '?e/
/ emeg 'ge/

'I returned (it)

'

'I laughed'

'I repaired'

and some

impover

ished '

'I was big

'I carried on shoulder' /ussuq.'?e/

/essemeg 'ge/

'I made many

The henefactive indicator consists of the- first consonant doubled

when the verb has an initial consonant cluster the initial consonant of
which is

/k/, /f/,

Sometimes the initial cluster

or

the single consonant

/d/

also take this indicator.

/bl/, /dh/

and

In some instances the

first consonant of the doubled consonant henefactive indicator may be

replaced by /n/ when the consonant cluster consists of /kh/, /k//? or
/ft/. In the verb /ikhe 'ne/ 'I like 1 the /n/ regularly replaces the /k/.
In the verb /irge'?e/ 'I cut down' the /g/ is doubled and forms the
henefactive indicator and the /rg/ is replaced by /rVr/, The initial con
sonant of the cluster is usually dropped. Sometimes there is a compensating doubling of the second consonant which is usually separated by a
vowel.

Perfect
'I profited'

/irhi ' de/

/ed 'he/
/idigi 'le/
/udi 'e/
/ubli 'e/
/irge ' ?e/

'I slaughtered

'I gave water to'

I
' judge d '

'I gossiped falsely

'I said'
I
' milke d

'

'I tied'
'I saw'
'I cut down'

/ikkisisi 'be/
/eff e ' ?e/
/iff iriri 'de/
/iff ititi 'ne/
/infiti'ne/ (alternant form)
/irrihi ' de/
/edde 'he/
/iddigi 'le/
/uddi ' e/
/ubbu 'le/
/iggireri ' ?e/
regularly take the /-it/ benef ac-

A large number of class II verbs

tive suffix indicator that is regularly used with verbs of class I.
The indicator is used when the verb contains an initial consonant cluster
other than the ones listed above and sometimes when the verb contains an
initial single consonant that is preceeded or followed by a. long vowel.
The consonant cluster /n?/ and the consonants /d/ and /l/ may also deter
mine this suffix indicator. The consonant clusters and combinations of

consonants and vowels determining this indicator which have been observed

/ff/, /gr/,

and

Benef active

/iksi 'be/
/ef '?e/
/if ri ' de/
/if ti 'ne

are as f oil ows ;

AV
/n?/.

/y3/ ?

/kk/, /ym/, //t/, /ml/, /ng/, /im/, /kh/,

The cluster

/mb/

in one example takes, this or the

r:

-18-

alternate

/tt-/

/V:m/, /IV :/, /tV:/? /aV;/,

prefix.

and

/lVl/

may also

determine this suffix indicator,

Benef active

Perfect

/en?e *be/ 'I hated

/inniki'se/ *1 fell
/ittiki 'ye/ 'I dressed
/iydibbi 'se/ 'I caused to
/ekke 'le/ I thought '
/eymeze *ne/ I
' we ighe d '

/en?ehi te/
/innikisi 'te/
/ittikiyi ' te/
/iydibbisi ' te/

/ululu 'se/
/ o smo 'se/
/ulus 'se/

join i

/ekkeli'te/
/eymezeni ' te/
/ululusi ' te/
/ o smosi 'te/
/ulus si 'te/

'I winnowed'

I crushed*

'I kneaded*
Three verbs that take irregular benef active indicators have been
discovered. Two of these take a /-sit/ suffix indicator instead of the

indicator. The other one takes both the '/ss-/ prefix .indicator in combination with the /-it/ suffix indicator, The /-sit/ suffix
appears as though it might be a causative -benef active form but in these
instances there seems to be no separate form without the /-s/. These
two forms can probably be c-onsidered causative -benef actives that take no
simple benef active form.
Perfect
Benef active
/erne 'te/ 'I came '
/emetisi ' te/ 'I came for my own
benefit'*
*
(note doubling of
/ or 'be/ 'I came at nigbt
/orobbesi ' te/
/b/) - -'I came at night for my
own benefit-'

regular

/-it/

/usui'le/

/ussusli' te/

I laughed

i;

I laughe d f or my - own
benefit

'

2.1.1.1.5
Passive
a. The passive of class I verbs is formed by suffixing the passive
indicator /im/ to the final stem consonant or to the stem plus other
affixes which proceed it in order of affixation,. The stem vowel follows
the passive suffix. In the passive form the subject of the verb is the
recipient of the action rather than the actor.
Class I Passives
Passive form
Ac tive f orm
/fi'ye/ 'he swept t
/f iyi 'me/ It is swept i

/ali'fe/ 'he closed-*

/do 're 11o/ 'I will choose
/aba 'rah yan/ 'he curses'
/kayye/

/alifi'me/'-, 'it

Conjugation of the perfect passive

/kayyi 'me/

/dori'me lio/

'he- called*

is closed

I will be chosen',
yan/ 'it is cursed

/abari'mah
/kayyi 'me/
of /kayyi- 'me/

'he is called'
i

'I am called*

/kayyim'te/

'you, she is called*

/kayyi 'me/ 'he is called'

/kayyim'ne/ 'we are. called'
/kayyim' tene/ 'you (pi) are called*
/kayyi 'mene/ 'they are called*
.

-19To.

In class II verbs when the initial vowel is long, the passive

indicator is /m/ plus that vowel shortened, prefixed to the initial consonant of the stem. The original long vowel as well as the vowel fol
lowing the /m/ prefix are short in the passive form. The long vowel in
this case acts like a double vowel with the passive indicator /m/ pre
fixed to the second vowel. This original long vowel, however,, has been
classed phonemically as /V;/ rather than /YV/ because of other consider
ations.

/mV/

This

prefix passive indicator occurs regularly when the

initial vowel of the stem is long regardless of what the first consonant
may be

indicator of class II

When the initial vowel is short, the passive

verbs is

/m-/

sonants it is
An

/nn/

before

/m/, /f/, /l/, /b/,

Before all other con-

or

/n-/.

may sometimes be replaced by an

/en 'ge/

/yernbe 'ge/

I filled'

But this replacing of

/yin?e 'be/

/nn/

with

/mb/

/mb/ may also replace

/ o s ?o 're/ 'I hid

is not regulars

the

./m/

before an

Before a /dg/ the

/n/

'he is hated'

/?/.

/yombo?o're/

Before a /gg/ the /ng/' is replaced by a

/nd/,

'it is filled

/yinne?e 'be/

'he hates

An

is replaced by

/mb/ s

/nd/<

'he is hidden'

Before

/bb/

the

prefix is replaced by a

/mb/
/d/

Thus s

/yiggi'fe/
/yibbi'de/
/yidgi'le/

'he struck, killed''he caught'

/yindigi'fe/
/yindibi'de/
/yiddigi 'le/

'he is struck'
'he is caught'

'he broke'
it is broken
Clusters of three consonants are regularly divided by a vowel between the second and third consonants of the cluster. In the following
:

two verbs, however the cluster of three consonants that would occur with.
the passive prefix is divided in a different manner. This irregularity

is probably a phonologically defined variant.

/yirge '?e/

/undu ' ?e/

'he cut down

' he

'
swall owe d '

/yimirge ' ?e/ 'it is cut down'

/yumundu'?e/ 'it is swallowed t

A few irregular formations have been noted that do not seem to fit
the pattern of the other passives and so must be listed as irregular
f ormations ;

/ummo'se/

'I crushed'
/tungu'le/ 'she copied

/tunnoso 'me/
/tumugu'le/

'it is crushed ''it is. copie-d'

Some examples of the more regular formations of class II passives

are as follows?

Active form

/e ;de 'we/ 'I medicated '

/y o sge ' ?e/ 'he buried'
/yo s 'de/ 'he tied'
/yuqulu 'xe/

'he created'

/ubli 'e/ 'I saw'

/aqame 'le/ 'it will eat'
/yele s 'me/ 'he sold'
/yi/ti'le/
/yin?e 'be/

'he transplanted
'he hated'

Passive form

/erne de 'we/

'I was medicated'

/yomoge'?e/ 'he was buried'

/yomo'de/ 'he is tied'/yunqulu 'xe/ 'it is created'
/yumbuli'e/ 'it is seen'
/anqame 'le/ 'it will be eaten'
/yemle ; 'me/ 'it is sold'
/yin/iti'le/ 'it is transplanted
/yinne?e 'be/ 'he is hated'

.u

-20-

Conjugation of the perfect passive of

/esde'we/

/emede 'we/ 'I was medicated'

/temede 'we/ 'you, she was medicated
/yemede 'we/ 'he was medicated i
/nemede 'we/ 'we were medicated1'
/temede 'wen/ 'you (pi) were medicated
/yemede 'wen/ 'they were me die a'ted
i

1.1.1.6

Infinitive
a. The infinitive of class I verbs is uninflected and will be
treated under derivational forms.
b. The infinitive of class II verbs- is expressed by an /o/ suffix,
This infinitive indicator is suffixed to the final consonant of the roo*t
(replaces the final stem vowel. ) In Afar the infinitive seems to occur
only wit?n the imperfect stem of the verb.

The meaning conveyed by the infinitive form in Afar is not always

easily distinguishable from that conveyed by the gerund.

Both may

usually be translated by an English infinitive.

The infinitive seems to

convoy a more general and. indefinite idea than the gerund. The infini
tive expresses an action which is the result or purpose of the action
expressed in the main verb.

The infinitive would be more apt to be used

to express ideas such as the folloving;

/'baho

arge'?o ge '&e/
'Wood to-cut-I I-went

./'baho

'

arge '?o ada'ge/'

'Wood I-to-cut I-know'

/'baho

arge'?o qahe 'na/

'Wood I-to-cut I-like

'

I went to cut wood,

'I know how to cut wood.

I like to cut wood.

'

With the verb "want" or similar verbs the gerund would normally be
used especially if a more definite time element is involved.

The above

listed iirustrations of the infinitive are not meant to imply that the
same sentences could not use a gerund form. These sentences would use

the infinitive if a more customary, general or less specific idea is to

be conveyed. In any of the above sentences the gerund might be used but
a slightly different shade of meaning would be given.

The infinitive in Afar appears to be much more restricted than in the

Saho.

In many cases where the Saho uses the infinitive, the Afar uses a
gerund form.
Conjugation of the imperfect infinitive

/arge '?e/

I cut down i

to cut down'
/arge ' ? o/ 'I
/targe '?o/ 'you, she to cut down'
/yarge '?o/ 'he
to cut down '
/narge ' ?o/
we
to cut down '
/targe '?ona/ 'you (pi) to cut down'
/yarge ' ? ona/ 'they to cut down'
I

/angu 'le/ iI. copied t

f
/angu 'lo/ I
to copy I
/tangu'lo/ 'you, she
to copy r

/yangu'lo/

'he

/nangu Mo/

/ tangu Mona/
/yangu Mona/
2.1.1,1.7

to copy

to copy !
'you (pi)
to copy I
I they
to copy I

we

Personal Pronominal Subject Indicator

The personal pronominal subject indicator of the verb of class

a.

-2l~

I is suffixed to the final consonant of the stem or to the stem plus any
other- affixes which preceed it in order of affixation. The stem vowel
follows the subject indicator. The personal pronominal subject is indi

cated by a zero morpheme for the first person singular and for the third
person singular masculine and for the third person plural, . Gender is
distinguished only in the third person singular forms. The second person
pronominal subject is indicated by a

/t/. The third person

a /t/. .When the final

nominal subject is also indicated by

of a class I verb is /d/, /s/, or /d/, the suffix

/t/

feminine pro

stem consonant

is replaced by the

(see page 6, d. ) The indicator Of the first per

final stem consonant.
son plural of class I verbs is /n/ suffixed to the final consonant of
the stem.

The second and third person plural forms are distinguished

from the singular forms by the pluralizer

later.

/-n/

which will be discussed

In the first person plural form of the verb when the final stem

/d/,

the /-n/ first person plural subject indicator becomes

prefixed to the final /d/ instead of suffixed to it.
(See page 4 for a
description of the non-phonemic phonetic influence on the /n/ before the
/d/. ) This morpho -phonemic change may probably be explained by some type
of assimilation,

consonant is

/gen 'da/

'we go' from root /ged/.

The personal pronominal subject indicator is affixed to the perfect,

imperfect, and jussive stems of both class I and class II verbs.
c.

Class I verbs with personal pronominal subject indicator

Roots /dag/
touch '
/da'ge/ 'I touched

Perfect stem
/dag'ne/ 'we touched'

/dak'te/

/dak'ten(e)/ 'you (pi) touched'

'

'you, she touched1

/da'ge/. 'he touched'

/fak/

Roots

/fa'ka/
/fak ' ta/
/fa'ka/

open

'I open t
'you, she opens '
'he opens

'
/ka?al/

Roots

/fca?a Mi'su/

/ka?a'lissu/
/ka?a'lisu/

'shall I wash?'

'let you, her wash

Met him wash'

Roots /ged/
go i
/ge 'da/ I

/ged 'da/

/ge ' da/

'wash'

'go

you, she goes

'he goes

/da 'gen(e)/

'they . touched

'

Imperfect stem

/fak'na/ . 'we open i

/fak' tan(a)/ 'you (pi) open'
/fa 'kan(a)/ they open
Jussive stem - Causative
/ka?a Misnu/ 'shall we wash?'
/ka?a'lissun/ 'let you (pi) wash''
/ka?a 'lisun/ Met them wash i
Imperfect stem

/gen 'da/ 'we go'

/ged1dan (a)/ 'you (pi) go'
/ge ,' dan ( a ') / ' the y go i

/ebbia/

Root;

/ebbi'de/
/ebbid'de/
/ehbi'de/

-22'perspire' Perfect stem

/ebbid 'ne/
/ebbid 'den/
/ebbi 'den/

'I perspired'
'you, she perspired'he perspired'

we perspired

'you (pi./perspired

they perspired

The final vowel in the second and third person plural forms of the
perfect and imperfect is an optional one which freely fluctuates with

the absence of the vowel.

b. In class II verbs the personal pronominal subject indicator is

prefixed to the initial vowel of the stem.

The personal pronominal

subject indicator of the first person singular is a zero morpheme.

The

indicator of the second person singular and plural and of the third
person feminine singular is /t-/. The indicator of the third person
masculine singular and of the third person plural is /y-/.

The only

distinction in gender is in the third person singular forms.

The indica

tor for the first person plural is /n-/. As in class I verbs a pluralizing /-n/ suffix distinguishes the second and third person plural forms
from the singular.
Class II verbs with personal pronominal subject indicator
Root;

/arg.e?/ 'cut down' Imperfect

/argo ' ?e/

/targe '?e/
/yarge '?e/
Root;

/narge ' ?e/

I cut down

'you, she cuts down '/targe 1 ?en(e )/

'he cuts. down1
/yarge '?en(e )/

/a?ab/

/a ' ?abu/
/ ta ' ?abu/
/ya ' ?abu/

' we

'drink'

'you (pi, ) cut down

' they

'let me drink'
"

'let us drink'1

'let you (pi.) drink

'let them drink'

/uikurus/

cut down '

Jussive

/na ' ?abu/

'let her, you drink '/ta ?abun/
/ya ?abun/
'let him drink
Root; / one t/
'come
Perfect
'I came' .
/erne te /
/nemo 'te/
'you,, she came !
/ teme ' te/
/teme.'ten/
/yeno 'to/
'he came'
/ yeme ' ten/
Root;

cut down'.

'plow'

'we came

'

'

'you- (pi. ) came

'

they came I

Perfect

../ukuru'se/
/tuhuru 'se/

/nuhuru.'se/ .
/tuhuru 'sen/
/yuhuru 'sen/

'I plowed1
'you, she plowed f
/yuhuru.'se/ 'he plowed r

'we plowed'
.

you (pi.) plowed

they plowed-'

2 .1,1.1. 8

Pluralizer of personal pronominal subject

The second and third person plural of the personal pronominal
subject for' class' I and class II verbs -is expressed by an /-n/ suffixed
to the stem, or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed it in order
of affixation. This pluralizer occurs with/ the perfect, imperfect, and
jussive stems of . the verb.

/-n/

In the' perfect and imperfect forms when this'

occurs word finally, it may be followed by a vowel which is thd same

as the immediately' preceoding Vowel
This vowel freely fluctuates with
the absence of a final vowel. The addition of this vowel does not affect
'
!

the stress
Pluralizing

/gad da/
/ge da/
1

Imperfect

.'you go'
'he goes i

/ged'dan(a)/
/ge. 'dan (a)/

'you (pi.) go'

go'

-23Perf ec t

/tirge'?e/
/yirge1?e/

/tirge ' ?en(e )/

/yirge ' ?en(e )/

'you (pi. ) cut down'

they cut down'

imperfect
you cut down
/ targe 1 ?an ( e )/

'you (pi.) cut down'

'you cut do?m

'he cut down'

/targe ' ?e/

/yarge'' ?e/

/yarge ' ?en(e )/

he cuts down

' they

cut down '

In compound verbs in which the second verb acts very much like a
suf f ix

the pluralizer is suffixed only to the second verb.

Imperfect stem plus

/ targe ?u 'way ta/

/wayta/

'

you are about to cut down

/targe ?u way tan (a)/ 'you (pi.) are about to cut down

/yarge ?u 'wa/

'he is about to cut down'

/yarge ?u ' wan ( a )/

'they are about to cut down

In the co.se of verbs compounded with forms of the verb

/a'ne/,

the

pluralizer occurs with both verbs.

Imperfect stem plus

/a'ne/

/ targe ' ?eh tan/

/ targe ' ?eneh ta *ncn/

you arc cutting down '

/yarge '?eh yan/

/yarge '?eneh ya 'non/

'he is cutting down

2.1.1.1.9

'you (pi. ) are cutting down 1

'

'they are cutting down

Gerund or Substantive

The gerund or substantive is indicated in both class I and class II

verbs by a

/m/

suffix.

This gerund indicator is suffixed to the final

stem vowel and follows the plural subject indicator in order of affixa
tion. This gerund indicator may be suffixed to the perfect and imperfect

stems of the verb.

No instance has been observed of its use with the

jussive stem.

The' gerund form of the verb is always used as a secondary verb

followed by the main verb. The main verb usually is one that expresses
want or desire , etc.

This contrasts with the infinitive which frequently

follows a verb of motion, though not necessarily so. The Afar gerund may
usually be translated by an infinitive in English. The gerund in Afar is
apparently used more widely than the Saho gerund. In many cases it is
used where the Saho uses the infinitive form.

The gerund may sometimes

be used as an adjective.

Illustrations of uses of the Perfect and Imperfect Gerund

/ge 'dam

'mara ab 'lem fa 'da/

'He -going man I-to-see I-want 1

'I want to see the man who is going.

'I want to see the man who went.'

ab 'lem fa 'da/
(perfect and Imperfect gerund)
'He-having-gone man I-to-see I-want

/ge 'dem

'mara

/ge 'dem

'mara

'

'

'I wonted to see the man who went.'

ub 'lem fa'de/
(Perfect gerunds)
'He-having-gone man I-to-see I-wanted'
/ge 'dem 'mara tub 'lorn fad 'de/ 'You wanted to see the man who went.'
(Perfect gerunds)
. 'He-having-gone
man you-to-see you-wanted'

Illustrations of the gerund in the conjugation of the perfect and

imperfect of class I and class II verbs is as follows i
Imperfect gerund of class I verb.

/ge ' dam

fa

' da/

Stem /ge

I want to go

'

'da/

I go-'

-24*
/ged'dam fad' da/

you, she wants to go '

/ge ' dam

/gen

fa

' da/

'he wants to go '

dam f an 1 da/

'we want to go'

/ge d danam f ad ' dana/

/ge ' danam fa' dan (a)/
1

'you (pi.) want to go'

'they want to go'

Perfect gerund of class I verb. Stem /ge 'de/*I went'

/ge 'dem fa 'de/
I'wanted to go'

/ge d 1 dem f ad ' do/

/ge 'dem fa 'de/

you, she wanted to go'

he wanted to go'

/gen ' dem fan ' dem/

/feed'denem fad ' den (c)/
/ge 'denem fa'den(e)/

we wanted to go'

you (pi.) wanted to go'

they wanted to go

'

Imperfect gerund of class II verb.

Stem

/arge'?e/ 'I cut down

/arge ' ?em fa 'da/

/targe ' ?em fad' da/
/yargc '?em fa 'da/
/narge'?em fan 'da/

'I want to cut down'

/ targe ' ?enem

'you (pi.) want to cut down'

f ad dan ( a )/

'

/yarge '?enem fa 'dan (a)/

'you, she wants to cut down'

'he wants to cut down 1
'we want to cut down'

' they

Perfect gerund of class II verb.

want to cut down '

Stem /irge'?e/ I cut down

/irge'?em fa'de/
/tirge'?em fad'de/

'I wanted to cut down

4irge'?em f?4?4?0n fan,do/

/tirge ' ?encm fad ' den (e)/

'he wanted to cut down! f

Twe wante d to cut down
'you (pi. ) wanted to cut down

/yirge.' ?enem fa'den(e)/

2.1.1.1.10

'you, she wanted to cut down

'they wanted to cut down I

Negativizer

The negative of action in the present or future is expressed by the

prefix

/ma/

II verbs.

which is prefixed to the imperfeot stem of class I and class

(To negate an action in past time or to negate an imperative,

This form will be discussed later. )

In clans I consonant initial verbs the /ma-/ negative indicator is
prefixed to the initial consonant, In clans I vowel initial and in class
II verbs the /ma/ negative indicator is prefixed to the initial vowel. or
a derived form is used.

to the initial vowel plus any other prefixes which proceed it in order of
aff ixation.

When the

/ma/

negative indicator is prefixed to a vowel either long

or short, that vowel is dropped and the /a/ is lengthened by compensation.

When the initial /a/ vowel of the imperfect stem is long, the resultant
vowel is phonetically longer than when the initial /a/ vowel is short.
Thus ;

/asgu ' de/ I

' slaughters d becomes /massgu'da/ 'I
/a ;b 'be/ I hear' becomes /masb'be/ (ma;:b'be)'I

will not kill

will not hear

In the southern and northern Afar dialects the negative indicator is

/ma-/.

In some Saho dialects including the Minniferi the negative indica

tor is also /ma-/. However, in the Assaorta dialect of the Saho, the
negative indicator is /mi-/..
In the imperfect negative of class II verbs the final /~e/ of the
imperfect stem is replaced by a final /-a/.
(This is unlike the Saho

-25which retains the final

/-e/

of the imperfect stem throughout the negative

imperfect. )
Imperfect negative of class I verb,

/fa'ka/. 'I

open i

/maf a 'ka/ 'I will not open'

/maf ak ' ta/ 'you, she will not open'
'he will not open '
/maf a ka/
/mafak'na/ 'we will not open
/maf ak ' tan/ 'you (pi.) will not open
/maf a 'kan/ they will not open
1

Imperfect negative of class II verbs

Imperfect negative

Imperfect positive

/ami 'ne/
/a sli 'me/
/ama ' te/
/ashas 'se/
/abbi 'de/
/aqo ' ?e/
/a 'he/
/ ta 'he/
/ya 'he/
/na 'he/

'I have faith in'

'I remember'
'I c ome will c ome

'I point out'

.'I catch, hold'
'I carry on shoulder' /masqo'?a/
'I give

'

'you, she gives

'he gives

'we give

'

'

/ta'hen(e)/ 'you (pi.) give

/ya'hen(e)/ 'they give'
2.1.1.1.11

/ma smi 'na/

/masli 'ma/
/mo. :ma ta/
/masshas 'sa/
/ma ;bbi 'da/
/ma ; 'ha/
/mats, 'ha/
/maya 'ha/
/mana 'ha/
/mat a 'han/
/maya 'han/

I do not have faith in

I do not remember'
I will not come

'I will not point out'

'I will not hold'
'I will not carry on
shoulder '

'I will not give i

'you, she will not give i
'he will not give r

'we will not give

'

'you (pi. ) will not give

'they will not give

Participle

The perfect participle of class I and class II verbs is formed by

suffixing the participle indicator /h/ to the perfect stem or to the

perfect stem plus any affixes which proceed, it in order of affixation.
In the second and third persons plural the final /-e/ following the
pluralizing /-n/ which is in free variation with the absence of /-e/
in other forms, is regularly suffixed before the /-h/ participle suffix.
The perfect peirticiple is used as a secondary verb in connection

with a main verb. .The action expressed in the perfect participle is for
the purpose or end of the action expressed by the main verb. Thus :

/go 'deh
kay 'eyo/
ka t
'I-having-gone him I-will-call.
or 'I will go and call him.
The going here is for the specific purpose of calling him. If the actor
went for some other purpose than for calling him, and the calling him
were incidental to his going, the imperfect participle /ge
have been used.

/ge 'deh
akaka; 'ye/
he
-having-g
one
him-he -called.
'
/ged 'deneh

'dah/

would

or 'When he went, he called him.

or 'He went and called him. '

akaka syet 1 ton/ or 'You will go and call him.

'You- (pi. ) -having-gone him-you-will-call. :'

/a ' tu jo' ab tikri'eh 'posta 'are bey/

'you letter you-having-read post house take. ' or 'When you have read
the letter, take it to the post office.
of the letter here
' Theitreading
is directly related to the action of taking
to the post office. The
reading here, for example, wa,s considered by the informant as for the
purpose of checking the letter in order to mail it. If the speaker
wished to. express the thought, "when you are through reading the letter,

-2 6go to the post office," and if the going to the post office had no rela

tion directly to the reading of the letter, the imperfect participle

would have been used.
The imperfect participle is expressed by /h/ suffixed to the imper
fect stem or to the stem plus other suffixes which preceed it in order of

affixation. In class I verbs this is often an uninflected form which

will be discussed later. However, the class I verb, while using. a de
rived form of the imperfect participle in many cases where the class II
verb uses an inflected form, uses an inflected form in connection with
certain verbs such as

/afne/, /su'ge/

and the like.

The perfect participle, as well as the imperfect participle may also

be used in connection with certain forms of the verb /a'ne/, /su'ge/, and

Such combinations are used very much like a single

compound verb to give specific aspectual or temporal connotations to the
certain other verbs.

verb.
Thus customary action in present time or action in present process
is expressed by the use of the imperfect participle followed by the con

/a'ne/.

jugation of the imperfect stem of the verb

/ge ' dah an ( e )/

/ge d ' dah tan ( e )/
/ge ' dah yan ( e )/
/gen ' dah nan ( e )/

'I am going, usually go'

'you, she is going, usually goes

'he is going, usually goes
'
'we are going, usually go '

/god ' danah ta * nen/

/ge 'danah ya 'nen/

Class II verb.
1. arge
/
' ?ah an/

'you

(pi.)

ore

going, usually go

'they are going, usually go'

Stem

/targe ' ?eh tan/

/yarge '.?oh yan/
/narge ' ?eh nan/
/targe?e'neh ta nen/
/yarge ?e 'neh ya 'nen/

/argc'?e/ 'I cut down'

I am cutting down, usually cut down
you, she is cutting down, etc.'
he is cutting down,

e tc

.'

we are cutting down, etc.'

you (pi.) are cutting down'
they are cutting down, etc.

To express action in past time that has just recently been completed, the perfect participle is used followed by the conjugation of the

imperfect stem of

/a'ne/.

Perfect participle plus imperfect stem of /a'ne/.

Class I verb
/ge ' deh an/
I went' (referring to the immediate past)

/god'deh tan/
/ge 'deh yan/
/gen 'deh nan/
/gedde'neh ta 'non/
/gede 'neh ya 'nen/

you, she went'

he went

'

we went

'

you (pi.) wont1

they went

Class II verb

/irge ' ?eh

an/
/ tirge ' ?eh tan/

'

I cut down ' (referring to the immediate past)

you, she cut down '

/yirge '?eh yan/

/nirgo'?eh nan/

he cut down

'

we cut down

/ tirge ' ?e 'neh

you (pi.) cut down

'

ta 'nen/

1. See page 6 c for change of final stem

/e/

to

/a/.

-27/yirge?e 'neh ya'nen/

they cut down

To express action in past time that has been completed previously

..

the perfect participle is used followed Toy the form of the perfect stem
of /e 'no/.

Class I verb

/go 'deh en(e)/

(referring to action completed in the more

distant past)

I went

/ged'deh ten/ 'you, she went

/go 'deh yen/ 'he went '
/gen 'deh nen/ 'we Trent
'
/gedde 'neh te 'nen/ 'you (pi) went
/gedo 'heh ye 'nen/
they went

Class II verb
/irge'?eh en/ 'I cut down' (referring to action completed in the
more distant past)
/ tirge ' ?eh ten/ 'you, she cut down'

/yirge'?eh yen/ 'he cut down 1

/nirge '?eh nen/ 'we cut down '
/tirge ?e 'neh te 'nen/
you (pi) cut down'
/yirge?e 'neh ye 'nen/
they cut down '

In class II verbs the imperfect participle is used to denote an

action considered as quite independent of the action denoted by the main
This participle is very frequently used in conjunction with the
particle /'gidi/ '.for, purpose, etc.'

verb.

/baho

'Wood

/a 'tu
'you

targe '?eh
you-cutting
jo 'ab

letter

ufdur/
'

'gidi

(when)

return.

or 'When you have cut the

wood, return.

ged/
soq
(when ) market go.
'When you
have read the letter, go to the market

takri 'eh

'gidi

'

jou-r ending

In these sentences the action denoted by the participle expressing

the 'cutting' and 'reading ? is not for the purpose or end of the main verb
but incidental to it.
Compare the above with the use of the perfect participle ;
tirge ' ?eh
'yoho
'baho
/a ' tu
bah/
'You
me-to bring. ' or 'After you have
wood y ou-having-cut
cut the wood, bring it to me '
Here the cutting is for the specific purpose of bringing it to the
speaker.

The perfect participle may also be used ore an adjective to modify a

noun.

/yirge ' ?eh

'hada-

/ tirge ' ?eh

'hada

'

He -having-cut

'

You-having-cut stick

stick

bah/

bring.

bah/

bring.

'

or 'Bring the stick which he cut.

'

or

'Bring the stick which you cut.

'

There are other uses of the Imperfect participle apart from its use

with /'gidi/.

There are also other uses of both the perfect and imperfect
participles with other verbs such as /su'ge/ etc
the details of which
have not yet been worked out.
2.1.1.1,12

Immediate future

.,

"About to"

The imperfect root of Class I and dares II verbs plus the suffix

/u/,

-28when followed immediately "by the conjugation of the verb /wa/, is used to
express action in the immediate future. This form of the verb might well
be translated "about to ", It indicates action that one is on the verge
(The verb /wa/ alone means "lack, want". /wa/j especially in
of doing.

the perfect stem

/we/

often is used to negate the main verb., )

ya 'beyo/
ka ;lih
wak
or freely, When
I-Will-talk.
him-with
when
I-am-about-to-see
'
(The thought is that I am expecting to see
I see him, I will tell him.
him shortly. )

/ablu 'wa

Class I verb

/gedu'wa/ 'I am about to go'

/geddu 'wayta/ 'you, she is about to go'
/gedu'wg/ 'he is about to go'
/gendu 'wayna/ 'we are about to go'
/geddu 'waytan(a)/ 'you (pi) are about to go'
/gedu'wana/ 'they are about to go'
Class II verb

/arge?u 'we./ 'I am about to cut down '

/targe ?u 'wayta/ 'you, she is about to cut down'
/yarge?uwa/ 'he is about to cut down'
/narge?u 'wayna/ 'we are about to cut down'
/targe ?u 'way tan/ 'you (pi) are about to cut down
/yargc?u 'wan(a)/ 'they are about to cut down'

2.1.1.1.13

Conditional indicator

The conditional indicator

/ki;/, /hi;/,

/k/

or

/ki/,

or is some instances,

/ka;/,

or /yi;/ with rising pitch, is suffixed to the perfect, im

perfect, or jussive stem, or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed
it in order of affixation. This suffix usually may be translated "if"
though sometimes it conveys more of the temporal idee, of "when." The

/k/

and

/ki/

are in free variation with each other.

pitch freely fluctuates with

the

/ki;/

/ki/

and

/k/

The

/ki ;/

with no rising pitch.

with rising pitch and the less common

/hi;/

and

with rising

However,

/yi;/ with

rising pitch are more common in certain dialects of Afar than in others.

The

/ki.;/ with

rising pitch is more common in southern Afar and is not

It
is, however, used by many speakers of northern Afar though not as common
ly as in the southern Afar. The /hi;/ and /yi;/ with rising pitch occur

used in the speech of my northern Dankali informant of recent months.

in the speech of the southern Afar and appears to be more common in the
speech of the back-country nomads than in the coastal villages. (A rising

pitch at the end of certain words such as

which is

/yo/ with

/ye;/ 'yes' in southern Afar,

no rising pitch in northern Afar as it is in Saho, and

in sentence intonations is quite common in the speech of many southern

Danakil and is especially common among the nomadic and older people.)
do 'nik
yeme tek
a 'nu
edage 'deyo/
/ 'bera
Tomorrow sail-boob he -came -if I on-in-I-will-go.
do 'nik
yeme'teki; a 'nu
edage 'deyo/
/ 'bera
(Rising pitch on /ki;/) More common in southern Afar
tirge '?ek
/ha 'ho
bah/
'Wood
you-cut-if
bring.
or 'If you cut wood, bring it,

'

'

-2gka: 'heyo/
'If -he -wants him-I-will-give

/fa'dek

'

or 'I will give it to him if . he wants,

Pronominal object
The pronominal object indicator /aka/ is prefixed to the four stems
of the verb or to the stem plus any other affixes which preceed' it in
order of affixation. This prefix indicates a third person pronominal ob
ject of the verb, or it may indicate an impersonal object. The object
indicator may be used even though the object of the verb is expressed
separately. The final /a/ of the pronominal object indicator is dropped
when the object indicator is prefixed to a vowel.
/akawori 'se/ I told him'
/akayuktu 'be/ 'he wrote it '
/aked 'he/ I told him, said to him'

2.1.1.1.14

2.1,1,1.15

Positional prefix

The positional indicator

/eda/

.'on, in' is prefixed to the four

stems of the verb, or to the stem plus other affixes which preceed it in
order of affixation. The final /a/ of the positional indicator prefix
is dropped when the positional indicator is prefixed to a vowel.
/ge 'deyo/ 'I will go T
/edage 'dejro/ 'I will go on it i
/ama'teyo/ 'I will come'
/edama'teyo/ 'I will come on it'
/hay/ 'put '
/eda 'hay/ 'Put it in'
/he/ I
/eda 'he/ 'I put it in i
' put '

2,1,1.1,16
Adverbial suffixes /-ka/ and /ksa/
The adverbial suffixes /-ka/ 'before' and /ksa/ 'after' 'besides'
are suffixed to the imperfect, perfect, and jussive stems of the verb of
class I and class II, or to the stem plus any other affixes which preceed
it in order of affixation.
The /ksa/ suffix probably consists of the two morphemes, /-k/ and
/sa/ which in this instance occur always bound together. This suffix
occurs with nouns as well as with verbs. However, when it occurs with
nouns, the verb is usually omitted and understood by the context. In
Saho the /-k/ morpheme is suffixed to the verb and it is followed by the
temporal particle /ser'rah/ which is a free morpheme. The bound morpheme
/-sa/ in Afar is used with the same meaning and in the place of the free
morpheme /ser'rah/ in Saho.

/-ka/

'before i

/gede ka

ma'?o

fa 'da/

food
I-want. or 'I want food before I go, i
soq
ged 'dam
fad 'da/
/a'tu yi 'are tamate 'ka
my
'You
house you-come-bef ore market you-going you-want. i
'You want to go to the market before coming to my house. i
/-ksa/ 'after, besides i
gendek 'sa
ma 'ha ilia/
/kok
'You-from we-went-af ter what-spirit-have-you, i
'Since we left you, how have you been? i
n a 'ha;11a/
/nik'sa
'Prom-us-af ter what-spirit-have-you. i*
'Since we (left) how have
you been?' (This sentence means the same as the above but here the
verb is left unexpressed and the /-ksa/ is suffixed to the noun
instead. )
'I-go-before

'

'

-30-

/a'tu

temetek'sa
'You you-came -after
snake kit you. '

a 'ke-sa

snake

ko
you

toqo'me/

'After you came, a

she-ate. '

Object suffix /-im/

The indefinite object of the verb may ke indicated ky an /im./ suffix.
This is suffixed to the verk stem or to the stem plus any other suffixes
which may preceed it in order of affixation. The /im/ suffix is not
used when the okject of the verk is clearly indicated ky a noun okject*
This /im/ suffix may ke affixed to nouns and pronouns as well as
to verks of class I and class II. In such cases it indicates ownership

2.1.1.1.17

of the thing possessed.

a 'helino/
si 'nih
'You (pi) -want- thing you(pl)-to we-will-give i
may 'yu/
/li 'yom
I have nothing. i
I-have-thing I-don t-have

/f adde 'nanim

'

'

ma 'le/
'He-has-thing he-has-not.

/lem

kah/

/ge 'tern

yoho
'You-get- thing me -to

2.1.2
2.1. 2.1

'

kring,

'He has nothing. i

'Bring to me that which you get. 1

Derivation

Infinative indicator of Class I verk imperfect

The /o/ class I verk infinitive indicator is suffixed to the imperfect root. This form does not take any personal pronominal subject

It is used much as an infinitive with a main verk. Its

meaning has keen discussed in connection with the inflected form of
class II verks on page 20 ,

indicator.

/a 'nu

ge 'do
ada 'ge/
'I to-go
I-know.
I know how to go. r (with the sense of
)
well,
knowing how to go

'

/ku'lum
'Dish

/ma'?o
'Pood

/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o
/ma'?o

goru'so
to-seek

ge 'da/
I-go,''I;go to seek fish.' 'I go fishing,

erne 'te/
I-came. ' 'I came to kuy food.
da 'mo teme 'te/
'You came to kuy food.'
da 'mo yeme 'te/
'He came to kuy food, i
da 'mo
to-kuy

'

'te/
teme 'ten/
yeme 'ten/

da 'mo neme
da 'mo
da 'mo

'We came to kuy food.

'You (pi) came to kuy food,

'They came to kuy food.

This infinitive may also ke used very much as the verbal noun of
class II verbs:

/ge 'do

'nama
'The-going two
hours to go,

sa

?at/

hour.

The going (is) two hours.

It takes two

'

2,1. 2. 2

Verbal nouns derived from class II verks

In class II verks the nounizer /m/ may ke prefixed to the perfect
or imperfect stem of the verk to form a noun. In some cases this class
II form is equivalent in meaning to the infinitive /~o/ class I derived

form.
Class I Infinitive

/ge 'do

'nama

sa r ?at/

'The going (is) two hours. r

-31Class II Verbal Noun

/mada'ra/

'nama

sa'?at/

The return (is) two hours.

'the-retum two hour. '
/a'?ab/ 'drink'
/ma 1 ?ab le ; drinking water' (Imperfect root of verb
plus the noun /le;/ 'water')
/mo'?ub le ;/ 'drinking water (Perfect root of verb /a'?ab/ 'drink
plus the noun /le;/ 'water')

2.1, 2. 3

Verbal adjectives

In class I and class II verbs a verbal adjective may be formed in

several ways. The inflected participle with or without the form of the
verb /a'ne/ may preceed a noun to modify it as an adjective. Ip, class I
verbs a verbal adjective may be formed by suffixing /it/ or /ut/ to the
perfect root of the verb. This /it/ or /ut/ may be suffixed to the
active or to the passive form of the verb. The conjugation of /a'ne/
follows this derived form of the verb and preceeds the noun which it
modifies. As far as has been determined the /it/ and /ut/ are alternate
forms which may freely fluctuate with each other, The form of the verb
/a'ne/ may be used in the perfect or imperfect stem depending on the
meaning to be conveyed.

/ali'fit

yen bab/
'closed it-was door,

/ali'fut

bab/

yen

'

'the door that was closed'

the door that was closed'

/da; 'mut. tb. 'saga/

bought she -was cow'

the bought cow

/ru'bimit

yen num/
'was-sent he-was man 1

/fa 'hut tel*

le ;/
'boiled she-was water'

the sent man

(passive form of verb)

'boiled water' (water that has boiled).

/fa 'hut tar1"*

le ;/
'boiled sheis water' 'the water that is coming to a boil'

/fa'kimit

yen sun'duk/
'was-opened it-was box' 'the box that has been opened ' (passive )

/fa'kut

yen sun'duk/
'opened 'It-was box' the opened box' or 'the open box'

2.1. 2. 4

/-ak/

and

/-uk/

plus

/a'ne/

The imperfect stem of the verb uninflec ted followed by the suffix

/ak/

in class I verbs and /uk/ in class II verbs is followed by the

conjugation of the perfect form of the verb /e'ne/ to express customary
or habitual action in past time.
Class I verb

/ge 'dak
/go 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak
/ge 'dak

en/
te 'ne/
ye 'ne/
ne 'ne/
te 'nen/
ye 'non/

'I used to go '

'you, she used to go'
'he used to go

'we used to go

'
'

'you (pi.) used to go

' they used to go '

Class II verb

/arge ' ?uk en/

/arge ' ?uk ten/

'I used to cut down'

'you, she used to cut down'

/arge ?uk yen/

1, See page

'he .used to cut down'

6c.

_2~

/arge ' ?uk non/

/arge'?uk to 'nen/
/arge '?uk ye 'nen/

'we used to cut down'

'you (pi. ) used to cut down
'they used to cut down'

Imperfect participle of class I vert

2.1.2. 5
The imperfect participle of class I verbs, unlike the perfect
participle of class I and both participles of class II verbs,, consists
of a derived form of the verb. It is expressed by the imperfect stem

/h/.

The action expressed by the

imperfect participle is incidental to the action expressed by the main
verb. When the action expressed by the participle is for the purpose or

uninflocted followed by the suffix

end of the action expressed by the main verb, the perfect participle is

used.

/'bera

ge 'dah

kai

kay/

'When you go tomorrow, call him.

'Tomorrow going him call.
The going here is not for the purpose of calling him but incidental to it.
'kimal ge 'dah ka; ka'ye/
'When I went yesterday, I called him.
'Yesterday going himI-called.
The 'going yesterday' was for some other purpose than for 'calling him'
and the calling was incidental to the going.

2.1. 2. 6

Future action

/li'o/

and

/-yo/

In class I and class II verbs the imperfect stem uninflected is

followed by the inflection of the defective verb /li'o/ or of the

bound defective form /-yo/ to express action in future time. The differ
ence between the /li'o/ and /-yo/ is not always distinct. Often the two
seem to freely replace each other in common use. However, the /li'o/
form seems to express a more definite future idea. When the /-yo/ form
is used, there is probably a little loss definiteness and certainty
about the action contemplated in the future. (The Saho may use the
imperfect stem plus /li'o/ but this form does not seem to be as common
in Saho as in Afar. In Saho future artion is more regularly expressed

by the use of the jussive stem followed by the conjugation of /ki'o/.

This construction is not found at all in Afar.) /li'o/ when used alone
moans 'I have '

Class I /li'o/ (li'yo)

/ge 'de
/go 'de
/ge 'do

lio/ I will go '

lito/ 'you will go'
le/ 'he, she will go '(In

/ge de lino/
/ge 'de lit on/
/ge 'de Ion/

'

we will go

'

you (pi.) will go

'they will go'

this verb this form is used for both masculine and feminine 3rd person)
Class I /-yo/

/go 'doyo/
/go 1 detto/
/ge 'dele/

'

I will go
you will go '

'he, she will go

Class II

/arge'?e liyo/
/arge'?e lito/
/arge'?c le/
/arge'?e lino/
/argo'?e lit on/
/arge'?e Ion/

/li'o/

/ge 'deno/
/ge 'detton/
/ge 'doIon/

(li'yo)

' we , will

go

' they

will go '

I
' will cut down '
'you will cut down'
'he

'

'you (pi.) will go

she will cut down

'?/e will cut down

'

'

'you (pi. ) will cut down

'they will cut down'

-33Class II

/-jo/

/arge '?cno/
we will cut down wn
/a.rge ' ?eyo/ 'I will cut down1
'
/arge ' ?otton/ 'you(pl. ) will cut do/arge'?etto/ 'you will cut down
/argc'?elc/ 'he J she will cut down' /arge'?elon/ 'they will cut down'
Ncgativizer
2.1. 2.7
a. In class I and class II verbs action in past time is negated by
use of tho negative indicator /ma-/ prefixed to the perfect root along
with the- bound form of the defective verb /-innio/ suffixed to the root.
b. To negate a present imperative of a class I or class Il'verb,
the negative indicator /ma-/ is prefixed to the verb root and the imper

ative of /-innio/ is suffixed to the root.

Class I verb negative

'/mage 'dinnino/ 'we did not go i

/mage 'dinnio/ 'I did not go'
/mage 'dinniton/ 'you (pi.) did not go
/mage 'dinnito/ 'you did not go
'they did not go'
/mage 'dinna/ 'ho, she did not go' /mage 'dinnon/
Negative imperative

/mage
/mage

'din/
'dina/

'do not go'

'do not go' (plural and polite form)

Class II verb nogative

/marge ' ?inniyo/

/marge '?innito/
/marge ' ?inn.a/
/marge '?innino/
/marge r?innit on/
/marge '?innon/

'I did not cut down'

'you did not cut down'

'he, she did not cut down'

'we did not cut down

'

'you (pi.) did not cut down /

'they did not cut down'

Negative imperative

/marge '?in/
/marge '?ina/

do not cut down

do not cut

'
dovm ' (plural

& polite)'

2.1.1. 2
Outline conjugation of defective verbs
2,1.1. 2.1 Conjugation of /a'ne/ 'to live, be present
'
The verb

/a'ne

is frequently used in conjunction with other verbs

as an auxilliary verb. Following is its conjugation in the imperfect

and perfect stems of the positive and negative. The /ane/ of Afar
apparently has a wider use than the same verb in Saho and includes some
of the uses of /ki'o/ in the Saho.

/a'ne/ 'I am,

/na'ne/
/ta'nen/

Imperfect stem positive of

/a'ne/
/ta'no/

'I am, live'

'you, she is, lives

/ya'ne/ 'he is, lives'

live, am present i
'we are, live'
'you (pi.) are, live i

/ya'non/ 'they

are, live'

Imperfect stem negative

/ma; 'na/

/ma'tana/

'I am not present,s etc. ' /ma'nana/ 'we are not present i
'you, she is not present '/ma ' tanan/ 'you(pl )are not present

/ma'yana/ 'he is not present r

/ma 'yanan/ ' they

are not present'

Perfect stem positive

/e 'no/
/te'ne/
/ye 'ne/

I was present, etc.

'

'you, she wore present

'he was present'

/ne no/
/tc- 'hen/
/ye 'nen/

'we were present'

'you(pl. ) were present

'they were present

-*34

Perfect stem negative

/manan 'niyo/

'I was not, etc. i

/manan 'nino/

/manan nito/
/ma 'na/

'you, she was not

/manan 'niton/
/manan 'non/

'he was not

'we were not i

'you(pi.) were not
they were not.',

2.1.1. 2. 2 Conjugation of /kinni 'yo/ 'I am'

The verb /kinni 'yo/ in Afar (/ki'o/ in Saho) is seldom expressed
except in the third person singular and even there not regularly. The
northern Afar use it more frequently than the southern Afar and the Saho

use the equivalent

/ki'o/

far more commonly than the northern Afar.

This

verb is used to express the thought 'I am' in a sentence such a.s, 'I am
a man. ' In the third person singular it is frequently used to express
agreement with what the other party has said,

/kin'ne/

that is, 'I agree that what you have said .is so.

'it is correct',

'

/kinni 'yo/
'we are t
/kinni 'no/
/kinni 'ton ( o )/ 'you (pi.)
they are i
/kin 'non ( o )/

Conjugation of positive form of

/kinni 'yo/
/kinni 'to/
/kin 'no/

I am

you are, she is

'he is, it is

/kinni 'yo/
/maki ' o/ )
not '

Negative of
Saho

/ 'hinniyo/
/ 'hinnito/
/ 'hinna/

I
' am

/-inni 'yo/

(or perhaps of the hound form

'you, she is not i

'ho is not

are

'

/ 'hinnino/
/'hinniton/
/ 'hinnon/

'we are not 1

'you (pi.) are not

they are not

'

The stress pattern in the negative of this defective verb does

not follow the pattern of regular verbs.

__

__

Conjugation of /-inni'yo/
The hound, form /-inni'yo/ suffixed to the perfect stem of the verb
The
plus the negative prefix is 'used to .negate action in past time.
distinctive meaning of this hound form is difficult to determine.
i
f
we
/-inni 'no
/-inni 'yo/ 'I

2.1.1. 2. 3

/-inni 'to/
/-in'na/
2.1.1. 2.4

'he, it

---

'you, she

'

---

'you (pi.)

/-inni 'ton/
/-in 'non/

they

/li 'yo/

'

'I have
The verb /li 'yo/ 'moans I have.' when used alone. It is also used in
conjunction with other verbs, especially with a derived form based on the
imperfect stem of both classes of verbs to express action in future time.
(The Saho uses this same form buf apparently much more rarely. The
Conjugation of

common Saho way of expressing a future action is a form based on the

jussive stem of the verb followed by the conjugation of /ki'o/. This
regular Saho form is not used at all in Afar. )

Positive form of
/li 'yo/ 'I have '

/li'to/
Ac/

/li 'yo/

/ii'no/
/li 'ton/
/Ion/

you have

'ho, she has'

To indicate past time 'I had

/luk 'on/
/luk 'ten/

/li 'yo/

'

'you(pi. ) have

'

they have

a derived form of the above verb

is used and followed by the conjugation of

Past of

'we have

/e 'ne/

'I have r

'I had'

'you, she had i

/luk 'non/
/luk te *nen/

'wc had

'you (pi.) had

/luk/

-35

/lulc 'yon/

/luk

'ho had'

Negative form of

/li'yo

/may-'yu/ 'I do not have

/man'tu/

I
' have

ye

'non/

/man 'nu/
/man' ton/

'

'you do not have'

they had

'

'we do not have

'

'you (pi.) do not have

/ma'lon/

'they do not have f

The negative /may'yu/ is also used with a derived form of the verb
as is the positive /li'yo/. This negative with the derived form of the

/ma'le/

'he, she docs not have*

verb negates auction in future time.

/-yo/
The bound form /-yo/ like /li'yo/ and its negative is also used with

2.1.1. 2. 5
,

Conjugation of

a derived form of the verb based on the imp erf oat stem to express action

in future time. (See page 31) When this form is used, the action contem
plated is less definiteand certa.in than when the /li'yo/ form is used.
The distinctive meaning of this form is difficult to determine. This
form apparently includes the personal subject indicator and the plural-

izer for the second and third persons plural and an additional morpheme
whose distinct meaning is difficult to determine. It does not follow

---

the pa,t tern of regular verbs in, its formstion.

/-yo/

/-tto/
/-le/

'you

/-no/
/-tton/
/-Ion/

'

'he, she

2.2 Nouns
Inflection
2.2.1
2. 2.1.0 Introduction.

we

--- _

---

'you (pi.)

they

Uses of the Singular, Unit, and Plural.

The inflection of the 'Afar noun distinguishes three classes which

are designated as unit, singular, and plural.

is the one most commonly used.

noun.

The unit or generic form

This form designates the class of the

More often than not it refers to a single item in the class but it

docs not necessarily do so.

It refers to the class as such and may

include several, individual members of that class especially if this collec

tion of items viewed as a class is determined not by the form itself but
by its context.
While many nouns employ all three forms, unit, singular, and plural,
others may commonly use only two forms. Some may commonly use only a unit
and a plural form, or a singular end a plural, or occasionally a unit
and a singular form only.'

While many nouns do not commonly use a singular,

the singular may be constructed from, the unit and used if there is special
emphasis to be placed on the singularity of the noun.
The unit or generic form while frequently referring to one item of
the class, does not in itself necessitate that idea,. In some contexts
and with certain nouns it may regularly refer to a number of the class

viewed as a unit.

Actually this form designates the class, while its

context or the nature of the object it designates determines whether it

refers to one or more objects in that class. Por example, the unit or
generic form, /wa'kali/ 'companion' it itself does not designate whether
there arc one or more companions. It may refer to one companion or it
may refer to "companion" without any indication as to the number. If the
speaker wishes to specify the fact that there was one companion, he would

-36use the singular form

/waka 'liyta/,

'a companion'.

If he wore referring

to a group of several companions viewed distributively and if the plural

idea is not expressed in a verb such as 'to be many' dr "by a number such
as 'seven ? the plural form /wa-ka 'lentit/ 'companions would "be used.
the
In a unit form of a noun such as /da'gur/ 'hair or /wa'dar/ 'goats

'

unit form almost always refers to more than one individual item of the
,
group. * A different singular form would be used to refer to one single
strand of hair or to a single goat. The plural forms would refer to

several heads of hair or to several herds of goats belonging to several

individuals Or in special contexts the plural might refer to several
individual strands of hair or to several individual goats in one herd but
this would be made clear by the context. The unit form is the basic form
of the noun.
The singular and. plural forms are usually derived, from this
unit form.
The plural form may refer to several individual members or to several
groups of members of the class.

The singular form which usually designates and emphasises the indi
vidual unit of the class is usually expressed by a final /-tu/ or /-to./
when it governs a masculine subject indicator in the verb and by /-'to/
when it governs a feminine subject indicator in the verb.
Unit
Singular

/da'gurt gf (n)
a strand of hair
/do'royta/ (m) 'a grain of dura
2*2.1.1.

/da'gur/

/ da, ' TO/

'hair'

' dura

grain

Distinction of sex

Separate forms are sometimes used in the unit and in the singular to

These distinct forms are used only in

reference to animals and men where sex is commonly distinguished. In the
plural there are no distinct forms to designate sex. All of the forms of
the noun, singular, unit, and plural take a distinct form which governs

distinguish the sex of the noun.

either the third person masculine or the third person feminine subject
indicator in the verb. The form of the verb used is determined by the
form of the noun.

However, only nouns referring to animals and men have

separate forms to distinguish male and female subjects.

/i ' daltu/
/idal'to/
/'ruga/
/ru'ga/

(n )
'old woman' (f)
'male calf' (n)
'female calf' (f)

/'kuta/
/ku'ta/

'male dog' (m)

'female dog' .(f)

2. 2.1. 2

'old man '

Gender of subject indicator in the verb governed by the form

of the noun.
The singular and unit forms of the noun take a verb with the third
person singular masculine subject indicator or the third person feminine

subject indicator depending on the form of the noun. The plural of nouns
also takes a verb with a masculine or feminine subject indicator de
pending on the form of the noun. The plural form of most nouns takes a
verb with the third person singular subject indicator. A few, Hargely
personal, nouns in the plural take the third person plural form of the

-37Those nouns nay sometimes take the third person singular' feminine
subject indicator in the verb. When the third person singular is used

vo r'b

in place' of the plural as an alternate form

the feminine form is some-

times used even though the form of the noun is such that a masculine
form would normally be expected.
/rugagi yanc 'ne/ 'there are calves' (3rd p, pi. vb. )
/ru 'gagi ta'ne/ (alternate form) (3rd p. fern. sing. vb. )
/s.i'nain yane 'no/ 'there are men' (3rd, p. pi. vb.)
(alternate form) (3rd p. fern. sing. vb. )
/si 'nan ta'ne/
In the singular and unit forms of the noun, the gender of the third
person singular subject indicator of the verb is determined as follows;

MASCULINE

The noun governs a verb taking the third person singular masculine
subject indicator when the noun contains a final vowel with the stress
on a non-f inal syllable

..

/ta'yirti ye 'ne/
there was a rich;man (3rd p. masc, sg. vb.)
/rupiah ' toli ya 'ne/ 'he is (there iff) an enemy ' (3rd p. m. sg. vb. )

One exception found to this statement-;

/da;

ya 'no/

there is a stone

/;The noun in the unit and singular forms governs the third person
masculine subject indicator in the verb when tlio noun ends in a consonant
final, ..stressed syllable

/ra 'mad/

(m. )
'vein '
/sul'tan/ (m. ) 'sultan
FEMININE
The nOun in the unit end singular forms governs, the third person

feminine subject indicator in the.1 verb when the noun ends in a vowel

final, stressed syllable.

/s.ira'ia/
/laka'?o/

(f )
(f... )

'sail of a boat
'money

'

The noun in the unit and singular forms may al$o govern the third'
person feminine singular subject indicator in the verb when the noun ends
in a /-t/ final stressed syllabi f , Most consonant final nouns including

those "ending in /-t/ taka the ms meuline indicator. However, there are a
number of nouns ending in /'-t/ that take the feminine indicator. Two
nouns have been observed ending In other consonants that govern the

f eminine: verb

/wa'dar/
/dow'nik/

(f ) 'goats*1
(f.) 'sail boat'

The nouns with a final /'-1/ which govern a feminine subject indica
tor in the verb all begin the f : .nal syllable with one of the hack con

sonants, /g/, /CL/, /y/,

/h/,

the final syllable with

Some of these nouns that

02

of

take

/?/.

However, not all nouns which begin

these consonants takes a final

/'-t/

/-t/.

and the feminine indicator

in the verb have an alternate r* orm that omits the /-t/ and instead ends
in a vowel.
Unit
Plural
/koba 'yat/ (f ) 'large cup
/ko 'babi/ (m. ) cups
E.

final

/dagi 'get/ (f ) 'minute

'

/da'gayg/ (m. ) 'minutes

-3&
/ar ?ot/

(f.) 'yoke

/mahi 'yat/

(f.) 'wage'
(f.) 'patch

/foga'?at/

-/

ar ' ?a :it/

/maheyt 'wa/

(m. ) 'yokes

(f.) 'wages

/roga,?at 'wa/ (f ) 'patches

/roga?a'yit/ (in.) 'patches

of

(f.) 'woman's jacket (no plural used)

/sanda'qat/ (f.) 'wood frame house '/sandaqo : ' ta/ (f.) 'houses'
(m. ) 'papers
/wa,'ra 'qat/ (f. ) 'paper
/wa 'raq/
or
/wa 'raqat/ (m. ) 'papers i

/mattu 'hat/

In the plural of nouns the gender of the sub ject indicator in the
verb is determined as follows:
MASCULINE (with Plural Nouns)
The plural noun governs the singular third person masculine indica
tor in the verb when the noun contains a final consonant. The syllable
containing this final consonant may or may not be the stressed syllable.
Plural

/na?ab ' tolit/

/go ' dayr/

(m. ) 'enemies'
(m. ) 'islands1

A few plural nouns take the singular masculine indicator in the verb
when the noun ends in a vowel. This may occur when the noun contains a

double consonant proceeding the final vowel or a long vowel followed by a

consonant preceeding- the final- vowel. There are a few cases where a
final vowel in the plural governs a, masculine indicator in the verb when
the above conditions do not apply. Those are listed as irregular forms.
Plural

/'ga:la/ (EL.) 'camels '

/a'gabbu/ (m. ) 'women

/ko 'babi/

(m. )
cups
FEMININE (with Plural Nouns)
Plural vovel final nouns take the third person singular feminine
subject indicator in the verb. The fijaa,l syllable containing this vowel
is usually stressed though in a small proportion of cases the stress is
elsewhere

Plural

/nabsi'te/
/ali:'ba/
/dari'a/

(f.)
(f.)
(f )

'faces'

'wrist muscles*
'maggots'

Nouns that govern the .masculine singular indicators in the verb may
end in any consonant or in any vowel except /e/. Nouns that govern femin
ine indicators in the verb may end in any -vowel or in

/-t/

in the circum

stances noted above.

Nouns used with a plural indicator such as a number greater than one
or with the verb 'be many* etc. 'take the noun in the unit or singular
form and not in the plural. The plural form is used when there are no
do signs,tors such a,s these to indicate plurality,
/man 'go bo' ray yen/
( ' There were -many blossoms.') The unit
'hc-is-much blossom he -was
form of the noun /bo 'ray is used.

/mal 'hena

qab'?ita ub 'le/
'Seven leopard- (ob j. ) I- say/' ('I
noun /qab'?ita/ is used.

saw/

seven leopards.') Singular form of

-39.-.2.1.3 Subject-object relation

All nouns that take the feminine subject indicator to the verb use
the same form of the noun when the noun is used as the on tor or subject
of tho action expressed by the verb as when the noun is used as the object
of the action .expressed by the verb.

Nouns that take the masculine indi

cator in the verb are divided into two classes. Those that end in a
final consonant or in /-i/ retain the same form as subject and as object.
Those nouns that end in /-u/, /-a/, or /-o/ substitute a fine-1 /-i/ for
the final /-u/, /-a/, or /-o/ when the noun is used as the subject of the

When the noun is used alone it is used in the object form. Thus
D-ll masculine nouns when used as the subject of the verb have a final /-i/
verb
or

0-

final consonant.

is listed.
hyena 1

verb

The object form is the basic form and the form that

One exception noted to this description is in the word for

/'dalhu/

which uses this same form as subject and object of the

/mas 'kinti

soq fan go 'do/

'A-poor-man- (sub ) market into he -went' ('A poor man went to the market.')
/mas 'kintu ub 'le/
'A-poor-man- ( ob j ) I-saw' (Is aw a poor men.')

/f o ' rayni

arit
ken
he/
A- strong-young-man- (sub ) house-into thorn ho-put
"
man put thorn into tho house. ' )

'

'

('A strong young

arik ga'sot
tub 'le/
/f o 'rayno
)
(
Astrong-young-man
ob
j
house
.
-from side-to
'
( 'She
a

she-saw'
strong young man by the side of tho house. ')

saw

'

2. 2.1.4

Formation of singular from unit form.

The singular of the noun may be formed from the unit by suffixing
/-to/ or /-ta/ alternating with /-ytu/ and /--yta/ to nouns whose resulting
singula.r forms govern 0- masculine indicator m the verb o-nd /-'to/ alterna
ting with /-yto/ to nouns whose resulting singular forms govern a femin
ine indicator in the verb.

suffixes /-tu/,

/-ta/

or

has a final vowel other

form the singule-r.

A unit noun that has a final consonant or

/-'to/ to form the singular. A

than /u/ suffixes /-ytu/, /-yta/

/u/

unit noun that

or /-y'to/ to

Apart from the necessity of distinguishing sex in

animals and men, no criteria have been discovered, .for determining whether
the singular form will end in /-tu/, /-ta/, ..or " A-* to/.

Unit
/wa 'kali/ ( m )

/ma'sakin/

Singul fir

' c omp anion

(m. ) 'poor man

/'?or?a/
/dum'nm/

(m. ) 'thread'
(f.) 'cat ' (sex- not spe
cified )
/dora 'hi/ (f ) 'chicken1 (sex
unde s igna te d )

/waka 'liyt<
/mask-in 'to /
/mas 'kintu/

(m, ) 'a companion

(f , ) a poor woman

(m. ) a poor man'

/?er'?aytu/ (jnv) 'a thread'

/dum'muta./ /m. ) '0. male eat*

/dummu'ta/ |(f. ) 'a female cat1
/dora 'hiyta;/J (m, ) 'rooster

/dorahrf ' ta,

(f ) 'a hen'

2. 2.1. 5

Forma-tion of plural from unit form.

The formation of the plural of nouns is veify irregular. There
appears to be no way of predicting what the plurr..X will be from the unit
or singular form.
There e-re a number of main- ty/pes of ways of forming
plurals but there is little to help one in de tei.mining which type of
change will be used to form a ixLural from a giyon unit or singular form..,

-40Diff erent

Ox' ton more than one plural form may 'be used for the same noun.

informants sometimes give different plurals for the same noun.

There seems to he no way of determining whether a noun will form a
plural that will take a masculine or a. feminine subject indicator to the
verb'. The singular, unit, and plural do not necessa-rily take the same
gentler subject indicator in the verb. The gender of the subject indicator
of the verb is governed only by the form of the noun.

following are examples of the main typos of changes involved in the

formation of the plural of nouns. The forms listed are always the object
form where the noun is inflected for subject end object. The subject.
form may be determined from the object form, (see 2. 2.1. 3 page 39) Many
of the following nouns have a possible singular form. It seems to be

theoretically possible to make a singular form from most unit forms but
listed here are only those singular forms that seem to be quite commonly
used. A considerable number of examples of the typos of changes in
forming the plural have boon listed to illustrate more fully the great
irregularity in their formation, from the practical standpoint of learn
ing the language the plural form must be learned along with the unit.
One of the most common methods of forming the plural is by suffixing

/-'we,/

This suffix according to the regular pattern

governs a feminine subject indicator to the verb.
This suffix may also
bo accompanied by other changes in the noun.
A final vowel of the unit

to the unit form.

/-'wa/.
/-'wa/

form is usually, though not always dropped bo Tore the

nouns there is a vowel change along with the suffix

PLURALS f ORMED BY SUFFIXING /- 'wa/.

Unit

/bo'ray/(m. ) 'blossom
/a'bch/(m) 'odor'
old man'*'

Singula:.?

Plural

/bo 'raytu/ (m. )

/boray 'wa/ (f , )

/i ' dal fcu/ (m, )

/abch 'wa/ (f
/idol 'wa/ (f )
/ido 'la/(f . )cor

.
.

/ra'gadu/ (m) 'leather thong

/o'rena/ (m) 'wood

/a'tir/ (m) 'bean '
/fas/ (m) 'axe
/la'dena/

In some

worker'

/a't.irtu/

(m)

(m) 'porcupine'
/'hayla/ (m) 'power'
/guru'muda/ (m) 'log'
/gur umu ' d;lytu/ (n)
/fo'rayno/ (m) 'strong young man
/hanga'la/ (f ) 'brain'
/dag'ge/ (f ) 'compound' or piece of land'
/manfi'o/ (f ) 'sieve1
/lei/ (f ) ''water'
/roga''?at/ (f ) 'patch'
/rnahi 'et/ (f ) 'wage '
/bos 'do/ (f ) 'hole1
/walkali/ (m) 'companion
/wak a 'liytg/ (m )

pi.

/r agadu ' wa/ ( f )

/oren'wa/ (f )
/atir 'wa/ (f )
/f as 'wa/ (f) or
/fasi'te/ (f )
/laden wa/ (f )
/heylo 'wa/ (f )
/gurumud 'wa/ (f )
/foron'wa/ (f )
/hangal 'wa/ (f )
/dagge'wa/ (f )

/manfi'wa/ (f )
/lei 'wa/ (f )
/roga?at'wa/ (f )

/mahest'wa/ (f )
/bod'wa/ (f )
/wakal 'wa/ (pl.vb )
/waka 'lentit/ (pi. vb)

-43--

/-i'te/

xLURAIiS FORMED BY SUPPLYING

These plurals are all feminine, A final vowel in the unit form is
usually replaced hy the /i/ of the suffix, The unit forms of these nouns
are largely masculine.
Plural
Singular
Unit
/ayyami'te/ (f )
/ay 'yam/ (m ) 'week '
/he srani te/ (f )
/he s 'ran/ (m) 'trouble

'

'

/'filla/ (m) 'neck'

/kadi 'na/ (f) 'old woman'
(compound from /ka'da/ 'it
and /i'na/ 'mother '
'lame woman 1
lame man

'

'

/filli'te/ (f)
/kadi ' te/ (f ) 'old
people '

is big

/ladi'ta/
/la.'dita/

(f)
(m)

/ladi'te/

(f) 'Imre

people

/soq/ (m) 'market

/soqi'te/ (f )

/san/ (n) 'nose '

/'nabsi/ (m) 'face, body} health
/'?asbi/ (m) 'herdsman's wages'
/ 'al?i/ (m) 'baby'

(f)
/nabsi 'te/ (f )
/?asbi'te/ (f )
/al?i'te/ (f)
/qay/i'te/ (f )

/'qay/i/ (m) 'priest'

/sani'te/

PLURALS POREED BY REDUPLICATION OP CONSONANT, USUALLY PINAI. CONSONANT.

An.other of the more common methods of forming -the plural is by reduplication of the final consonant. S one times a vowel is suffixed to the
reduplicated consonant and sometimes not. As in the other forms there
are senetimes other changes besides thd reduplication of the final con-
s onant,

Unit

Si] Lgular

/ 'iba/

/iba 'bo/ (f )
/inti'ta/ (f )
/ga 'bob/ (m)

(m) 'foot '

/in'ti/ (f) 'eye
/ga'ba/ (f) 'hand'
/ma'go/ (f) 'debt1
/gi'ra/ (f).'fife'
/'sunku/ (m) 'shoulder
/maxad'da/ (f ) 'pillow
/ du ' gam/ (m) ' shop '
/da'le/ (f) sore

'

/mago'ga/ (f.)
/gira'ri/ (f )

/'sunkuk/ (m)
/ma 'xaddid/ (m)
/du'qaqin/

/'dayta/ (m) 'fat.'

/ ' gadda/ (m ) ' we al. th '

/bar 'rad/ (m) 'ice', 'cold'

/ma?an'da/ (f ) 'sister1
/Pa'le/ (f ) 'mountain '
/la 'fa/ (f) 'bone
/ dum 'mu/ (f ) 'cat ' (jsex
/bu'da/ (f) 'house'
/af/ (m) 'mouth'
/an'gu/ (f )

/a 'mo/

'brea,st

(f) 'head'

Plural

not designated)

/dum 'muta// dummu ' ta/

(m)
/dalesla/ (m)
/ ' day tit/ (m)
/'gaddit/ (m)
/bar ' ra,rid/ (m)
/ma'?andid/ (m)
/?a'lesla/ (m)
/'lafof/ (m)
/dum 'mum/ (m)

'male cat'
'female cat'

/buda'di/ (f )
/afo'fa/ (f )
/angu'ga/ (f )
/amo 'ma/ (f )

,, -4s - A

PLURALS FORMED BY DIVIDING CONSONANT CLUSTER (CC to CaC )

Some nouns with a word mid .consonant c lus tor form the plural "by di

/a/.

Many nouns with word mid consonant

clusters form the plural in different ways. There are sometimes other

viding the consonant cluster hy

changes "besides the change in the consonant cluster.

These nouns are

largely masculine in the plural form.

Unit

Plural

Singular

//ir'wal/ (m) .'pants'/"bis 'mar/ (m) 'nail'

/tor'bu// (m) 'police cap
/fa'nus/ (m) 'lamp'
/zam 'Dili/ (m) '"basket of palm
/tor'bal/ (n) 'canvas cloth'
/xan'ziri/ (m) 'pig'
/tas'wir/ (m) 'picture'
//ar'not/ (m) 'adulterer'
//armo'ta/ (f) 'adulteress'

//irawil/ (m)
/bi samir/ (m)
/to'rabu// (m)
/fo'anis/ (m)
/za'nabil/ (m)
/to'rahil/ (m)
/xa'nazir/ (m).

leaves

/ta'sawir/
//a1ramit/

(m)
(m)

PLURALS FORMED BY A VOWEL CHANGE

Other nouns form the plural "by a vowel change from the unit form.
Often this change is from /a/ to /o/. There is also frequently a drop
ping of the final vowel of the unit form or the addition of a vowel from
a consonant final unit form.

Unit

Plural

Singular

/ * ramli/ (m ) divination
/"baka'lo/ (f ) 'female kid
/"ba 'kal/ (m) 'male kid'
/sa?a'la/ (f ) 'sister' (N.
1

'

dialect)

/rom'li/
/'bakol/

(f)
(m)

/'sa?ol/

(m) or

. v"b.

pi

/'?andow/ (m)
/?anda'wa/ (f ) 'rat, mouse
/as 'hod/ (m)
/as'hada/ (m) bollards'
/re'ta/ (f ) ' female goat
/wa'dar/ (f ) 'goats '
'herd of goods' /da'hella/ (m) 'billy goat
/wa'dor/ (f ) ) or
/wado 'ra/ (f
/maf'tah/ (m) 'key, lock
/mafto'ha/ (f ) or
/ma'fatih/ (m)
/kito 'ba/ (f )
/ki'tab/ (n) 'book'
/ako ' ta/ (f )
/a'kat/ (n) 'rope
/safo'ra/ (f )
/sa 'fur/ (m) 'trip'
/dano'na/ (f )
/ da 'nan/ (m ) ' donke y *
/'heiy/ (m)
/he 'ya/ (f ) 'millstone '
/'baq_ali/ (m) 'male mule '
/ 'basq.il/ (m)
1
'

'mule

/baqa'li/ (f ) 'female mule

/ba

gilt a/

/baqil 'to/

/'qabri/ (m) 'graved

/'disti/ (m) 'kettle'

'male mule '

'female mule

'

/qa 'bur/ (m)

/du'sust/

(m)

PLURALS FORMED BY STRESS CHANGE

A few nouns form the plural from the unit form by a change in the
1. See page 3.5, 2. 2,1,0.
2. Unit form of ten' used to distinguish sex of individual mules as well as
to refer to mules as a class.

stress

-43A few others form the plural by a change in the length of the

vowel Y he coining Vs,

/ay 'ro/ (f) sun

/al 'fenta/ (m) 'lid. cover

/a'midda/ (m) 'house pole
/ti 'ko/ (f ) 'hawk
/'kuta/ (m) 'male dog'
1

/ku'ta/

(f ) 'female dog'

/ 1 ayro/ (r.)
/alfen' ti/ (f )
/amid' da/ (f )
/tis'ka/ (f )
/kus ' ta/ (f )

In the sane class with the nouns that form plurals hy a stress change
arc a. few that change the stress and also add a vowel,
Often this added

vowel receives the stress and the plural becomes feminine.

Plural
Singular
Unit

/a ' ?ur/ (m)

/li'fi?/ (m)
/gu'lub/ (m)

,/a'rus/ (m. )

/a 'dim/

ox

'claws, fingernails
knee

'

'bridegroom'

(m. ) 'hide* (tamed)

/qi'bra/ (f ) 'pride'

/a?u'ra/ (f )
/lifi'?a/ (f)
/gulu'ba/ (f )

/aru'so/
/adis'ma/
/qibri 'a/

(fo)

(f )
(f )

IRREGULAR PLURALS

Besides these main typos of plural formations, there are a. number

of nouns that form the plural irregularly,
/ ' awka/ (n ) 'b oy '
/'urru/ (m. )
o

/aw 'ke,/
/ 'bada/
/ba'ra/
/i'da/
/ jar/
/nun/

(f ) 'girl '
(n. ) 'son'
(f. ) 'daughter

/ day '1o/

(f.) 'sheep'
(n. ) 'neighbor
(m. ) 'man '

/'illi/ (in.)
/ jc s 'ran/ (m. )
/si'nam/ (f.)

(f.)

_i

Native Texts
The Dankali people have many stories (/mis sila/) which have "been
handed down to them from the past. These stories va.ry a great deal from
individual to individual and from one part of the country to another.
The first two of the following stories (titles mine) are taken from a
c onsidernhlc number of stories which I received from Earned Edoris in
As sab
They are in the southern dialect. The third story was told to me
by Mohammed Mohammodo, a Dankali boy from Thio and is in the northern

dialect.

''The Shamite and Yemenite Seek their Fortunes"

/duma nun yen, /am nun, ka'do 'yemen nun yen.
'Before non there -was, Shorn men. Also Yemen men the re -was.
nu *mu ; is 'se ba'dol do. 'go. woh.
nan his country-in he-touches he-l-ackcd.

/am

gede.
Shorn he -went..

scr'ro. "a'tu 'onki god 'da" ka.k

lo.tcr, "You where you-are -going" him- to

la 'nu /am go 'dah on" kak i'ye.

"I Sham I-go I-orn" him- to he-said.

i'ye.
he -said.

kak i'ye.
him- to ho-said.

tu mo, ' tonaka ;

""Athing thcre-is-not-if

hole i' y c
him-1o ho - s aid

ge ' dene
They-wcnt

?olak ad ' c'.o,t

'well-from

o 'be

Sham

'aki be,' do ge Jdch yen.

Another country he -went he -won.

scr'ra 'yemen nu 'nu : is 'se ba'rol da1gam well.

later Yemen man his country-in he-to-touch he-lackod.
'us on 'git o.l it 'tat garayenc.
They tro.il- on together they-mot.

/am

"/a 'rnal

tu mo, 1 tan"
:
Sham-in a- thing ther c -is ~n o t
1

nc 'be "
bo. ' ro
aki
another country we-will-go" s

/am'

gi'to.l '?eli 'keni su'ge.

Road- on well them it-s topped.

nun
Sham man

to 'wa?adi 'daga ra ' ?v

ad ' dad da 'hah su'ge.
in he -wont-down. In gold thero-was. That time above he -remained
nun goni 'yet ak 'katat u'dih ye'he. ka: ru'bc. 'ussuk wo 'wa?adi goni'yetak
non sock roap-on tied ho -gave
Him he-sent. He that tine sack-fron
ad'do.t da 'hab he. is 'si ad dat go, 'he. gonibe t ' tak af u'dih ye'he.
wo
in gold lie-put. Ho in lie -ont erred.
Sack-from mouth tied he -gave. That
a//o,?o,di 'daga yen nuia hiri 'ge.
bukka'he, sum 'lait hayya'he,
time above ho -was non lie -pulled-in. Out-hc-put, slioulder-on put-he-put,
i
In ' de
bar a gu'dcl
go tal din kat yonc'te.
wo 'wa?o,di
lie -fled. Night middle -on tra.il- on sleep him- to ho -came.
That time
goni' yet 'barol he. di 'ne
scr'ra us 'suk goni 'ye tat ad 'dat buk'ke.
sack gromid-on he -put. Hc-slept, la,ter ho so.ck-in in he-cone-out.
goni 'yet sum'1-cut hayya 'ho, ku'dc.
us 'suk di 'nit ro, ?c
Sack sliouldcr-on put-he-put, ho -fled. Ho sleep-in lie-reno,ined-beliind.
us' suk 'sake di 'nik ugu'to 'wa?adi goni 'yet ka; masugin e
wo 'wa?adi
He morning sleep-iron hc-arosc time sank him it-was-not.
Thoit time
ko,k bi'so iron da ?ar mas' do *wa?adi
us ' suk leu ' do
kah yo
'
he ho -fled. Iiim-from beyond ho -was river ho-o,rrivod time him- to co,ll
do, 'nan yok 'ke
wo 'wo,?a,di yomo'tc.
us 'suk wo
onkoy it-b e c amo
That time he -came , (man with sack of gold) He that
do, 'no,na,l ham
goni'yetah 'hayla well.
f o. ' do,
s c r ' ro, us ' suk
sack-for strength he -lacked. Donkey-on lie-to-put he-wamts. la,ter
he
Ycmc ' to
wa?adi ko, i yibbi'dc. "ko mama *ka 9
yo mama 'kin",
V.
he -comic time him he-sic zed.
"You not-I-will-dceoivo ne do-not-dcccive ",
iyo 'nc
ge ' dene /
they- said. They-wcnt

'

'

'

. .

Free translation of the o,bove text

"Once there was a non, a Sham man.

There was also a Yemen man. The
3ho.ni man lacked that which lie could touch in his country.
(Impoverished)
no was going to another country. Likewise the Yemen man lacked that which
he could touch in his country. He wont to Slian.
They net together on the
trail. Thereupon ho asked him, "Whore are you going?". He replied, "I am
going to Shorn.
"There is not nno thing in Sham," ho said to him. "Since
tlic-re is not a thing, we will go to another country," lie said to him.
They went.
They came to a, well on the trail. The Sham man went down into
the well.
There wo.s gold in the well. Then the man who remained shove

"

-ii-

He sent it to him. Then he (man in the

gavo hin a sack tied with a, rope
well) put the gold in the sack, He entorrod into tho sack. He tied the
mouth of the sack. Then tho man who was above pulled. He pulled it out,
ho put it on his shoulder and fled. In the middle of the night he became
sleepy on the trail, Then he put the sack on the ground. He; slept.
Thereupon ho in the sack cone out. He put the sack on his shoulder and
When he awoke
ran a.way. He (the Yemenite) remained "behind in sleep.
from sloop in the morning, the sack was not with him. Then he ran away.
Mien he arrived at the river that was "beyond him, his call became that of
a donkey. At that time he (Shamite) eerie
He lacked . strength for that
sack. He wants to put it on the donkey. When he arrived, he siczcd him.
"I will not deceive you, don't deceive me, they said. They went.

"The Hyena and the Jackcl"

/dal'hu
r

'

wok 'ri dal 'hu yone te

Jackal hyena ho -cane.

ko wok'ri ten.
Hyena and jackal she -was.

tene to
kak i'ye
"ko 'ran ara 'hak enc
you-cane?, him- to hc-sa,id. "Koran reading-fron
"ko 1 ran ara ban ( ara 'hal ) me. 'ha ta'no", kak i'ye.
"Koran reading-in what shc-is? hin- to ho-said.
kak i'ye.
"u'ri to, 'no
kak
i'yo.
him- to hc-se.id.
"Yet she-is?", him- to ho-said.

'

' .
it-remainod-behind.

. later,

te " ,
'I-cane"

ser'ra "an 'kik

"Who re -from

i'ye.
kak
hin- to he-said.

"ha. ' do ke ru ' di te 'no "

"Meat and rice she-was",
"yes u'ri ta'no", yok
"Yes, yet she-is. me -from

"a'nu gedawa 'ka t 'illi yoh su'gus", kak i'ye,

" "I I-go-when sheep me -for watch", him- to he-said,
dal 'hu.
"koh na'suksa, " 9
ser'ra 'kado 'kasle
Irak i'ye.
hyena,.
"You-for not-I-will-watch" him- to ho-said. later again him-with
ra?a. te "

ya 'be
he -talked ?

dch

a,

'

"yoh su'gus"
ko.k
i'y e
"Me -for wa.tch" 9 hin- to hc-sa.id.
dur.

"

'nc?e
""Good,

koh sugu'seyo,
you-for I-will-watch,

koho 'yus (koh)

na ' suksa.
na.ra.ha,y
"kok 'kale
You-f or
r
on
ho-will-not-watch.
he-cut-off
non
You-f
"

quickly return. "

suk 'scyo. "
us ' suk go ' de wa?adi 'illi
gc ' dc .
" i'ye
" 'ne?o
I-will-wateh. "
He he -went time sheep
Good", ho said. He -went
bak?a, 'ye
a, 'budo,
kafi' se
he -consumed.
The -skins hc-c ausc d-t o-dry
ser'ra us 'suk tu wa.yye, 'he.
yomc ' te .' .
ul 'lulu ra. 'bak
later he a- thing he -lacks -he -gave Starving deatli-from he -came.
ba ' qe.ra.h ra, 'bak yeno 1 te
us 'suk ka, ; yu.bu'lc 'wa?a.di a'budu hay 'hay at
Thirst death-from he -cane. He him
skins wind- to
he-sa.w time
ru 'bo
wo 'wa?adi us 'suk 'lakal ku'de. akkadori 'se
'kado dal 'hi 'lakal
he-sent
Tha.t time he leg-on he -ran.
Thcm-hc -called. Also hyena leg-on
a, 'kak ku'de.
sor'ra 'inki a 'buda geyh. a.ra'bak
kah
suk ' te
.after he -ran. La.ter all skins hc-got, Dried-skins him- to it-remained.
to 'wa?adi wok 're nak'te.
'borinit kak
yan.
'ha.da.t a.y 'fit
Tha.t time jacke,l hc-flcd. Tree -in shelter thorc-is. Hole -in hin-fron
hu 'le
'borimit
sor'ra us 'suk yeno'te da,l 'hi 'ge.ba. rub a 'he
le-enterred. la.ter lie he -erne, Hyena, hand he-scnds-hc-put hole-in.
t: f
key i'ba. yibbi'do,
ana yi ' iba.
ser 'ra
'hinna." 9
kak i'ye.
His foot lie -sic zed.
"This my-foct it--is-not", him- to lie-said. la.ter

..

'hada yibbido.
tree he -sic zed.

yibbi 'do
he-sie zed.

ser 'ra 9 ?? f ana, yj. ' iba "

i'be
Thereupon, "Thiei my-foot" he-sa.id.

ser 'ra,

ha. 'be
He -left.

'

kay iba.
His foot

hinna,"
ka.k
an yi'iba.
i'ye.
"This
to
himmy-xoot it-is-not",
he-said.
ThereuiJon,
ha, 'be
'ho.da yibbi'do. us 'suk wo'?c. to 'wa?ndi da.l 'hi ta.?a. 'be.
Ho-dropped. Tree iic-siezed. He lio-oricd. Tha.t tine hyena lie -was- tired.
f
wo 'wa,?a.di
kak 'daba?e
du'neti ycmc'te. 'boa 'emit hu'lc.
kak
Tha.t time ant he -came. Hole-in /ie-cr.tcrrod. Him-ftom arm-pit him-from
yoqp'nc. wo 'wa,?adi yowa'?c.
to wa?adi dal'hu kayibbi'de.
ka ;
The/; time hyena him-hc-siezed.
hc-a.te
Tha.t time he -cane -out.
Him
ka, ; yu de
be 'ye
to 'wa.?adi anbu'li kr,l
"a. 'kiltone ' te
'
ho -took. Him he -tied. That tine large-bird him- to she -came.
"Hero
II I

Birds- Thereupon she said

riv-

" Since I wont

then, tic nc

."

Jackal ;

"No." ho said to her.

later she spoke with him again, "Tie- no." she said. Ho tied her,
He csca.pod. The hyena brought a. fire of dried pain loaves (dun palm).
He killed her. He struck (her).
She died.
The following story was given by a Dankali boy who speaks the Thio

dialect of the Afar.

"The Son Who Kept His Bather's Will"
nan' go nal lull yen i'yen.
/'duna tayir'ti yen i'yen.
i
Before rich-nan thcre-was thoy-said. Much wealth, he had they-said.
nana 'bade- luk yen i'yen.
"yi dayloy'yus, a'nu ra. 'ba. sc, 'leu- kb abb at
Two sons he had thoy-said.
"My sons, I I-dic day you to-fathor
yod'heh yen.
1:1a 'go? luk nen i'yoniki; li noh a.dho 'nanin
akahuya "
then-give."
debt we had if-thoy-say wo -have they-sny- thing
ho-said he-was
to ; ken
scrra ken 'abba ra'be.,
os 'son 'cli ra'?en.
later their father ho-died. They there they-rcnainc d-behind
This their

..

'abba akahiyona ko 'abb at nal li 'no a.dhok youe tone

father then-he-said you father- to goods wo -have saying they-cano.

'

nun 'nana. bol li 'no yo

nan two hundred wo -have he -said.

gari
Corta-in

'uli nun la- a odili'no yo

Another nan cattle in-it-we-havc he-said.
'uli
ye 'he
'uli nun la-ko'?o odili'no ye.
Another nan silver in~it-wc-liavc ho-sa-id. Ho -gave
An o ther

..

yo 'he
He -gave

nun 'gasla. odili'no

ye
nan canols in-it-wo-liave he-said.
i

key age-'boyta, 'da.ylo 'nanay lc

His wife children two she -had.

' sid ohe. bada ' be-dal

throe logs sc a-1

'uli nun sera- edili 'no

Another man clothes in-it-

. La-tcr

sor'ra- baho 'ten waa'ka

they-were-poor when

'

he
on he -put.

iss kc da.ylo, aga. 'boyta-, a- 'mol a-kakga-'he.

He and children, wife on on-it-he-got.
'ha,da.l
wo
'hadahi s
sidoha
'ha.deal ko ru bo
)
(
(logs)
Those three sticks
he-sent. So a-- on
sca-cn

'bada-1 go 'do.
Sco-on ho -went.

bay ' cno

the y-b c c axie -lost.

s c r ' ra kay ' day1ok

ti i sasmal y owo'?o.
JJC'-UGX- his cnixuju-n-fron one Sha-m-on ho -came -out.

. .

ijasnal
yowe ?o
Jan- on ( Yemen ? ) he -c cue - out
1

'

ti

One

kay aga- 'boyta. 'uli gc 'doril towo *?0i

His wife corta-in isla-nd-on she -cane -out.

us* suk,

us 1 suk e1iy owe ' ? e go doril

is
'e-bba, 'uli gedoril y owo'?c.
He,9 father, ccrte-in island- on ho -came -out. He on-it-hc-camc-out isla-nd-on
ta'nira-, e 'na-bba, to 'f aJaa lc 'mono, 'na-ham *no?e ge ' doril yowo 1 ?eh yen.
da.tos, grapes, a-pplos, lemons, very -much good isla-nd-on he-ca-me-out he-wa-s.
sor'ra- dowa'niki, ba-'ba-biri wo go 'dorili J hu'la-k ton
i'yen.

La-tcr sa-ilhoa-ts

us 'suk in'ki
toh a/bak ka. ; ba-hi'seno.
He one
This-to doing-fron him thcy-causcd-to-bc-poor

yc
we -have he-said.
ago 'boyto le
woman ho -had.

ye 'he
Ho -gave

ships, that isla-nd-on they-usod-to-entor they-sa-id.

us 'suk wo 'ba.ro soq ta.n yck'ko.
sor'ra- a-s 'l-ca.r hayi'tc.
He tha.t country ma.rkot it-is it-bcca.no. La-tcr soldiers he-ma-do-f or-sclf
wo I s axial yen kay 'ba-di, kay a-ska. 'rite. yck'ko yen.
'a.bba. ken
That Shan- on he-we.s his son, his soldier he -ho came ho -was
Bather then
1
i
Liayya-da- ge.
os son tit to. nayya.de. 'gan.
'andu ur 'ru ycnon 'saku
not -he -knows
They together not-thoy-know. little children they-were day
I
!
bada-1 be 'yon.
sor'ra ken
ilia- 'a-ki nun digib 'to.
se a-- on the y -wer o -1o s t
La-tcr their mother another man sho-na-rried.
a-bi ' te
wo ken 'ine. a-bi' to nun kcl
le
She -na.de -f or-horsclf (married)
Tha.t their mother na-rried nan them hc-ha.d
a.skr. ' rinat ga. 'he
wo ken ina- a.bi 'to 'nunu wo
( wi th- them ) s oldic r-1o he -c ane
Tha.t, their nether married ma.n that
sol'ta-n lch ye.: 'be.
aga 'boyta. yoho ba-ha. ad '3a.cn fa.'da-h an a.s 'ka-r
sultan with-hin he -spoke. Wife to-ne bring to-speak I-want I-an soldier

..

-iii'ana so'kar ke nana 'na? ke 'haluwa

kak
na 'ha ko yu'dene"
in ' to ,
what you they-tied?" hire to she -said. i;This sugar and candy and cookies
to 'ho :
e d 1he
ko 'heno ,
a ' nu naf a, ' da
yok
i'yen,
you-to-we -will-give ne-to they-said. II-don ' t-want I-said. I1or- this

yo u'duy" in to
sor 'ra is s " a, 'nu f a ' dada :
Thereupon she, "I I-want-sincc no give", shc-said.

'

yo yu'-den".
no they- tic do

"

"ha 'li" totik i'yo ,

"No", hcr-to hc-said.

"yo u'duy" inte.

scr'ra 'lea,do 'ka.lc yah' to,
la.tor aga.in him-with she -spoke, "Me tic," shc-said.
ha 'he
uss 'suk nak'te. da.l 'hi gira 'angat
Hyena, fire dun-palm-1eaves -dry--in he -hr ought.
He fled.

.
to t ?c ' dc .
Her ho -killed.
to t yu ' do
Her hetie do

yogo 're
He -struck.

is ra/b'tc.
She she -die do

Free translation of "The Hyena and the Ja.cka.1"

There was a hyena and a jackal. The ja.cka.1 cane to the hyena.

Thereupon ho said to hin,

Hyena,: - "Where have you cone from?"

Jackal ;

Ja.cke.ls

"I cane from a Eore.n-rca.ding, " ho replied to hin.

Hyena: - "What is there at the Koran ree.ding?" he sa,id to hin.
Jackal: - "There is meat and rice," ho se.id to hin.
Hyena. :
"Is there still?" he sa.id to hin.
Ja.cka.1 s - "Yes, there still is, there was left remanning after me."
Hyena,: - "If I go, watch the sheep for me," the hyena said to him.
"I will not watch then for you," he replied to him.

later he again spoke with hin:

- "Watch then for no," he- sand to hin.

Jackal: - "Very well, I will watch then for you, return quickly."
Hyena: - "An. other nan besides you shall not watch' them. "
Jackals - "For you I will watch."

Hyena.:

Hyena :

"G-ood", he sand.
He went. When he wont, ho (je.clcal) ate up the sheep.

The skins he'

censed to dry.
later, he

(hyena,) found things le.cking.

Dying of hunger he returned.

Dying of thirst he returned.

When he ( ja.ckal ) se.w hin, he threw the skins into the wind. Then
he ran after then. He e at1c d then.
The hyena, also re,n after then. later
ho

(hyena,) got all the skins.

The dried skins remained with him. At

There is a, sheltered spot under a, tree. He

that tine the je.cke.l fled.

entered the ca,vo. later the hyena came.

He put his paw into the cave.

Ho seized his foot.

Jacket : - "This is not my foot," ho said to him.

Thereupon he seized the tree (root).

Ja.ckal s

"This is ny foot," he said.

He dropped it. He seized his foot.
Ja.ckals - "This is not my foot."
He dropped it.

hyena, was tired.

his a.rm pit.

e.way.

He seized the tree.

Then an ant cane.

Then he came out.

Ho tied hin.

Then ho said to him,

Ho cried.

At that tine the

He entered the cr.ve.

Then 'the hyena, seized him.

At that tine a la.rge bird came to hin,

He hit him in
Ho took hin

"Why he.vo they tied you hero?" she asked him.

Ja.cka.1: - "They said to me, 'Wo will give yo,u. this sugar and candy and
c o Okies
I don't want thorn. I said. For this they tied me."

Bird:

'

..

os 'son akkage 'dene

te t daylo 'namay akkaru'he.
They thcre-they-went
Her children two them-he-sent
te tik
ku be. ?ali a. 'me. kok i'ye
scr'ra. tet lekke yeme ' tone
her-to
Later her with thoy-cane. Your husband cone you-to he-said
os 'son 'titta
iss ken nata&aga.
'nc?e
in ' te
i'yen.
together
They

not-she-knows
them
She
they-said.
she-said.
"Good",
'yoho ruh i'ye.
no-for send he-said.

night
fan or 'hen.
ser're. tot ke ken ugu'tenc.
they-arrived-atMid-way
Later she and they they-set-out
"anu
"a'tu i'yin 'hade." kale i'ye.
'wokil hassa 'weyne
"I
he-said.
hin-to
son?"
whose
"You
they-made-c
onversation.
There
1
kak
hade, kinni'yo" iye.
"ail 'haro 'ma.nn.al tcne'te"
agi '' dayti
hin-to
(2. certain nan's) son I-an. " hc-sa.id. "This country how you.-co.ne?"
i'ye.
"y 'abba
kada abba. ra'be 'sako fa.rin'to a 'be. ku 'abb at
he-said. "My-father great father he -died day will he -made. Your father-to

nayyada, ga
not-he-know,

'

nogo? li 'no inton

tenik ak 1 ahuy
debt we -have she-saying to-hor her-givc

, i yc .
1

ho-said.

ni mal si 'non boy 'te ,

Our goods non she-took.

fa.rin'to toh i'ye.

will this- to he-sa.id.

to yi'abba ra 'be
This ny-father he -died

no. 'nu bahe 'ne

We we -be cone -poor."'

yi abb ay , y oi ' be.da.1 gen 1 de

yisnay,
y 'abb ay,
y inahe. ba.de. ; y,
My-father, ny -nether 's-sons, ny-nother, ny-fathcr, ne, seo.- on we -went.

'

'

si 'daha ha.da.1 gen 'de

Throe log-.on we -went.

-'bad.al bey'nc.
Sea-on wo -bo cane -1os t

yel 'li yo % sanal yeyye'e.

God no Shan- on he -caused- toI

yi'abbay yinahs/'be.da
in 'kc 'badat ra'de"
My-nothcr and my-father my -no thor ' s-sons all sea-in ho-fell, "
ke

come -out.

yed'heh
he-said.
yod'ho
ho-said

' ine..
mother.

yen.
he-was.
yen.
he-was.

tani 1 to"
wo 'holu ; a'tu yinaiie. 'be.da.k
"(direct-address) thus you ny -mother 's-son-f ron you-are"

"ke ;

os 'sen 'tokil 'titt-a gey 'no.

They there together they-got.

wo yab
kenik
to ;b 'be
That speech then-fron she -hoard.

to. 'lien ken

kcl le
Then with she -was their

sako sol 'ton 'likke yimbide ;nc

Morning sultan to
they-came.
1

'

Free translation of the above story

Once there was a rich nan they say. Ho had great wealth they say. He had
two sons they say. He said, "My sons, in the day that I die if they say
JYour father owed us a. debt', that which them say we have, give to then.
Later their fa.thor died. They remained behind there. This which thoir
father said to then they came saying, "We have money (goods ) (given) to
your father." A corte.in nan, "We have two hundred" he said. Another man
said_, "Wo have cattle in it (ho is indebted to us for cattle)." Tic gave
Another nan said, "Hv. is indebted to us for camels. 11 He ga.ve (then).
An other nan said,
"He is indebted tc us for clothes." By doing this they
caused him to be ma.de poor, He had one wife. His wife had two children.

Thereupon when they wore made poor, he put three logs on the sea. He, his
Thcy;->jent oh the sea. They went
on those three logs on tlie" "'see*** " They were.
(wrecked ) in the sea. Later
one of his children came out on Shan. One came out on Jam. His. wife came

children, and his wife climbed,- on them.

t
f

"yi sol 'tonus, an-'urri yi'daylo

tano
ton"
in'te yen,
"a ' tu
"My sultan, these-childrcn ny-childron she-is shc-is", she-sa.id.
"You
nas aga.boy'tay" i'yeh yon. "a. 'nu; daylo, ke be. '?a.le. ke yo t 'hkkok 'bada.l
what woman" he-said.
"I, children, and husband and me thus sea.-on
gen do
wo 'bada.l
bay 'no
yo : kc- yi 'daylo
ta. la?o yel 'li
we-went. That sea-on wo-wero-lost
Me and ny children that day God
te.kil no 3c sko t ' te
yi ba'?ali 'be.dat ra. 'be." in'te yen.
he re -on us he-gathered-toge thor
My husband ' sca-on he-died. " she-said.
tot le yab 'tan
sol 'tana, ta 'non tot ba ?ala
is 'so lean te sge 'ne
Her with he -speaking sultan shc-was her husband. She him she -remembered.
"wo 'holu; a'tu yiaga'hoyta, ah 'urri yi 'daylo ycdho
yon.
'ba.di 'abba
"Thus you my -wife 9 These children ny children hc-sa.id ho -was. Son's farther
farin' to baysewe 'nchi ;
toho geh
i'yen./
will they-did-not-disohey-sincc thus ho-got they-said.

i
i

!
i

-vi~

out on a certain island.. Ho, the father, cane out on a certain ..joitd.
He, on the island on which he cane out (found) dates, grapes, apples $
lemons, it was a very good island on which he cane out. Sail "boats and
ships used to enter that island, they say. In that country he me.de a

market. He made soldiers for himself. That one who was on Shan, his
son, became his soldier. That one who was on Jan, his son, became his
soldier. The father does not recognize then. They do not know one
another. In the day that they were little children they were lost on the
sea,.
Later their mother married another nan. She took him to herself,
That nan whom their mother had taken (married) enterred the soldiers with
them. That nan, the man who had married their mother, talked with the
Sultan. (The father is the Sultan of the island.) "Bring my wife to me,
I wont to speak to her, send soldiers for me," he said. Her two sons he
sent. They went there. Later they cane to her. "Your husband sa.id for
you to cone" they said to her. "Very well", she said. She does not know
them. They do not know one another. Later she end they set out. They .
arrived ho,lf way at night. There they na.de conversation, (the two sons)

"Whose son are you?" he sa.id to him.

"I an a certain nan 1 son. " he said to him.

"How did you cone to this country?" he said to hin.
"My grand-fa,ther, the day he died ma.de a, will for my father.
'When they
say wo have a, debt to your father, give it to them' he said. This ny
father died, he ma.de the will thus. Our woe.lth men took away. Yfo became.
poor. My father, ny mother's sons, ny mother, ny father, and I went on
the sea. We went on three logs. Wc became lost on the sea., God caused
me to cone out on Sham. My mother and my father and ny mother's sons all
fell into the sea.. " he said.
"Thus you are my mother's son." he sa.id.
There they received ea.ch other together. The one who was with then was
their mother. She hea.rd that speech from them. In the morning they were
cone to the Sultan.

"These children a.re ny children they e.re

"What woman a.re you?" he said.

."

she se.id.

"I the children and husband and I thus went on the sea.. We were lost
on that sea.. Me and my children on that day God caused us to be gathered
together hero. My husband died in the sea. " she sa.id.
The sultan who was speaking to her wa.s her husband. She remembered hin.
"Thus you are ny wife, these children a.re ny children." he sa.id.
The son who did not disobey his father's will received thus, they say.

1. A reply often used in the question, "Whose son a.re you?". Later
ho nay give his father's name. Moaning not cloa.r but has the sense of
"a certain nan's son".

''Ta&ptliX$
k.

'

i-