CELL

Cells
2.1 Cell Theory
2.1.1 Outline the cell theory
The cell theory states that:
1. All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)
2. The cell is the smallest unit of life
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory

Microscopes:
Microscopes have increased man's ability to visualise tiny objects
All living things when viewed under a microscope have been found to be made of
cells and cell products (e.g. hair)
Note: Certain types of cells do not conform to the standard notion of what
constitutes a cell
Muscle cells contain multiple nuclei
Fungal hyphae consist of multiple cells that share a continuous cytoplasm
Light vs Electron Microscopes

Experimental Evidence:
Cells removed from tissues can survive independently for short periods of time
Nothing smaller than a cell has been found to be able to live independently
Experiments by Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur have demonstrated that cells
cannot grow in sealed and sterile conditions
History of the Cell Theory
2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life
Unicellular organisms (such as amoeba, paramecium, euglena and bacterium) are the
smallest organisms capable of independent life.
All living things share 7 basic characteristics:
M ovement: Living things show movement, either externally or internally

R eproduction: Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually

S ensitivity: Living things can respond to and interact with the environment
G rowth: Living things can grow or change size / shape
R espiration: Living things use substances from the environment to make
energy

E xcretion: Living things exhibit the removal of wastes

N utrition: Living things exchange materials and gases with the environment
2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using appropriate SI units
Relative sizes:
Unit Conversion Table:

A molecule = 1 nm
Cell membrane thickness = 7.5 nm
Virus = 100 nm (range: 20 - 200 nm)
Bacteria = 1 - 5 um
Organelles = <10 um
Eukaryotic cells = <100 um
Diagram of the Relative Sizes and Scale of Biological Materials
Cell Size and Scale (Learn Genetics)

2.1.5
Calculate

the
linear magnification of drawings
To calculate the linear magnification of a drawing the following equation should be used:

Magnification = Size of image (with ruler) Actual size of object (according to

scale bar)
To calculate the actual size of a magnified specimen the equation is simply re-arranged:
Actual size = Size of image (with ruler) Magnification
2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell
size
The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass / volume
The rate of material exchange in and out of a cell is a function of its surface area
As the cell grows, volume increases faster than surface area (leading to a
decreased SA:Vol ratio)
If the metabolic rate is greater than the rate of exchange of vital materials and
wastes, the cell will eventually die
Hence the cell must consequently divide in order to restore a viable SA:Vol ratio
and survive
Cells and tissues specialised for gas or material exchange (e.g. alveoli) will
increase their surface area to optimise the transfer of materials
Microvilli increase surface area allowing for a more efficient exchange of materials /
heat

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties

Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts: the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts
Multicellular organisms are capable of completing functions that individual cells could
not undertake - this is due to the interaction between cells producing new functions

In multicellular organisms:
Cells may group together to form tissues
Organs are then formed from the functional grouping of multiple tissues
Organs that interact may form organ systems capable of carrying out specific
body functions
Organ systems carry out the life functions required by an organism
Levels of Anatomical Organisation

2.1.8 Explain

that cells in
multicellular organisms
differentiate to carry out specialised functions by expressing
some of their genes and not others

All cells of an individual organisms share an identical genome - each cell

contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism
The activation of different instructions (genes) within a given cell by chemical
signals will cause it to differentiate from other cells like it
Differentiation is the process during development whereby newly formed cells
become more
specialised and distinct from one another as they mature
Active genes are usually packaged in an expanded and accessible form
(euchromatin), while inactive genes are mainly packaged in a condensed form
(heterochromatin)
Differentiated cells will have different regions of DNA packaged as
heterochromatin and euchromatin depending on their function

Differential Gene Expression Leading to Specialisation of Cell Structure and Function

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to
differentiate along different pathways
Stem cells are unspecialised cells that have two key qualities:
1. Self renewal: They can continuously divide and replicate
2. Potency: They have the capacity to differentiate into specialised cell types
Stem Cells

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells

Stem cells can be derived from embryos or the placenta / umbilical cord of the mother;
also minimal amounts can be harvested from some adult tissue
Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased cells with healthy, functioning
ones
This process requires:
The use of biochemical solutions to trigger differentiation into desired cell type
Surgical implantation of cells into patient's own tissue
Suppression of host immune system to prevent rejection of cells
Careful monitoring of new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous
Examples of therapeutic uses of stem cells:
1. Retinal cells: Replace dead cells in retina to cure diseases like glaucoma and
macular degeneration
2. Skin cells: Graft new skin cells to replace damaged cells in severe burn victims
3. Nerve cells: Repair damage caused by spinal injuries to enable paralysed victims
to regain movement

4. Blood cells: Bone marrow transplants for cancer patients who are immunocompromised as a result of chemotherapy

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an
example of a prokaryote
Representation
2D

3D

2.2.2
notate the

An
diagram with the function of each of the named structures
Cell Wall: A rigid outer layer made of peptidoglycan that maintains shape and protects
the cell from damage or bursting if internal pressure is high
Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances
Cytoplasm: Fluid component which contains the enzymes needed for all metabolic
reactions
Nucleoid: Region of the cytoplasm which contains the genophore (the prokaryotic
DNA)
Plasmid: Additional DNA molecule that can exist and replicate independently of the
genophore - it can be transmitted between bacterial species
Ribosome: Complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide
synthesis (prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotes - 70S)
Slime Capsule: A thick polysaccharide layer used for protection against dessication
(drying out) and phagocytosis
Flagella (singular flagellum): Long, slender projection containing a motor protein
which spins the flagella like a propellor, enabling movement
Pili (singular pilus): Hair-like extensions found on bacteria which can serve one of two
roles
Attachment pili: Shorter in length, they allow bacteria to adhere to one another
or to available surfaces
Sex pili: Longer in length, they allow for the exchange of genetic material
(plasmids) via a process called bacterial conjugation

2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli

Electron Micrograph of Escherichia coli

2.2.4 State that bacterial cells divide by binary fission

Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotic
organisms
It is not the same as mitosis, there is no condensation of genetic material and no
spindle formation
In the process of binary fission:
The circular DNA is copied in response to a replication signal
The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
The membrane elongates and pinches off (cytokinesis) forming two separate
cells

The Process of Binary Fission

2.3 Eukaryotic Cells

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an
animal cell
Representation 2D

2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure
Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that controls the entry and exit of substances
Cytosol: The fluid portion of the cytoplasm (does not include the organelles or other
insoluble materials)
Nucleus: Contains hereditary material (DNA) and thus controls cell activities (via
transcription) and mitosis (via DNA replication)
Nucleolus: Site of the production and assembly of ribosome components
Ribosome: Complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide
synthesis (eukaryotic ribosomes are larger than prokaryotes - 80S)
Mitochondria: Site of aerobic respiration, which produces large quantities of chemical
energy (ATP) from organic compounds
Golgi Apparatus: An assembly of vesicles and folded membranes involved in the
sorting, storing and modification of secretory products
Lysosome: Site of hydrolysis / digestion / breakdown of macromolecules
Peroxisome: Catalyses breakdwon of toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide and
other metabolites
Centrioles: Microtubule-organising centres involved in cell division (mitosis / meiosis
and cytokinesis)
Endoplasmic Reticulum: A system of membranes involved in the transport of
materials between organelles

Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes and involved in the synthesis and transport
of proteins destined for secretion
Smooth ER: Involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids and steroids, as
well as metabolism of carbohydrates
2.3.3 Identify the structures in 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of a liver cell
Electron Micrograph of a Liver Cell

2.3.4 Compare prokaryote and eukaryote cells

Similarities:
Both have a cell membrane
Both contain ribosomes
Both have DNA and cytoplasm

Differences:

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells

Labelled Diagram of a Generalised Plant Cell

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components

Plants
The cell wall in plants is made from cellulose secreted from the cell, which serves the
following functions:
Provides support and mechanical strength for the cell (maintains cell shape)
Prevents excessive water uptake by maintaining a stable, turgid state
Serves as a barrier against infection by pathogens
Animals
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is made from glycoproteins secreted from the cell, which
serve the following functions:
Provides support and anchorage for cells
Segregates tissues from one another
Regulates intercellular communication by sequestering growth factors

2.4 Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties of phospholipids help to
maintain the structure of cell membranes

Structure of Phospholipids
Consist of a polar head (hydrophilic) made from glycerol and phosphate
Consist of two non-polar fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)
Arrangement in Membrane
Phospholipids spontaneously arrange in a bilayer
Hydrophobic tail regions face inwards and are shielded from the surrounding
polar fluid while the two hydrophilic head regions associate with the cytosolic and
extracellular environments respectively
Structural Properties of Phospholipid Bilayer
Phospholipids are held together in a bilayer by hydrophobic interactions (weak
associations)
Hydrophilic / hydrophobic layers restrict entry and exit of substances
Phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity / flexibility (important for functionality)
Phospholipids with short or unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid
Phospholipids can move horizontally or occasionally laterally to increase fluidity
Fluidity allows for the breaking / remaking of membranes (exocytosis /
endocytosis)

2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins

T ransport: Protein channels (facilitated) and protein pumps (active)

R eceptors: Peptide-based hormones (insulin, glucagon, etc.)
A nchorage: Cytoskeleton attachments and extracellular matrix
C ell recognition: MHC proteins and antigens
I ntercellular joinings: Tight junctions and plasmodesmata
E nzymatic activity: Metabolic pathways (e.g. electron transport chain)
2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion:
The net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration (along the gradient) until equilibrium
Osmosis:
The net movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane from a
region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration until
equilibrium is reached
Osmosis

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes in terms of simple diffusion and
facilitated diffusion

The plasma membrane is semi-permeable and selective in what can cross

Substances that move along the concentration gradient (high to low) undergo
passive transport and do not require the expenditure of energy (ATP)
Simple diffusion:
Small, non-polar (lipophilic) molecules can freely diffuse across the membrane
Facilitated diffusion:
Larger, polar substances (ions, macromolecules) cannot freely diffuse and
require the assistance of transport proteins (carrier proteins and channel proteins) to
facilitate their movement (facilitated diffusion)
2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes
Active transport is the passage of materials against a concentration gradient
(from low to high)
This process requires the use of protein pumps which use the energy from ATP
to translocate the molecules against the gradient
The hydrolysis of ATP causes a conformational change in the protein pump
resulting in the forced movement of the substance
Protein pumps are specific for a given molecule, allowing for movement to be
regulated (e.g. to maintain chemical or electrical gradients)
An example of an active transport mechanism is the Na +/K+ pump which is
involved in the generation of nerve impulses

Types of Membrane Transport

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane

Polypeptides destined for secretion contain an initial target sequence (a signal

recognition peptide) which directs the ribosome to the endoplasmic reticulum
The polypeptide continues to be synthesised by the ribosome into the lumen of
the ER, where the signal sequence is removed from the nascent chain
The polypeptide within the rough ER is transferred to the golgi apparatus via a
vesicle, which forms from the budding of the membrane
The polypeptide moves via vesicles from the cis face of the golgi to the trans face
and may be modified along the way (e.g. glycosylated, truncated, etc.)
The polypeptide is finally transferred via a vesicle to the plasma membrane,
whereby it is either immediately released (constitutive secretion) or stored for a delayed

release in response to some cellular signal (regulatory secretion = for a more

concentrated and more sustained effect)

Overview of Vesicular Transport

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and
reform during endocytosis and exocytosis
The membrane is principally held together by the relatively weak hydrophobic
associations between phospholipids
This association allows for membrane fluidity and flexibility, as the phospholipids (and to
a lesser extent the proteins) can move about to some extent
This allows for the breaking and remaking of membranes, allowing larger substances
access into and out of the cell (this is an active process)

Endocytosis
The process by which large substances (or bulk amounts of smaller substances)
enter the cell without travelling across the plasma membrane
An invagination of the membrane forms a flask-like depression which envelopes
the material; the invagination is then sealed off forming a vesicle

There are two main types of endocytosis:

1. Phagocytosis
The process by which solid substances (e.g. food particles, foreign pathogens)
are ingested (usually to be transported to the lysosome for break down)

2. Pinocytosis
The process by which liquids / solutions (e.g. dissolved substances) are ingested
by the cell (allows quick entry for large amounts of substance)

Exocytosis
The process by which large substances exit the cell without travelling across the
plasma membrane
Vesicles (usually derived from the golgi) fuse with the plasma membrane
expelling their contents into the extracellular environment
The Process of Exocytosis

2.5 Cell Division

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G 1, S, G2), mitosis and
cytokinesis
The cell cycle is an ordered set of events that culminates in cell growth and
division into two daughter cells
It can roughly be divided into two main stages:
Interphase
The stage in the development of the cell between two successive M phases
This phase of the cell cycle is a continuum of 3 distinct stages (G 1, S, G2),
whereby the cell grows and matures (G1), copies its DNA (S) and prepares for division
(G2)
Sometimes cells will leave the cell cycle and enter into a quiescent state (G 0),
whereby it becomes amitotic and no longer divides
M phase
The periods of nuclear division (mitosis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis)
The Cell Cycle
M Phase

2.5.2 State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that
these can occur in any organ or tissue
The cell cycle is controlled by a complex chemical control system that responds
to signals both inside and outside of the cell
Tumor suppressor genes produce proteins which inhibit cell division, while protooncogenes produce proteins that promote growth and division
Mutations to these genes result in uncontrolled cell division, resulting in the
formation of a tumour
Tumours can grow in size which causes damage local tissue; they may also
spread to other parts of the body (malignant tumours)
Diseases caused by the growth of tumours are collectively known as cancers
Cancer in Tasmanian Devils

2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic
reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the
number of mitochondria and chloroplasts
Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell - many events need to occur before a
cell can successfully undergo division:
P rotein synthesis: The cell needs to synthesise key proteins and enzymes to
enable it to grow, copy its contents and then divide
ATP production: The cell will need to generate sufficient quantities of ATP in
order to successfully divide
I ncrease number of organelles: The cell needs to ensure both daughter cells
will have the necessary numbers of organelles needed to survive
D NA replication: The genetic material must be faithfully duplicated before
division (this occurs during the S phase)

As none of these processes can occur during the M phase, interphase contains growth
checkpoints to ensure division is viable
G 1: A checkpoint stage before DNA replication during which the cell grows,
duplicates organelles, synthesises proteins and produces ATP
S: The stage during which DNA is replicated
G 2: A checkpoint stage before division during which the copied DNA is checked
for fidelity (mutations) and final metabolic reactions occur

2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis

Prophase
DNA supercoils, causing chromosomes to condense and become visible under a
light microscope
As DNA was replicated during interphase, the chromosomes are each comprised
of two genetically identical sister chromatids joined at a centromere
The centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell and spindle fibres begin to
form between them (in animals, each centrosome contains 2 centrioles)
The nuclear membrane is broken down and disappears
Metaphase
Spindle fibres from the two centrosomes attach to the centromere of each
chromosome
Contraction of the microtubule spindle fibres cause the chromosomes to line up
separately along the centre of the cell (equatorial plane)
Anaphase
Continued contraction of the spindle fibres cause the two sister chromatids to
separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell
Once the two chromatids in a single chromosome separate, each constitutes a
chromosome in its own right

Telophase
Once the two sets of identical chromosomes arrive at the poles, the spindle fibres
dissolve and a new nuclear membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes
The chromosomes decondense and are no longer visible under a light
microscope
The division of the cell into two daughter cells (cytokinesis) occurs concurrently
with telophase

2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei

During interphase (the S phase) the DNA was replicated to produce two copies of
genetic material
These two identical DNA molecules are identified as sister chromatids and are
held together by a single centromere
During the events of mitosis (as described in 2.5.4), the sister chromatids are
separated and drawn to opposite poles of the cell
When the cell divides (cytokinesis), the two resulting nuclei will each contain one
of each chromatid pair and thus be genetically identical
2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual
reproduction involve mitosis
G rowth: Multicellular organisms increase their size by increasing their number of cells
through mitosis
A sexual reproduction: Certain eukaryotic organisms may reproduce asexually by
mitosis (e.g. vegetative reproduction)
T issue Repair: Damaged tissue can recover by replacing dead or damaged cells

E mbryonic development: A fertilised egg (zygote) will undergo mitosis and

differentiation in order to develop into an embryo