Introduction

Machining
Machining is the removal of material from a work piece. Machining is widely performed
in manufacturing engineering and production technology engineering. In present it is a
demanding field of expertise with the escalating competitive industry. Machining
variabilitys include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Intended purpose - Compatible with requirement

Dimensional accuracy - required accuracy
Surface finish rough or smooth
Work / power consumption
Quality of finish product

Cutting parameters
1. Machine parameters (Controlling parameters )
Cutting speed, Feed rate, Machining time, Depth of cut, metal removal rate
2. Geometric parameters
Side rake angle, Clearance angle, Clearance (relief) angle, Helix angle, Tool
wedge angle, Side cutting edge angle, End cutting edge angle, Nose radius
Machining machine Lathe
Lathe is also known as the mother/father of the entire tool family. A lathe is a general
purpose machine that operates on the principle of rotating work piece and a fixed cutting
tool. The cutting tool is feed into work piece which rotates about its own axis, causing
work piece to be formed to the desired shape. Lathe machine perform a number of
operations ; facing, turning (rough and finish), taper turning, form turning, threading,
reaming, grooving, knurling, boring, drilling ,chamfering, necking, spinning, filing,
polishing, honing, buffing, profiling, cutting etc. To perform the mentioned operations
different types of lathe machines exits ; Copy lathe machine, Automatic lathe machine,
Turret lathe machine, Engine lathe machine, Bench lathe machine and Computer
controlled lathe machine.[3]

Theory

Cutting parameters
1. Machine parameters ( Controlling parameters )
a. Cutting speed
Speed is the rate of rotation of the spindle where the tool is held. It is measured

in revolutions per minute (RPMs).[2] [1]

The higher the hardness of the material, the higher the cutting force and the
higher the friction co-efficient produced hence, poor surface is produced. Coefficient of friction and cutting force both decreases when cutting speed is

increased leading to decrease in surface roughness.

Spindle speed calculation speed to be set on lathe [3]
RPM = (Cutting Speed x 320) / Diameter.
RPM - Spindle Speed
Cutting Speed - Cutting Speed for the material being machined. (meters/min)

b.
c.
d.
e.

Diameter - Diameter of work piece (mm)

Feed rate
Machining time
Depth of cut
Metal removal rate

2. Geometric parameters
a. Rake angle
The angle of the cutting face relative to the work.
The purpose of the rake angle is to allow the pieces of metal (chips) being

removed, to slide along this angle away from the cutting edge.
The rake angle determine the quality of the finished work piece. The
better the chips slide along this angle, the better will be the finish on the

work piece.
The larger the rake angle, the smaller the cutting force on the tool

A large rake angle will improve cutting action, but would lead to early
tool failure, since the tool wedge angle is relatively weak. A compromise
must therefore be made between adequate strength and good cutting

action.
b. Clearance ( relief) angle
c. Helix angle

d.
e.
f.
g.

Tool wedge angle

Side cutting edge angle
End cutting edge angle
Nose radius

Apparatus
1. Lathe machine
2. Work pieces ( Mild Steel , Aluminum ,Brass )
3. Tool ( Drill bits, Drill Chuck, 3 Jaw chuck, Chuck key, Cutting
tools )
4. Vernier caliper

Procedure
1. Wear safety goggles and safety shoes.
2. Take a rectangular extruded rod of dimensions 25mm x 17mm x 60mm.
3. Mount the work piece onto the headstock using a 3-jaw chuck using a chuck
key.
4. Set the cutting speeds using the gears on the control panel of the lathe
machine.
5. Start the lathe.
6. Taper the work piece to remove material from the surface by moving the
cutting tool with 5 o rake angle using the cross slide , rotate it clockwise to
move the tool left from the loose end of the work piece.
7. Repeat using 10 o,0 o,-10 o rake angle cutting tool , use the gear on the tail
stock to use the 10,0,-10 rake angle cutting tools in that are already mounted
on the tailstock.
8. Repeat using 380 rpm and 640 rpm cutting speeds
9. Repeat using Aluminum and Brass work pieces.
10. Observe and compare the machining surface quality with material, cutting
speed and rake angle.

Observations
Machining surfaces

Figure 1 Material mild steel (surface finish of machining 5 o, 10 o , 0 o, -10 o, 270 rpm ,380 rpm,640
rpm from right to left)

Figure 2 Material Aluminum (surface finish of machining 5o, 10 o , 0 o, -10 o, 270 rpm ,380 rpm,640
rpm from right to left)

Figure 3 Material Brass (surface finish of machining 5o, 10 o , 0 o, -10 o, 270 rpm ,380 rpm,640 rpm
from right to left)

Machining quality with rake angle comparisons

Table 1 Quality of machining with rake angle

Material

Angle

Mild steel

0o
5o
More rough surface with Smoother than the 0

Brass

ripples
rough

angle surface
with Smoother than the 0

surface

ripples
Aluminum Quite rough

angle surface
surface Smoother than the 0

with ripples

angle surface

10 o`
Smoother than the 0
and 5 o angle surface
Smoother than the 0
and 5 o angle surface
Smoother than the 0

and 5 o angle surface

The rake angle determine the quality of the finished work piece. It allow the pieces of
metal (chips) being removed from the work piece , the better the chips slide along this
angle, the better will be the finish on the work piece. The larger the rake angle, the
smaller the cutting force on the tool and better the surface finish.

Machining quality with speed comparisons

Table 2 Quality of machining with speed

Material

Speed
270 rpm

Mild steel
Brass

More Rough surface

Rough surface

Aluminum Fairly rough surface

380 rpm

640 rpm

Smother than 270 rpm

Smoothest surface with

surface

best surface finish

Smother than 270 rpm

Smoothest surface with

surface
Smother than 270 rpm

best surface finish

Smoothest surface with

surface

best surface finish

The higher the hardness of the material, the higher the cutting force and the higher the
friction co-efficient produced hence, poor surface is produced. Co-efficient of friction
and cutting force both decreases when cutting speed is increased leading to decrease in
surface roughness. The surface roughness increases from aluminum, brass to mild steel.

Discussion
Different work holding methods
Work pieces can be held by various methods: [3]

Work piece mounted between centers

Work piece mounted within a chuck
Work piece mounted within a collet
Work piece mounted on a faceplate

Work holding devices:

1. Chucks
May have 2, 3, 4, or 6 jaws to hold work by external or internal surfaces
Indexing chucks can index to different positions to present multiple surfaces

of a work piece to the cutting tool

For longer parts, a tailstock support is used with the chuck or other lathe work

holding
2. Collets
Accurately and tightly hold the smooth surfaces of round bar and cylindrical
slug work pieces
Special collets can grip square and hex shapes
3. Face plates
Used for irregularly shaped work pieces
For work pieces that cannot be successfully held by chucks or mounted
between centers
4. Mandrels
For work pieces which cannot be held between centers because its axis has

been drilled or bored

Work pieces which are not suitable for holding in a chuck or against a

faceplate is usually machined on a mandrel.

5. Drive plates
6. Lathe centers
Feed rates and depth of cut geometric cutting parameters
Feed rates

Feed is the rate at which the tool is moved into the part or the part into the

tool. Feed is measured in feet, inches or millimeters per time period.[2]

Feed rate calculation [3]
FR = RPM x T x CL.
Where:
FR - the calculated feed rate (inches per minute or mm per minute)
RPM - is the calculated speed for the cutter.
T - Number of teeth on the cutter.

CL - The chip load or feed per tooth.

Depth of cut (DOC)

The measurement (normally in inches or millimeters) of how wide and deep

the tool cuts into the work piece.[2]

Depth of cut calculation

D = R(outside) R(inside).
Where:
D depth of cut (mm)
R (outside) outside radius of the work piece
R (inside) inside radius of the cut in work piece
Lathe machine components
Lathe bed

The bed is the base of the lathe and supports all the major components of lathe.

Lathe bed material made of grey cast iron , to resist deflection and absorb vibrations
during cutting

Carriage Feed

Slides along the ways and consists of the cross-slide, tool post, apron

Purpose of supporting, guiding and feeding the tool against the job during operation.

Headstock

Holds the jaws for the work piece, supplies power to the jaws and has various
drive speeds

Serves as housing for the driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live
center and the feed reverse gear.

Tail Stock

Movable casting located opposite the headstock on the ways of the bed

Can slide along the bed to accommodate different lengths of work piece
between the centers.

The tailstock spindle has an internal taper to hold the dead center and the
tapered shank tools such as reamers and drills.

Figure 4 Schematic of lathe machine

Operations of a center lathe machine

Turning produces straight, conical, curved, or grooved work pieces

Facing produces a flat surface at the end of the part

Boring to enlarge a hole

Drilling - to produce a hole

Cutting off to cut off a work piece

Threading to produce threads

Other: Knurling, Taper Turning, Form Turning, Threading, Reaming, Grooving,

Chamfering, Necking, Spinning, Filing, Polishing etc.[3]

Procedure to machine component depicted on figure 5 ( See Appendix- A for 2D sketch)

Figure 5 Component to be machined

1. Take a rectangular extruded rod of dimensions 25mm x 17mm x 60mm.

2. Set the cutting speeds using the gears on the control panel of the lathe machine
3. Slightly drill the ends of the rod and mount one end of the work piece onto the
headstock using a 4-jaw chuck and the other end to the tailstock.

4. As shown on figure 6 use straight turning to the whole part to remove material

from the surface until the radii of the arcs formed are 10mm each.

Figure 6 Turning operation in a lathe

5. Mount the work piece onto the headstock using a 3-jaw chuck using a chuck key.
6. Face 5mm from both ends so that the length of the rod is 50mm. Only a small
amount of material should be removed each pass of the cross slide. After each
pass of the cutting tool the rotate the top slide clockwise to move the tool
forward.

Figure 7 Facing operation in a lathe

7. Face of the left and right rod surface with a distance of 8.5mm from the center of
work piece as schematically shown on Appendix A.
8. Drill the center of one side with a 1/2" drill bit till the depth of the hole is 15mm
and drill the other center of one side with the a 3/5" drill bit till the depth of the
hole is 20mm. The tailstock of a lathe can be used for drilling, with the aid of a
drill chuck attachment as shown on figure 8. [1] Use the scale next to the drill
chuck to track the depth of cut.

Figure 8 Drilling operation in althe machine

9. Thread the drill holes, 24 threads per inch in the 3/5" drilled whole and 20 threads
in the 1/2" drilled hole using the appropriate threading tools.
10. Taper the edges of both holes with a 45 degrees tool tip with a depth of 1mm.

References
[1] V.Ryan, "Machining and equipment," 2. [Online].

Available: http://www.technologystudent.com/. [Accessed 02 03 2016].

[2] "Feed

,
speed
and
depth
of
cut,"
[Online].
http://www.quakerchem.com/wpcontent/uploads/pdf/skill_builders/no12_feeds_speeds_depth_cut.pdf.
02 03 2016].

Available:
[Accessed

[3] "Lathe," [Online]. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org [Accessed 02 03 2016].

Appendix A
1 X 45 o

10

50

3/8-24 UNF-25
20

1/2-20 UNF 15

20

8.5
1X
45 o
SECTION A - A

8.5

Dimensions in millimeter
Figure 9 Component to be machined

Dimensions
E.g.: 1/2- 20 UNF 15
(Major diameter of the thread) (threads per inch) (describes the thread form, here
UNF = unified fine) (depth of cut)

11