Civil engineering

of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Chapter one
1. Mechanical properties of materials
1.1 Introduction
The effect of externally applied forces can be measured in terms of the internal reacting forces in a solid body of the
members of a frame work, as described in Engineering Mechanics I.
However, at that stage no mention was made of the cross-sectional size and shape of the members. This aspect had
no effect on the forces in the members, but conversely one should be able to describe quantitatively the way in
which two members of different cross-sectional size would react to a particular value of force. This is done through
the concept of stress and strain.
1.2Normal Stress and Strain
Normal Stress
Consider a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces P at the ends, as shown in Fig 1.1(a) below. Note that a
prismatic bar is a straight structural member having constant cross-section throughout its length.

Consider two side views of the bar in Fig. 1.1b, one

showing the bar before the loads are applied and the
Fig. 1.1c, showing the elongated bar after the loads
are applied. The internal stresses produced in the bar
by the axial forces are exposed if we make an
imaginary cut at section m-n in Fig 1.1c. Because this
section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the bar, it is called a cross-section

Fig.1.1 Prismatic bar in tension.

.The part of the bar to the left of the cut can be isolated and treated as free body diagram, Fig 1.1 d. The tensile load
P acts at the left hand end of this free body; at the other end are forces representing the action of the removed part of
the bar upon the part that remains. These forces are continuously distributed over the cross-section. The intensity of
force (that is, the force per unit area) is called the stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter (Sigma).
Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section as shown in Fig 1.1c, it can be seen that its
resultant is equal to the intensity times the cross-sectional area A of the bar. Further more, from the equilibrium of
the body shown in Fig. 1.1d; it is also evident that the resultant must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the applied load P. From these observations the following relation can be obtained.

P
A

When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the resulting stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are reversed in
direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as much as the stress acts in a
direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a normal stress.
Note that it is customary to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.
In SI units stress has units of Newtons per square meter (N/m2), or Pascals (Pa).

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Normal Strain
As shown in the Fig 1.2 above, an axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming larger when in tension
and shorter when in compression. The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter (delta). This elongation is
the cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the material throughout the length L of the bar. The
deformation of different bodies subjected to a particular load is a function of size, and therefore comparisons are
made by expressing deformation as a non-dimensional quantity given by the change in dimension per unit of
original dimension. The non dimensional expression of deformation is termed strain.
For the prismatic bar in Fig 1.2 the strain is given by:

Compressive strains are negative and tensile strains are positive.

1.3 Stress-Strain Relations
The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small specimens of
the material. To understand the relation between stress and strain a structural steel specimen is installed between the
two large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded in tension.
The normal stress in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load P by the cross-sectional area A.
The average axial strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation between the gage marks by dividing
by the gage length L.
Compression tests of metals are customarily made on small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular cylinders.
Both the load applied by the machine and the shortening of the specimen may be measured.
After performing a tension or compression test and determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of the
load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a stress-strain diagram is characteristic of the material and
conveys important information about the mechanical properties and type of behavior.
Consider a structural steel, also known as mild steel or low - carbon steel. A stress - strain diagram for a typical
structural steel in tension is shown below.
Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stress on the vertical axis. The diagram begins with a straight line from
the origin 0 to point A, which means that the stress and strain are proportional. Beyond point A, the proportionality
between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Fig 1.2 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel.

1.3.1Hookes Law and Basic Elastic Theory

The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus E. Because strain is
non dimensional, this slope has the same units as stress. i.e.
E This relation is known as Hookes law.
With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly for each
increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes
horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with no noticeable increase in the tensile force
(from B to C in Fig 1.2).This phenomenon is known as yielding of the material, and point B is called the yield point.
The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the material becomes
perfectly plastic, which means that it can deform without an increase in the applied load.
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain harden.
During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure, resulting in increased
resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now requires an increase in the tensile load,
and the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and
the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is actually
accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point such as E in Fig. 1-2.Lateral
contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in a decrease in the cross-sectional area. The
reduction in area is too small to have a noticeable effect on the calculated value of stress up to about point C, but
beyond that point the reduction begins to alter the shape of the diagram
In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a pronounced
necking of the bar occurs.
1.3.2 Poissons Ratio and Volumetric Strain
1. Poissons Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction (normal to the
direction of the applied load), the final shape being dotted in Fig. 1.3 below.
It is found that for an elastic material the lateral strain
is proportional to the longitudinal strain, and is of the
opposite type.
The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the
strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson's
ratio and is denoted by the Greek letter (nu); thus

Lateral strain
Axial strain

Fig 1.3 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension.

The value of fluctuates for different materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, it is on the order of 0.25 to
0.35. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5 (rubber) occur. The latter value is
the largest possible.
2.Volumetric Strain
Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is applied, the volume of the
bar changes too. The change in volume can be calculated from the axial and lateral strains. Consider a small
rectangular parallelepiped element of isotropic material cut from a bar in tension. The element has side lengths a, b,

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. The dashed line in the fig below shows the shape of the element after
the load is applied.

Fig. 1.4 Change of shape of an element taken from a bar in tension.

The elongation of the element in the direction of loading is a, where is the axial strain. Because the lateral strains
are - the lateral dimensions decrease by b and c in the y and z directions respectively. Thus, the final
dimensions of the element are a (1 + ), b (1 - ), and c (1 - ), and the final volume is

V f abc 1 1 1
Expanding this expression will give:Vf = abc [1 +- 2 - 2 2 + v22 + 23]
As is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are negligible in comparison to itself. Therefore, the final
volume of the element is.
Vf = abc (1+ - 2 )
The change in volume is, V = Vf - Vo
= abc (1 +- 2 ) - abc
= abc (1 - 2)
Where the original volume, Vo = abc
e
The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain,

But

Change in volume
Orginal volume

abc (1 2 )
( 1 2 )
abc

( 1 2 )
E

1.4 Shear Stress and Strain

Shear Stress
Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 1.6. This joint consists of a clevis A, a bracket B, and a pin C. As the
force P is applied, the bracket and the clevis press against the rivet in bearing, and a nonuniform pressure develops
against the pin (Fig. 1.6b). The average value of this pressure is determined by the projected area of the pin into the
bracket (or clevis). This is called the bearing stress. The bearing stress in the bracket then equals b=P/ (t1d). Here t1

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

is the thickness of the bracket and d is the diameter of the pin. Similarity, the bearing stress in the clevis is given by
b=P/ (2td).

Fig. 1.6 Bolted Connection in which the bolt is loaded in double shear
The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections b-b and c-c of the pin.
This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel to the surface (eg. V in Fig.1.6c) is
called shear stress. Shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In this example since we have two planes resisting shear
the pin is said to be in double shear.
Since the pin as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each cut section, a shear force V
equivalent to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.6c, must be developed. Thus the shear occurs over an area parallel to the
applied load. This condition is termed direct shear.
Unlike normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses across a section cannot be taken as uniform. By dividing
the total shear force V by the cross sectional area A over which it acts, we can determine the average shear stress in
the section:

avg

V
A

The figure below shows a rivet connection in which the rivet is under single shear.

Fig.1.7 Rivet in single shear

The loading arrangements shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7 above is an example of direct shear, or simple shear, in which
the forces are created by a direct action of the forces in trying to cut through the material. Shear stresses also arise in
an indirect manner when member are subjected to tension, torsion, and bending.
Consider a small element of a material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having sides a, b, and c in the x, y,
and z directions, respectively (Fig. 1.8).

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Fig. 1.8 Shear stress and strain

As is shown on the above figure the front and rear faces are assumed to be free of any stresses. Suppose a shear
stress is is distributed uniformly over the top face of the element. For the element to be in equilibrium in the x
direction, equal but oppositely directed shear stresses must act on the bottom face.
Therefore the shear force: On the top face, Vtop = ac
Similarly, on the bottom face,
Vbottom = - ac
These two forces form a couple having a moment about the z axis of magnitude abc , clockwise in the figure.
Equilibrium of the element requires that this moment be balanced by an equal and opposite moment resulting from
shear stresses acting on the side faces of the element.
Denoting the stresses on the side faces as 1:
The vertical shear forces are,
V
The counterclockwise couple becomes, V*a = 1 abc
From moment equilibrium
Clock wise couple = Counter clock wise couple
ac = 1 ac

Hence the magnitudes of the shear stresses on the four faces of the element are equal.
Conclusions: 1. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and direction such that both
stresses point toward or both away from, the line of intersection of the faces.
In Fig. 1.8, since only shear stresses are acting on the faces of the element, it is said to be in pure shear.
The above conclusions concerning the shear stresses are valid even when normal stresses also act on the faces of the
element.
Shear Strain
Due to the shear stresses the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear stresses produce a
change in the shape of the element, as shown in Fig. 1.8(b). The angles between the faces at points q and s, which
were /2 before deformation, are reduced by a small angle to /2- (Fig. 1.8b). At the same time, the angles at p
and r are increased to /2+. The angle is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is
called the shear strain. The unit of shear strain is radian. For the given coordinate system the shearing strain is
positive if the right angle between the reference lines decreases as shown in the figure 1.8b; otherwise, the shearing
strain is negative.
The properties of material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or torsion tests. From
the results of these tests, stress strain diagrams in shear may be plotted. These diagrams of versus are similar in
shape to the tension test diagrams ( versus ). From the shear diagrams, we can obtain shear properties such as the

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

proportional limit, the yield stress, and the ultimate stress. These properties in shear are usually about half as large as
those in tension.
For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress strain diagram is a straight line, just as in tension. For this
linearly elastic region the shear stress and strain are directly proportional, and we have the following equation for
Hookes law shear.
G
The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus of elasticity, of the material and is expressed in
the same SI units as E- that is Pascals (Pa) (N/m2).
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear (E and G) are related by the following equation:

E
in which is Poissons ratio.
2 1

1.5 Allowable stresses and factor of Safety

In reality the exact type of load acting on a structure, the dimensions of the member, the character of the material
making up the member, etc ... can not be exactly determined. Due to the above reasons we can't exactly determine
the load resisting capacity of the member and the exact load acting on it. To account for these uncertainties the
maximum permissible stress, or working stress which the body can with stand, and the working load are determined
from a consideration of the above factors, and the factor of safety is normally defined as;
Factor of safety with respect to ultimate stress, n

u
Ultimatestress

Workingstr ess allow

y
Yieldstres s

Workingstr ess allow

Factor of safety with respect to yield stress,

Factor of safety with respect to ultimate load,

Ultimateload
Workingloa d

The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect to the yield stress.
Allowable Stresses
Factors of safety are defined and implemented in various ways. Formany structures, it is important that the material
remain within thelinearly elastic range in order to avoid permanent deformations when the loads are removed. Under
these conditions, the factor of safety isestablished with respect to yielding of the structure. Yielding begins
when the yield stress is reached at any point within the structure. Therefore,by applying a factor of safety with
respect to the yield stress (or yield strength), we obtain an allowable stress (or working stress) that must not be
exceeded anywhere in the structure. Thus,
or, for tension and shear, respectively,

in which Y and tY are the yield stresses and n1 and n2 are the
corresponding factors of safety.
1.6 Axially loaded members
This topic deals mainly about axially loaded members. (i.e. members supporting only longitudinal loads so the
members are in tension or compression). So in designing or analyzing structures it is often necessary to find the
maximum stress and also the displacement.
Analysis: is calculating the stress, stain, displacement and load carrying capacity of a structure when it is subjected
to loads, given that the dimension and the material in which the structure is composed is known.
Design: is a more difficult task. In this case we calculate the geometric configuration and other characteristics of a
structure to support certain given load.

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Optimization: is to design a structure to support a given load with another aim. These aims can be to have
minimum weight, minimum cost and the like.

1.7 Change in length of axially loaded members

For the bar shown below, we can express the elongation as
= L

If the material is linearly elastic and obey hooks law

= E,
= /E, where =P/A
So = /E=P/EA
= L= PL/EA
Where P-the load applied to the material
L- The length of the material
A-the cross sectional area
E-the youngs modulus of the material
stress
- strain
elongation
If a material is subjected to several loads as shown in the figure below, the equation for the elongation would be
, in this equation Pi is not the load but is the axial load in the ith part.

And Li,Ei and Ai represents the length, the youngs modulus and the area of the ith part respectively. If the axial
load or the cross sectional area varies continuously along the axis of the bar as shown in the figure below, then the
above equation will not be suitable. Instead considering the expression for the elongation of a differential part and
integrating it over the length of the bar will be needed.

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

d=
= d

, assuming the stress distribution is uniform throughout the cross section of

the bar.The product EA in the above equations is known as axial rigidity.There are terms as stiffness and flexibility
of a bar. Stiffness k of a bar the force required to produce a unit elongation (k=P/) whereas flexibility f of a bar is
the elongation produced by a unit load (f=/P). Thus f=1/k and k=1/f.
Substituting these in the above equations
k=P/=

and f=

1.8 Statically indeterminate structures

There are two approaches to determine the stress and strain in statically indeterminate structures, the flexibility
method and the stiffness method.
Flexibility method: let us consider analysis of the statically indeterminate bar shown below.

As a result of the applied load P there will be two reactions RA and RB. The static equilibrium equations will not be
enough to determine their magnitude because we can only use one eq. equation and there are two reaction forces.
F=0,
P=RA+RB
(1)
But we can get the second equation from deformation condition. We know the length of the whole bar does not
change since it is fixed at both ends. To begin the analysis we designate one of the unknown reactions as the
redundant force. The figure will be like this,

Now we can determine the deformation of bar BC.

1=

, -ve since compression

And after this we consider the redundant force as it is applied on the released structure.

We also can determine the deformation caused by RA. That is equal to

2=
For the structure to have no deformation 2+ 1=0. This condition is called the compatibility condition.
So the second equation comes,

= 0.

(2)

Stiffness method: let us consider the same bar to elaborate this method too. In this case let us split the bar in to two
parts, AC and AB to get the second equation.

And from the force configuration we can tell that member AC is tensioned and member AB is compressed. For the
structure to have no deformation the elongation of the right part and the shortening of the left part should be equal.
9

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

Elongation of the left part (l) =

Shortening of the right part (R) =
l = R ,

(2)

AXIAL DEFORMATION
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and is given by

To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional area, and the stress must not
exceed the proportional limit. If however, the cross sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be
determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.
1.9 Thermal effect

Changes in temperature produce expansion or contraction of structuralmaterials, resulting in thermal strains

and thermal stresses. A simple illustration of thermal expansion is shown in Fig. below, where the block of
material is unrestrained and therefore free to expand. When the block is heated, every element of the material
undergoes thermal strains in all directions, and consequently the dimensions of the block increase. If we
take corner A as a fixed reference point and let side AB maintain its original alignment, the block will have the
shape shown by the dashed lines.For most structural materials, thermal strain T is proportional to the
temperature change T; that is,( A change in the temperature ) of an object tends to produce a change in its
dimensions. Due to this change in dimensions, the material undergoes a uniform thermal strain T given by the
expression.

Fig 1.9 Block of material subjected to an increase in temperature

In the above expression is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion and T is the increase or decrease in
temperature.
This implies a rod of length L with temperature change T will have a change in length of
10

Wu CET Ceng

By adamu .m

Civil engineering
of materials lecture note

strength

2016

t = L. T
Generally, increasing temperature causes expansion and thus a positive strain, while decreasing temperature results
in contraction & negative strain. An important feature about this behavior is that if there is no restraint on the
material there can be strain unaccompanied by stress. However, if there is any restriction on free change in size then
a thermal stress will result.
The total strain, in a body experiencing thermal stress may be divided in to two components, the strain associated
with the stress, , and the strain resulting from temperature change, t. Thus,
= + ET
Hence

11

Wu CET Ceng

T
E

By adamu .m