Guiding Principles/Theories and Teaching Approaches and Methods

in the Teaching of Math

Educational Theories n which Math Teaching is Grounded
Framework of Learning Theories
o Experiential
learning
- is
the
process
of learning through experience, and is more specifically defined as
"learning through reflection on doing".
o Constructivism - is a theory of knowledge[1] that argues that
humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction
between their experiences and their ideas.
o Cooperative learning - aims to organize classroom activities into
academic and social learning experiences.
o Discovery is a theory that takes place in problem solving
situations where the learner draws on his or her own past
experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and
relationships and new truths to be learned.
o Inquiry-based learning - Instead of just presenting the facts, use
questions, problems, and scenarios, help students learn through
their own agency and investigation.
The Spiral Progression in the Teaching of Math
- Basic principles are introduced in the first
grade and are rediscovered in succeeding
grades in more complex forms
- Students continually return to basic ideas as
new subjects and concepts are added over the
course of a curriculum

Grades
7-10
Grades
4-6
Grades
1-3
K
Algebra,
Geometry,
Statistics
And
Probability

Principles of Teaching Math

1. Balance Principle
Balance Approach
a) Standard-based - i.e., concise, written descriptions of what
students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific
stage of their educationdetermine the goals of a lesson or
course, and teachers then determine how and what to teach
students so they achieve the learning expectations described in
the standards.
b) Integrated - The goal is to help students remain engaged and
draw from multiple sets of skills, experiences and sources to aid
and accelerate the learning process.

c) Engaging

(meaning
charming, interesting, pleasing, appealing, attractive, lovely, fasc
inating, entertaining, winning,pleasant
d) Open to practices differentiated instruction - Differentiating
instruction may mean teaching the same material to all students
using a variety of instructional strategies, or it may require the
teacher to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty based on
the ability of each student.
e) Makes use of problem-solving - Problem-solving is a tool, a
skill, and a process. As a tool is helps you solve a problem or
achieve a goal. As a skill you can use it repeatedly throughout
your life. And, as a process it involves a number of steps.
f) Guided practice - Guided Practice is interactive instruction
between teacher and students. After the teacher introduces new
learning, he/she begins the student practice process by engaging
students in a similar task to what they will complete later in the
lesson independently. Students and teacher collaboratively
complete the task as a model. The teacher leads the activity but
solicits help from students at predetermined points along the
way.
g) Makes use of manipulative, games and calculators - are
physical tools of teaching, engaging students visually and
physically with objects such as coins, blocks, puzzles, markers
h) Assessment-driven and data driven instruction
assessment-data(determine students needs, A Practical Guide to
Improve
Instruction.)
data-driven
instruction
(includes
assessment, analysis, and action)
2. Three-tiered Principle
Theory Definition
Jerome Bruner theorized that learning occurs by going through three
stages of representation. Each stage is a "way in which information or
knowledge are stored and encoded in memory" (Mcleod, 2008). The
stages are more-or-less sequential, although they are not necessarily
age-related like Piaget-based theories. Going through the stages is
essential to truly understanding the concept, as it helps the learner
understand
why.
Bruner's Stages of Representation
1. enactive (action-based)
Sometimes called the concrete stage, this first stage involves a
tangible hands-on method of learning. Bruner believed that "learning
begins with an action - touching, feeling, and manipulating" (Brahier,
2009, p. 52). In mathematics education, manipulatives are the
concrete objects with which the actions are performed. Common

examples of manipulatives used in this stage in math education are

algebra tiles, paper, coins, etc. - anything tangible.
2. iconic (image-based)
Sometimes called the pictoral stage, this second stage involves images
or other visuals to represent the concrete situation enacted in the first
stage. One way of doing this is to simply draw images of the objects on
paper or to picture them in one's head. Other ways could be through
the
use
of
shapes,
diagrams,
and
graphs.
video: iconic
representation. Retreived
fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gIW0mjMo9IE
3. symbolic (language-based)Sometimes called the abstract stage,
the last stage takes the images from the second stage and represents
them using words and symbols. The use of words and symbols "allows
a student to organize information in the mind by relating concepts
together" (Brahier, 2009, p. 53). The words and symbols are
abstractions, they do not necessarily have a direct connection to the
information. For example, a number is a symbol used to describe how
many of something there are, but the number in itself has little
meaning without the understanding of it means for there to be that
number of something. Other examples would be variables such as x or
y, or mathematical symbols such as +, -, /, etc. Finally, language and
words are another way to abstractly represent the idea. In the context
of math, this could be the use of words such as addition, infinite, the
number three, etc
3. For effective Math teaching it employ
Experiential learning
Constructivism
Cooperative learning
Discovery
Inquiry-based learning
Teaching Methods
1. Problem-Solving - consists of using generic or ad hoc methods, in an
orderly manner, for finding solutions to problems. If there is a problem,
there is a solution.
Steps of the problem solving process
a) Understanding the problem
b) Planning and communicating a solution
Other Techniques in Problem Solving
a) Obtain the answer by trial and error
b) Use an aid, model or sketch
c) Search for a pattern

d) Elimination
2. Concept attainment strategy - engages students in forming their
own definition of a concept by examining the attributes of several
examples and non-examples of the word, concept, or topic. (ex. Giving
a lot of examples and let them decide or think.)
Separating important from unimportant information
Searching for patterns and making generalization
Defining and explaining concepts
3. Concept formation strategy - is, a strategy that takes your
students through a process whereby they work to understand a
concept. Rather than you telling them, the students form their
understanding of a concept.

4. Direct instruction
Activities under Direct instruction

Activities
under
Concept
attainment
The teacher will define proper The teacher will give a set of
fraction
examples.
Ex. A fraction a/b is proper if
Ex. The following are proper
lal<lbl.
fractions:
1/5, 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 1/8, 2/8,
Then the teacher will give examples 3/8.
(and non-examples)
Examples of proper fractions are
Ex. The following are improper
2/3, 2/5, 7/8
fractions:
5/5, 6/5, 7/5, 8/5, 9/8, 10/8,
Examples of improper fractions 11/8.
3/3, 5/2, 8/7
Then the teacher asks the students
to complete the sentence:
A proper fraction _______________.
(Expected
answer:
A
proper
fraction is a fraction whose
absolute value of the numerator is
less the absolute value of the
denominator.)

Chapter 10; Lesson 2: Guiding Principles/Theories and Teaching

Approaches and Methods in the Teaching of Math Grades
The Spiral Progression in the Teaching of Math
- Basic principles are introduced in the first
grade and are rediscovered in succeeding
grades in more complex forms
- Students continually return to basic ideas as
new subjects and concepts are added over the
course of a curriculum

7-10
Grades
4-6
Grades
1-3
K
Algebra,
Geometry,
Statistics
And
Probability

Three-tiered Principle
Theory Definition
Jerome Bruner theorized that learning occurs
by going through three stages of representation. Each stage is a "way in
which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in memory"
(Mcleod, 2008). The stages are more-or-less sequential, although they are
not necessarily age-related like Piaget-based theories. Going through the
stages is essential to truly understanding the concept, as it helps the learner
understand why. Bruner's Stages of Representation
1.enactive (action-based)
Sometimes called the concrete stage, this first stage involves a tangible
hands-on method of learning. Bruner believed that "learning begins with an
action - touching, feeling, and manipulating" (Brahier, 2009, p. 52). In

mathematics education, manipulatives are the concrete objects with which

the actions are performed. Common examples of manipulatives used in this
stage in math education are algebra tiles, paper, coins, etc. - anything
tangible.
2. iconic (image-based)
Sometimes called the pictoral stage, this second stage involves images or
other visuals to represent the concrete situation enacted in the first stage.
One way of doing this is to simply draw images of the objects on paper or to
picture them in one's head. Other ways could be through the use of shapes,
diagrams, and graphs.
video: iconic representation. Retreived fromhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=gIW0mjMo9IE
3. symbolic (language-based)Sometimes called the abstract stage, the
last stage takes the images from the second stage and represents them
using words and symbols. The use of words and symbols "allows a student to
organize information in the mind by relating concepts together" (Brahier,
2009, p. 53). The words and symbols are abstractions, they do not
necessarily have a direct connection to the information. For example, a
number is a symbol used to describe how many of something there are, but
the number in itself has little meaning without the understanding of it means
for there to be that number of something. Other examples would be
variables such as x or y, or mathematical symbols such as +, -, /, etc. Finally,
language and words are another way to abstractly represent the idea. In the
context of math, this could be the use of words such as addition, infinite, the
number three, etc