Organic Rankine cycle

The Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) is named for its use of an organic, high molecular mass
fluid with a liquid-vapor phase change, or boiling point, occurring at a lower temperature
than the water-steam phase change. The fluid allows Rankine cycle heat recovery from lower
temperature sources such as biomass combustion, industrial waste heat, geothermal heat,
solar ponds etc. The low-temperature heat is converted into useful work, that can itself be
converted into electricity. A prototype was first developed and exhibited in 1961 by solar
engineers Harry Zvi Tabor and Lucien Bronicki.

Working principle of the ORC

T-s diagram for the ideal/real ORC

The working principle of the organic Rankine cycle is the same as that of the Rankine cycle:
the working fluid is pumped to a boiler where it is evaporated, passed through an expansion
device (turbine or other expander), and then through a condenser heat exchanger where it is
finally re-condensed.
In the ideal cycle described by the engine's theoretical model, the expansion is isentropic and
the evaporation and condensation processes are isobaric.

In any real cycle, the presence of irreversibilities lowers the cycle efficiency. Those
irreversibilities mainly occur.

During the expansion: Only a part of the energy recoverable from the pressure
difference is transformed into useful work. The other part is converted into heat and is
lost. The efficiency of the expander is defined by comparison with an isentropic
expansion.

In the heat exchangers: The working fluid takes a long and sinuous path which
ensures good heat exchange but causes pressure drops that lower the amount of power
recoverable from the cycle. Likewise, the temperature difference between the heat
source/sink and the working fluid generates exergy destruction and reduces the cycle
performance.

Improvement of the organic Rankine cycle

ORC with Regenerator

In the case of a "dry fluid", the cycle can be improved by the use of a regenerator : since the
fluid has not reached the two-phase state at the end of the expansion, its temperature at this
point is higher than the condensing temperature. This higher temperature fluid can be used to
preheat the liquid before it enters the evaporator.
A counter-current heat exchanger is thus installed between the expander outlet and the
evaporator inlet. The power required from the heat source is therefore reduced and the
efficiency is increased.

Applications for the ORC

75-kilowatt ORC turbogenerator originally used at an experimental power plant in Kuopio, Finland.

The organic Rankine cycle technology has many possible applications, and counts more than
250 identified power plants worldwide. Among them, the most widespread and promising
fields are the following :

Waste heat recovery

Waste heat recovery is one of the most important development fields for the organic Rankine
cycle (ORC). It can be applied to heat and power plants (for example a small scale
cogeneration plant on a domestic water heater), or to industrial and farming processes such as
organic products fermentation, hot exhausts from ovens or furnaces (e.g. lime and cement
kilns), flue-gas condensation, exhaust gases from vehicles, intercooling of a compressor,
condenser of a power cycle, etc.

Biomass power plant

Biomass is available all over the world and can be used for the production of electricity on
small to medium size scaled power plants. The problem of high specific investment costs for
machinery such as steam boilers are overcome due to the low working pressures in ORC

power plants. Another advantage is the long operational life of the machine due to the
characteristics of the working fluid, that unlike steam is non eroding and non corroding for
valve seats tubing and turbine blades. The ORC process also helps to overcome the relatively
small amount of input fuel available in many regions because an efficient ORC power plant is
possible for smaller sized plants.

Geothermal plants
Geothermic heat sources vary in temperature from 50 to 350 C. The ORC is therefore
perfectly adapted for this kind of application. However, it is important to keep in mind that
for low-temperature geothermal sources (typically less than 100 C), the efficiency is very
low and depends strongly on heat sink temperature (defined by the ambient temperature).

Solar thermal power

The organic Rankine cycle can be used in the solar parabolic trough technology in place of
the usual steam Rankine cycle. The ORC allows power generation at lower capacities and
with a lower collector temperature, and hence the possibility for low-cost, small scale
decentralized CSP units.[4]

Choice of the working fluid

The selection of the working fluid is of key importance in low temperature Rankine Cycles.
Because of the low temperature, heat transfer inefficiencies are highly prejudicial. These
inefficiencies depend very strongly on the thermodynamic characteristics of the fluid and on
the operating conditions.
In order to recover low-grade heat, the fluid generally has a lower boiling temperature than
water. Refrigerants and hydrocarbons are two commonly used components.
Optimal characteristics of the working fluid :

Isentropic saturation vapor curve :

Since the purpose of the ORC focuses on the recovery of low grade heat power, a superheated
approach like the traditional Rankine cycle is not appropriate. Therefore, a small superheating

at the exhaust of the evaporator will always be preferred, which disadvantages "wet" fluids
(that are in two-phase state at the end of the expansion). In the case of dry fluids, a
regenerator should be used.

Low freezing point, high stability temperature :

Unlike water, organic fluids usually suffer chemical deteriorations and decomposition at high
temperatures. The maximum hot source temperature is thus limited by the chemical stability
of the working fluid. The freezing point should be lower than the lowest temperature in the
cycle.

High heat of vaporisation and density :

A fluid with a high latent heat and density will absorb more energy from the source in the
evaporator and thus reduce the required flow rate, the size of the facility, and the pump
consumption.

Low environmental impact

The main parameters taken into account are the Ozone depletion potential (ODP) and the
global warming potential (GWP).

Safety

The fluid should be non-corrosive, non-flammable, and non-toxic. The ASHRAE safety
classification of refrigerants can be used as an indicator of the fluid dangerousness level.

Good availability and low cost

Acceptable pressures

Examples of working fluids

CFCs: Banned by Montreal Protocol due to ozone depletion (e.g. R-11 R-12)

HCFCs: Phasing out due to Copenhagen Amendment to Montreal Protocol (e.g. R-22
R-123)

HFCs (e.g. R134a R245fa)

HCs: Flammable, common by-products of gas processing facilities (e.g. isobutane,

pentane, propane)

PFCs

Modeling ORC systems

Simulating ORC cycles requires a numerical solver in which the equations of mass and
energy balance, heat transfer, pressure drops, mechanical losses, leakages, etc. are
implemented. ORC models can be subdivided into two main types: steady-state and dynamic.
Steady-state models are required both for design (or sizing) purpose, and for part-load
simulation. Dynamic models, on the other hand, also account for energy and mass
accumulation in the different components. They are particularly useful to implement and
simulate control strategies, e.g. during transients or during start & stop.
Another key aspects of ORC modeling is the computation of the organic fluid
thermodynamic properties. Simple equation of states (EOS) such as PengRobinson should
be avoided since their accuracy is low. Multiparameter EOS should be preferred, using e.g.
state-of-the-art thermophysical and transport properties databases.
Various tools are available for the above purposes, each presenting advantages and
drawbacks. The most common ones are reported hereunder.