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Organization
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Anorganizationororganisation(seespellingdifferences)isan
entitycomprisingmultiplepeople,suchasaninstitutionoran
association,thathasacollectivegoalandislinkedtoanexternal
environment.
ThewordisderivedfromtheGreekwordorganon,whichmeans
"organ".

Contents

StructureoftheUnitedNations.

1 Types
2 Structures
2.1 Committeesorjuries
2.2 Ecologies
2.3 Matrixorganization
2.4 Pyramidsorhierarchical
3 Theories
4 Leadership
4.1 Formalorganizations
4.2 Informalorganizations
5 Seealso
6 References
7 Externallinks

Types
Thereareavarietyoflegaltypesoforganizations,includingcorporations,governments,non
governmentalorganizations,politicalorganizations,internationalorganizations,armedforces,charities,
notforprofitcorporations,partnerships,cooperatives,andeducationalinstitutions.
Ahybridorganizationisabodythatoperatesinboththepublicsectorandtheprivatesector
simultaneously,fulfillingpublicdutiesanddevelopingcommercialmarketactivities.
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Avoluntaryassociationisanorganizationconsistingofvolunteers.Suchorganizationsmaybeableto
operatewithoutlegalformalities,dependingonjurisdiction,includinginformalclubs.
Organizationsmayalsooperateinsecretand/orillegallyinthecaseofsecretsocieties,criminal
organizationsandresistancemovements.

Structures
Thestudyoforganizationsincludesafocusonoptimizing
organizationalstructure.Accordingtomanagementscience,most
humanorganizationsfallroughlyintofourtypes:
Committeesorjuries
Ecologies
Matrixorganizations
Pyramidsorhierarchies

Committeesorjuries
DiagramoftheFederalGovernment

Theseconsistofagroupofpeerswhodecideasagroup,perhaps
andAmericanUnion,1864.
byvoting.Thedifferencebetweenajuryandacommitteeisthat
themembersofthecommitteeareusuallyassignedtoperformor
leadfurtheractionsafterthegroupcomestoadecision,whereasmembersofajurycometoadecision.
Incommonlawcountries,legaljuriesrenderdecisionsofguilt,liabilityandquantifydamagesjuriesare
alsousedinathleticcontests,bookawardsandsimilaractivities.Sometimesaselectioncommittee
functionslikeajury.IntheMiddleAges,juriesincontinentalEuropewereusedtodeterminethelaw
accordingtoconsensusamonglocalnotables.
Committeesareoftenthemostreliablewaytomakedecisions.Condorcet'sjurytheoremprovedthatif
theaveragemembervotesbetterthanarollofdice,thenaddingmoremembersincreasesthenumberof
majoritiesthatcancometoacorrectvote(howevercorrectnessisdefined).Theproblemisthatifthe
averagememberissubsequentlyworsethanarollofdice,thecommittee'sdecisionsgrowworse,not
bettertherefore,staffingiscrucial.
Parliamentaryprocedure,suchasRobert'sRulesofOrder,helpspreventcommitteesfromengagingin
lengthydiscussionswithoutreachingdecisions.

Ecologies
Thisorganizationhasintensecompetition.Badpartsoftheorganizationstarve.Goodonesgetmore
work.Everybodyispaidforwhattheyactuallydo,andrunsatinybusinessthathastoshowaprofit,or
theyarefired.
Companieswhoutilizethisorganizationtypereflectaratheronesidedviewofwhatgoesoninecology.
Itisalsothecasethatanaturalecosystemhasanaturalborderecoregionsdonotingeneralcompete
withoneanotherinanyway,butareveryautonomous.
ThepharmaceuticalcompanyGlaxoSmithKlinetalksaboutfunctioningasthistypeoforganizationin
thisexternalarticle(http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,3604,1294443,00.html)fromThe
Guardian.By:BastianBatacDeLeon

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Matrixorganization
Thisorganizationaltypeassignseachworkertwobossesintwodifferenthierarchies.Onehierarchyis
"functional"andassuresthateachtypeofexpertintheorganizationiswelltrained,andmeasuredbya
bosswhoissuperexpertinthesamefield.Theotherdirectionis"executive"andtriestogetprojects
completedusingtheexperts.Projectsmightbeorganizedbyproducts,regions,customertypes,orsome
otherschema.
Asanexample,acompanymighthaveanindividualwithoverallresponsibilityforproductsXandY,
andanotherindividualwithoverallresponsibilityforengineering,qualitycontrol,etc.Therefore,
subordinatesresponsibleforqualitycontrolofprojectXwillhavetworeportinglines.

Pyramidsorhierarchical
Ahierarchyexemplifiesanarrangementwithaleaderwholeadsotherindividualmembersofthe
organization.Thisarrangementisoftenassociatedwithbureaucracy.
Thesestructuresareformedonthebasisthatthereareenoughpeopleundertheleadertogivehim
support.Justasonewouldimaginearealpyramid,iftherearenotenoughstoneblockstoholdupthe
higherones,gravitywouldirrevocablybringdownthemonumentalstructure.Soonecanimaginethatif
theleaderdoesnothavethesupportofhissubordinates,theentirestructurewillcollapse.Hierarchies
weresatirizedinThePeterPrinciple(1969),abookthatintroducedhierarchiologyandthesayingthat
"inahierarchyeveryemployeetendstorisetohislevelofincompetence."

Theories
Inthesocialsciences,organizationsaretheobjectofanalysisforanumberofdisciplines,suchas
sociology,economics,[1]politicalscience,psychology,management,andorganizationalcommunication.
Thebroaderanalysisoforganizationsiscommonlyreferredtoasorganizationalstructure,organizational
studies,organizationalbehavior,ororganizationanalysis.Anumberofdifferentperspectivesexist,some
ofwhicharecompatible:
Fromafunctionalperspective,thefocusisonhowentitieslikebusinessesorstateauthoritiesare
used.
Fromaninstitutionalperspective,anorganizationisviewedasapurposefulstructurewithina
socialcontext.
Fromaprocessrelatedperspective,anorganizationisviewedasanentityisbeing(re)organized,
andthefocusisontheorganizationasasetoftasksoractions.
Sociologycanbedefinedasthescienceoftheinstitutionsofmodernityspecificinstitutionsservea
function,akintotheindividualorgansofacoherentbody.Inthesocialandpoliticalsciencesingeneral,
an"organization"maybemorelooselyunderstoodastheplanned,coordinatedandpurposefulactionof
humanbeingsworkingthroughcollectiveactiontoreachacommongoalorconstructatangibleproduct.
Thisactionisusuallyframedbyformalmembershipandform(institutionalrules).Sociology
distinguishesthetermorganizationintoplannedformalandunplannedinformal(i.e.spontaneously
formed)organizations.Sociologyanalyzesorganizationsinthefirstlinefromaninstitutional
perspective.Inthissense,organizationisanenduringarrangementofelements.Theseelementsandtheir
actionsaredeterminedbyrulessothatacertaintaskcanbefulfilledthroughasystemofcoordinated
divisionoflabor.

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Economicapproachestoorganizationsalsotakethedivisionoflaborasastartingpoint.Thedivisionof
laborallowsfor(economiesof)specialization.Increasingspecializationnecessitatescoordination.From
aneconomicpointofview,marketsandorganizationsarealternativecoordinationmechanismsforthe
executionoftransactions.[1]
Anorganizationisdefinedbytheelementsthatarepartofit(whobelongstotheorganizationandwho
doesnot?),itscommunication(whichelementscommunicateandhowdotheycommunicate?),its
autonomy(whichchangesareexecutedautonomouslybytheorganizationoritselements?),anditsrules
ofactioncomparedtooutsideevents(whatcausesanorganizationtoactasacollectiveactor?).
Bycoordinatedandplannedcooperationoftheelements,theorganizationisabletosolvetasksthatlie
beyondtheabilitiesofthesingleelements.Thepricepaidbytheelementsisthelimitationofthedegrees
offreedomoftheelements.Advantagesoforganizationsareenhancement(moreofthesame),addition
(combinationofdifferentfeatures)andextension.Disadvantagescanbeinertness(throughco
ordination)andlossofinteraction.
Amongthetheoriesthatareorhavebeeninfluentialare:
Activitytheoryisthemajortheoreticalinfluence,acknowledgedbydeClodomirSantosdeMorais
inthedevelopmentofOrganizationWorkshopmethod.
Actornetworktheory,anapproachtosocialtheoryandresearch,originatinginthefieldof
sciencestudies,whichtreatsobjectsaspartofsocialnetworks
Complexitytheoryandorganizations,theuseofcomplexitytheoryinthefieldofstrategic
managementandorganizationalstudies
Contingencytheory,aclassofbehavioraltheorythatclaimsthatthereisnobestwaytoorganizea
corporation,toleadacompany,ortomakedecisions
Criticalmanagementstudies,aloosebutextensivegroupingoftheoreticallyinformedcritiquesof
management,business,andorganization,groundedoriginallyinacriticaltheoryperspective
Economicsociology,studiesboththesocialeffectsandthesocialcausesofvariouseconomic
phenomena
Enterprisearchitecture,theconceptualmodelthatdefinesthecoalescenceoforganizational
structureandorganizationalbehavior
GarbageCanModel,describesamodelwhichdisconnectsproblems,solutionsanddecision
makersfromeachother
Principalagentproblem,concernsthedifficultiesinmotivatingoneparty(the"agent"),toactin
thebestinterestsofanother(the"principal")ratherthaninhisorherowninterests
Scientificmanagement(mainlyfollowingFrederickW.Taylor),atheoryofmanagementthat
analyzesandsynthesizesworkflows
Socialentrepreneurship,theprocessofpursuinginnovativesolutionstosocialproblems
Transactioncosttheory,theideathatpeoplebegintoorganizetheirproductioninfirmswhenthe
transactioncostofcoordinatingproductionthroughthemarketexchange,givenimperfect
information,isgreaterthanwithinthefirm
Weber'sIdealofBureaucracy(refertoMaxWeber'schapteron"Bureaucracy"inhisbook
EconomyandSociety)

Leadership
Aleaderinaformal,hierarchicalorganization,whoisappointedtoamanagerialposition,hastheright
tocommandandenforceobediencebyvirtueoftheauthorityofhisposition.However,hemustpossess
adequatepersonalattributestomatchhisauthority,becauseauthorityisonlypotentiallyavailableto
him.Intheabsenceofsufficientpersonalcompetence,amanagermaybeconfrontedbyanemergent
leaderwhocanchallengehisroleintheorganizationandreduceittothatofafigurehead.However,only
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authorityofpositionhasthebackingofformalsanctions.Itfollowsthatwhoeverwieldspersonal
influenceandpowercanlegitimizethisonlybygainingaformalpositioninthehierarchy,with
commensurateauthority.[2]

Formalorganizations
Anorganizationthatisestablishedasameansforachievingdefinedobjectiveshasbeenreferredtoasa
formalorganization.Itsdesignspecifieshowgoalsaresubdividedandreflectedinsubdivisionsofthe
organization.Divisions,departments,sections,positions,jobs,andtasksmakeupthisworkstructure.
Thus,theformalorganizationisexpectedtobehaveimpersonallyinregardtorelationshipswithclients
orwithitsmembers.AccordingtoWeber'sdefinition,entryandsubsequentadvancementisbymeritor
seniority.Eachemployeereceivesasalaryandenjoysadegreeoftenurethatsafeguardshimfromthe
arbitraryinfluenceofsuperiorsorofpowerfulclients.Thehigherhispositioninthehierarchy,the
greaterhispresumedexpertiseinadjudicatingproblemsthatmayariseinthecourseoftheworkcarried
outatlowerlevelsoftheorganization.Itisthisbureaucraticstructurethatformsthebasisforthe
appointmentofheadsorchiefsofadministrativesubdivisionsintheorganizationandendowsthemwith
theauthorityattachedtotheirposition.[3]

Informalorganizations
Incontrasttotheappointedheadorchiefofanadministrativeunit,aleaderemergeswithinthecontext
oftheinformalorganizationthatunderliestheformalstructure.Theinformalorganizationexpresses
thepersonalobjectivesandgoalsoftheindividualmembership.Theirobjectivesandgoalsmayormay
notcoincidewiththoseoftheformalorganization.Theinformalorganizationrepresentsanextensionof
thesocialstructuresthatgenerallycharacterizehumanlifethespontaneousemergenceofgroupsand
organizationsasendsinthemselves.[3]
Inprehistorictimes,manwaspreoccupiedwithhispersonalsecurity,maintenance,protection,and
survival.Nowmanspendsamajorportionofhiswakinghoursworkingfororganizations.Hisneedto
identifywithacommunitythatprovidessecurity,protection,maintenance,andafeelingofbelonging
continuesunchangedfromprehistorictimes.Thisneedismetbytheinformalorganizationandits
emergent,orunofficial,leaders.[2]
Leadersemergefromwithinthestructureoftheinformalorganization.Theirpersonalqualities,the
demandsofthesituation,oracombinationoftheseandotherfactorsattractfollowerswhoaccepttheir
leadershipwithinoneorseveraloverlaystructures.Insteadoftheauthorityofpositionheldbyan
appointedheadorchief,theemergentleaderwieldsinfluenceorpower.Influenceistheabilityofa
persontogaincooperationfromothersbymeansofpersuasionorcontroloverrewards.Powerisa
strongerformofinfluencebecauseitreflectsaperson'sabilitytoenforceactionthroughthecontrolofa
meansofpunishment.[2]

Seealso
Affinitygroup
Businessorganization
Coalition
Collective
Listofdesignatedterroristorganizations
Listofenvironmentalorganizations
Listofgeneralfraternities
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Listofinternationalprofessionalassociations
Listoftradeunions
MaturityModel
Multidimensionalorganization
Mutualorganization
Organizationalpsychology
OrganizationWorkshop
Pacifistorganization
Requisiteorganization
Serviceclub
Sizeofgroups,organizations,andcommunities
Umbrellaorganization
Voluntaryassociation

References
1.Douma,SytseSchreuder,Hein(2013)[1991].EconomicApproachestoOrganizations(5thed.).Harlow:
PearsonEducationLimited.ISBN9780273735298.
2.Knowles,HenryP.Saxberg,BorjeO.(1971).PersonalityandLeadershipBehavior.Reading,Mass:
AddisonWesleyPub.Co.pp.88489.OCLC118832.
3.Gibb,CecilA.(1970).Leadership:SelectedReadings.Harmondsworth:PenguinBooks.ISBN0140805176.
OCLC174777513.

General
Coase,Ronald(1937)."TheNatureoftheFirm"Economica,4(16),pp.386405.
Handy,Charles(1990).InsideOrganizations:21IdeasforManagers.London:BBCBooks.
ISBN9780563208303.
Handy,Charles(2006).UnderstandingOrganizations(4thed.).London:PenguinBooks.
ISBN9780140156034.
Hewlett,Roderic.(2006).TheCognitiveleader.Rowman&LittlefieldPubInc.
Johnson,RichardArvid(1976).Management,systems,andsociety:anintroduction.Pacific
Palisades,Calif.:GoodyearPub.Co.ISBN0876205406.OCLC2299496.
Katz,DanielKahn,RobertLouis(1966).Thesocialpsychologyoforganizations.NewYork:
Wiley.OCLC255184.
March,JamesG.Simon,HerbertA.(1958).Organizations.NewYork:Wiley.ISBN0471
567930.OCLC1329335.
Marshak,Thomas(1987)."organizationtheory,"TheNewPalgrave:ADictionaryofEconomics,
v.3,pp.75760.
Mintzberg,Henry(1981)."OrganizationDesign:FashionorFit"HarvardBusinessReview
(JanuaryFebruary)
Morgenstern,Julie(1998).OrganizingfromtheInsideOut.OwlBooksISBN0805056491
Peter,LaurenceJ.andRaymondHull.ThePeterPrinciplePanBooks1970ISBN0330025198
Rogers,CarlR.Roethlisberger,FritzJules(1990).Barriersandgatewaystocommunication.
Boston,Mass.:HarvardBusinessReview.OCLC154085959.
Samson,D.,Daft,R.(2005).Management:secondPacificRimedition.Melbourne,Victoria:
Thomson
Satir,Virginia(1967).Conjointfamilytherapyaguidetotheoryandtechnique.PaloAlto,Calif:
ScienceandBehaviorBooks.OCLC187068.
Scott,WilliamRichard(2008).InstitutionsandOrganizations(3rded.).London:Sage
PublicationsLtd.ISBN9781412950909.

Externallinks
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ResearchonOrganizations:BibliographyDatabaseand
Maps(http://ot.cavarretta.com)
TheTransitioner.org(http://www.thetransitioner.org):asite
dedicatedtocollectiveintelligenceandstructureof
organizations
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Organization&oldid=709643694"

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