Chapter 4: STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENTS

BSCE CE2
Adrid, Jayson
Lacas, Peter David
Mangaliman, Mandy
Maquiran, Ritchie
Streamflow, or channel runof, is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other
channels, and is a major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the
runof of water from the land to waterbodies, the other component being surface
runof.
Surface runof (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs
when excess stormwater, meltwater, or other sources flows over the earth's surface.
This might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity, because rain arrives
more quickly than soil can absorb it, or because impervious areas (roofs and
pavement) send their runof to surrounding soil that cannot absorb all of it.
Water flowing in channels comes from surface runof from adjacent hillslopes, from
groundwater flow out of the ground, and from water discharged from pipes.

Relationship to the environment

Runof of water in channels is responsible for transport of sediment,
nutrients, and pollution downstream.

Relationship to society
Streamflow confers on society both benefits and hazards. Runof downstream
is a means to collect water for storage in dams for power generation of water
abstraction. The flow of water assists transport downstream. When the flow
of water exceeds the capacity of the channel, flooding occurs.
Streamgaging generally involves 3 steps.
1. Measuring stream stageobtaining a continuous record of stagethe
height of the water surface at a location along a stream or river
2. The discharge measurementobtaining periodic measurements of
discharge (the quantity of water passing a location along a stream)
3. The stage-discharge relationdefining the natural but often changing
relation between the stage and discharge; using the stage-discharge
relation to convert the continuously measured stage into estimates of
streamflow or discharge.

MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
Stage, sometimes called gage height, can be measured using a variety of
methods.
MANUAL GAUGES
STAFF GAUGE The simplest of stage measurements are made by noting the
elevation of the water surface in contact with a fixed graduated staf.
WIRE GAUGE It is a gauge used to measure the water-surface elevation
from above the surface such as form a bridge or similar structure.
AUTOMATIC STAGE RECORDERS
FLOAT-GAUGE RECORDER most common type of stage recorder. (Stilling
Well Installation)
BUBBLE GAUGE A pressure gauge measures the gas pressure which in turn
is equal to the water column above the outlet.
Advantages over a float operated water stage recorder:
1. There is no need for costly stilling wells;
2. A large change in the stage, as much as 30m, can be
measured;
3. The recorder assembly can be quite far away from the sensing
point; and
4. Due to constant bleeding action there is less likelihood of the
inlet getting blocked or choked.
STAGE DATA is presented in the form of a plot of stage against chronological
time known as stage hydrographs. In addition to its use in the determination
of stream discharge, stage data itself is of importance in the design of
hydraulic structures, flood warning and flood-protection works.

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT

Discharge is the volume of water moving down a stream or river per unit of
time, commonly expressed in cubic feet per second or gallons per day. In
general, river discharge is computed by multiplying the area of water in a
channel cross section by the average velocity of the water in that cross
section:
discharge = area x velocity.

VELOCITY MEASUREMENT
CURRENT METER is the most commonly used instrument in hydrometry to
measure the velocity at a point in the flow cross-section. It consists
essentially of a rotating element which rotates due to the reaction of the
stream current with an angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
2 Main Types:
1. Vertical-axis Meters
2. Horizontal-axis Meters
FLOATS used to yield the surface velocity by the relation

DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
DIRECT METHODS

v (s)=

S
t

I.

AREA-VELOCITY METHOD
This method of discharge measurement consists essentially of
measuring the area of cross-section of the river at a selected
section called the gauging site and measuring the velocity flow
through the cross-sectional area.
Criteria in selecting the gauging site:

II.

The stream should have a well-defined cross-section which

does not change in various seasons.

It should be easily accessible all through the year.

The site should be in a straight, stable reach.

The gauging site should be free from backwater efects in the

channel.

DILUTION TECHNIQUE
Also known as the chemical method depends upon the continuity
principle applied to a tracer which is allowed to mix completely with
the flow.
The tracer used should have ideally the following properties
1. It should not be absorbed by the sediment, channel boundary
and vegetation. It should not chemically react with any of the
above surfaces and also should not be lost by evaporation.
2. It should be non-toxic
3. It should be capable of being detected in a distinctive manner
in small concentrations.
4. It should not be very expensive.
The tracers used are of 3 main types:
a. Chemicals (common salt and sodium dichromate are typical)
b. Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT and Sulpho-Rhodamine B
Extra are typical)
c. Radioactive materials (such as Bromine-82, Sodium-24 and
Iodine-132).

III.

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
This method is based on the Faradays Principle that an emf is
induced in the conductor (water in the present case) when it cuts a
normal magnetic field.

IV.

ULTRASONIC METHOD
This is essentially an area-velocity method with the average velocity
being measured by using ultrasonic signals.

Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler

In recent years, advances in technology have allowed the USGS to make
discharge measurements by use of an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
(ADCP). An ADCP uses the principles of the Doppler Efect to measure the
velocity of water. The Doppler Efect is the phenomenon we experience when
passed by a car or train that is sounding its horn. As the car or train passes,
the sound of the horn seems to drop in frequency.
The ADCP uses the Doppler Efect to determine water velocity by sending a
sound pulse into the water and measuring the change in frequency of that
sound pulse reflected back to the ADCP by sediment or other particulates
being transported in the water. The change in frequency, or Doppler Shift,
that is measured by the ADCP is translated into water velocity. The sound is
transmitted into the water from a transducer to the bottom of the river
(diagram below) and receives return signals throughout the entire depth. The
ADCP also uses acoustics to measure water depth by measuring the travel
time of a pulse of sound to reach the river bottom at back to the ADCP.

To make a discharge measurement, the ADCP is mounted onto a boat or into

a small watercraft (diagram above) with its acoustic beams directed into the

water from the water surface. The ADCP is then guided across the surface of
the river to obtain measurements of velocity and depth across the channel.
The river-bottom tracking capability of the ADCP acoustic beams or a Global
Positioning System (GPS) is used to track the progress of the ADCP across
the channel and provide channel-width measurements. Using the depth and
width measurements for calculating the area and the velocity
measurements, the discharge is computed by the ADCP using discharge =
area x velocity, similar to the conventional current-meter method. Acoustic
velocity meters have also been developed for making wading measurements
(picture to the left).
The ADCP has proven to be beneficial to streamgaging in several ways. The
use of ADCPs has reduced the time it takes to make a discharge
measurement. The ADCP allows discharge measurements to be made in
some flooding conditions that were not previously possible. Lastly, the ADCP
provides a detailed profile of water velocity and direction for the majority of a
cross section instead of just at point locations with a mechanical current
meter; this improves the discharge measurement accuracy.

INDIRECT METHODS
1. FLOW MEASURING STRUCTURES
Structures such as notches, weirs, flumes and sluice gates are used in
field conditions.

2. SLOPE-AREA METHOD
The resistance equation for uniform flow in an open channel, e.g.
Mannings Formula can be used to relate the depths at either ends of a
reach to the discharge.

THE STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

Streamgages continuously measure stage, as stated in the "Measuring
Stage"" section. This continuous record of stage is translated to river
discharge by applying the stage-discharge relation (also called rating).
Stage-discharge relations are developed for streamgages by physically
measuring the flow of the river with a mechanical current meter or ADCP at a
wide range of stages; for each measurement of discharge there is a
corresponding measurement of stage.
The measured value of discharges when plotted against the corresponding
stages gives relationship that represents the integrated efect of wide range
of channel and flow parameters. The combined of these parameters is

termed as control. If the relationship for a gauging section is constant and

does not change with time, the control is said to be permanent. If it changes
with time, it is called shifting control.

EXTRAPOLATION OF RATING CURVE

Techniques of extending the rating curve and two well-known methods are
described here:
CONVEYANCE METHOD
LOGARITHMIC-PLOT METHOD