Abrish RC I (Rearranged) - 2

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CHAPTER I
Introduction
1.1. General Introduction
Concrete is a conglomerate, artificial stone like material obtained by hardening and curing a
mixture of mainly cement, water and aggregates and sometimes admixtures. The main
cementing constituents of portland cement are tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2 abbreviated
C3S) and di-calcium silicate (2CaO.SiO2 abbreviated C2S) which when combined with water
undergo chemical reactions that result in cementing gels called tobermorite gels. They are
so named due to their similarity in composition and structure to a natural mineral
discovered in Tobermory, Scotland. The hydration reaction is according to the following
equations
C2SH and CSH are di- and mono-calcium silicate gels respectively, and CH is Ca(OH)2
There are hypotheses trying to explain as to how these gels impart strength to concrete.
The first hypothesis says it is due to force of adsorption. According to this hypothesis these
gels are about 1/1000 of the size of portland cement grains (10m) and have enormous
surface area (about 3*106cm2/g) which results in immense attractive forces between
particles as atoms on each surface are attempting to complete their unsaturated bonds by
adsorption. These forces cause particles of the gel to adhere to each other and to every
other particle in the cement paste. The second hypothesis says that the gel attracts one
another and everything around them due to adhesive Vander Waals forces.
Whichever way, tobermorite gels form the heart of hardened concrete in that it cements
everything together. The finished product, plain concrete has a high compressive strength
and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one-tenth of its
compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement has to be provided to
resist tension to compensate for the weak tension regions in reinforced concrete.
It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforced concrete section from the homogeneity
of steel or wood that requires a modified approach of structural design, as will be explained
in subsequent chapters. The two component of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete
section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the two
materials involved.
Design of concrete sections involves determining the cross sectional dimensions of concrete
structural members and the required quantity of reinforcement. A large number of
parameters have to be dealt with in design of concrete sections such as geometrical width,
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AAiT Department of Civil Engineering
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depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain and steel stress. Consequently,
trial and adjustment are necessary in the choice of concrete sections, with assumptions
based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of
the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, applicable codes and environmental
conditions.
1.2. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

Concrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of
cement, sand, and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden informs of the shape and
dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse
aggregates. Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles in to a
solid mass. Additional water above that needed for this chemical reaction is necessary for
workability of the mixture that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded
reinforcing steel prior to hardening.
Concrete has high compressive strength which makes it suitable for members primarily
subjected to compression such as columns and arches. However its tensile strength is very
small compared with its compressive strength (10-15%). This prevents its economical use in
members subjected to tension either entirely (such as in tie rods) or over part of their cross
sections (such as beams or other flexural members).
To offset this limitation, it was found possible to use steel with its high tensile strength to
reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the
carrying capacity of the member. Such a member, where steel bars are embedded in the
concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the
concrete cracks can be developed in the bars is called a reinforced concrete member.
The resulting combination, known as reinforced concrete, combines many of the advantages
of each material:
Relatively low cost, Good weather and fire resistance, Good compressive
strength, Excellent formability of concrete
High tensile strength, much greater ductility and toughness of steel
It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of
reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings, bridges, dams, tanks, reservoirs and a
host of other structures. Reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material throughout
the world because of the wide availability of constitutions of concrete and reinforcing steel
bars, the relatively simple skills required for its construction and the economy of reinforced
concrete compared to other forms of construction.
Advantages of Reinforce Concrete:
The following advantages are observed in using RC member compared with other existing
structural member made form steel or timber:
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1. Reinforced concrete is mouldable into any desired shape ,and this variability allows
the shape of the structures to be adapted to its function in an economical manner
and furnishes the architect with a wide range of possibilities or aesthetically
satisfying structural solutio0ns,
2. Unlike others i.e. steel or timber, RC does not deteriorate with time,
3. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant,
4. It is monolithic, i.e. can be assumed that it is made from one piece.
5. Most of the constituent materials, with the exception of cement and additives, are
usually available at low cost locally or at small distance from construction sites.
6. Concrete has high compressive strength.
7. Low maintenance
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete
The followings are disadvantages of using Reinforce concrete as construction material:
1. It is difficult for quality control as it is usually produced on site.
2. It is very difficult to dismantle for repair or change,
3. The form work costs whether steel or timber are rather expensive compared with
those of concrete and reinforcing steel,
4. It is difficult to supervise after pouring,
5. In ordinary Reinforced Concrete structures, large portion of the section are not
utilized, but this disadvantage is absent in pre-stressed concrete members.
6. Its tensile strength is very low
Despite its advantages, RC has found exceptionally extensive applications in construction
industry owing to its durability, strength, stiffness and availability of cheap local materials.
1.3. Material Aspect of Reinforced Concrete

To understand and interpret the total behavior of a composite element requires knowledge
of the characteristics of its components. Concrete is produced by the collective mechanical
and chemical interaction of a large number of constituent materials. Hence a discussion of
the function of each of these components is vital prior to studying concrete as a finished
product. In this manner, the designer and the materials engineer can develop skills for the
choice of the proper ingredients and so proportion them as to obtain an efficient and
desirable concrete satisfying the designers strength and serviceability requirements.
1.3.1. Concrete
1.3.1.1. Ingredients of Concrete
a) Cement
Cement is the most important ingredient of concrete because it is the hydration reaction
that gives strength to concrete. This ingredient is also the most expensive in plain concrete
production.
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Portland cement is produced from a mixture of ground clay (contains Si0 2 and Al2O3) and
lime (CaO) and other minor ingredients such as MgO and Fe2O3 by heating to the point of
incipient fusion (clinkering temperature). The clinker is then ground to different degrees of
fineness to get cement.
Table 1.3.1.1-1 shows the main chemicals in Portland cement and the relative contribution
of each component towards the rate of gain in strength. The early strength of Portland
cement is higher with higher percentages of C2S. If moist curing is continuous, later strength
levels will be greater, with higher percentages of C2S. C3A contributes to the strength
developed during the first day after placing the concrete because it is the earliest to
hydrate.
Component
Tricalcium silicate, C3S
Dicalcium silicate,C2S
Tricalcium aluminate, C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrate, C4AF
Rate of
Reaction
Medium
Slow
Fast
Slow
Heat
Liberated
Medium
Small
Large
Small
Ultimate
Cementing Value
Good
Good
Poor
Poor
Table 1.3.1.1-1Properties of Cements
Normal: I
Component (%)
C3S C2S C3A C4AF CaSO4 CaO
49.0 15.0 12.0 8.0
2.9
0.8
Modified: II
45.0 29.0
6.0
12.0
2.8
0.6
3.0
High early strength: III
56.0 15.0 12.0
8.0
3.9
1.4
2.6
Low heat: IV
30.0 46.0
5.0
13.0
2.9
0.3
2.7
Sulphate resisting: V
43.0 36.0
4.0
12.0
2.7
0.4
1.6
Type of Cement
MgO
2.4
General
Characteristics
All-purpose cement
Comparative low
heat liberation; used
in large structures
High strength in 3
days
Used in mass
concrete dams
Used on sewers and
structures exposed
to sulphate
Table 1.3.1.1-2 Percentage Composition of Portland Cements
When portland cement combines with water during setting and hardening, lime is liberated
from some of the compounds. The amount of lime liberated is approximately 20% by weight
of the cement. Under unfavorable conditions, this might cause disintegration of a structure
owning to leaching of the lime from the cement. Such a situation should be prevented by
adding a siliceous mineral such as pozzolan to the cement. The added mineral reacts with
the lime in the presence of moisture to produce strong calcium silicate.
The size of the cement particles strongly influences the rate of reaction of cement with
water. For a given weight of finely ground cement, the surface area of the particles is
greater than that of the coarsely ground cement. This results in a greater rate of reaction
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with water and a more rapid hardening process for larger surface areas. This is one reason
for the high early strength type-III cement.
Type of cement affects durability of concrete also. Disintegration of concrete due to cycles
of wetting, freezing, thawing, and drying and propagation of resulting cracks is a matter of
great importance. The presence of minute air voids throughout the cement paste increases
the resistance of concrete to disintegration. This can be achieved by the addition of airentraining admixtures to the concrete while mixing.
Disintegration due to chemicals in contact with the structure, such as in the case of port
structure and sub-structure can also be slowed down or prevented. Since the concrete in
such cases is exposed to chlorides and sometimes sulphates of magnesium and sodium, it is
sometimes necessary to specify sulphate-resisting cement. Usually, type II cement will be
adequate for use in seawater structures.
Since the different types of cement generate different degrees of heat at different rates, the
type of structure governs the type of cement to be used. The bulkier and heavier in cross
section the structure is the less the generation of heat of hydration that is desired. In
massive structures such as dams, piers, and caissons, type IV cement are advantageous to
use. From this discussion it is seen that the type of structures, the weather, and other
conditions under which it is built and will be used are the governing factors in the choice of
the type of cement that should be used.
b) Water and Air
Water
Water is required in the production of concrete in order to precipitate chemical reaction
with the cement, to wet the aggregates and to lubricate the mixture for easy workability.
Normally, drinking water can be used in mixing. Water having harmful ingredients such as
silt, oil, sugar or chemicals is destructive to the strength and setting properties of cement. It
can disrupt the affinity between the aggregate and the cement paste and can adversely
affect workability of a mixture.
Excessive water leaves uneven honeycombed skeleton in the finished product after
hydration has taken place while too little water prevents complete chemical reaction with
the cement. The product in both cases is a concrete that is weaker than and inferior to
normal concrete.
Entrained Air
With the gradual evaporation of excess water from the mix, pores are produced in the
hardened concrete. If evenly distributed, these could give improved characteristics to the
product. Very even distribution of pores by artificial introduction of finely divided uniformly
distributed air bubbles throughout the product is possible by adding air-entraining agents
such as vinsol resin. Air entrainment increases workability, decreases density, increases
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durability, reduces bleeding and segregation, and reduces the required sand content in the
mix. For these reasons, the percentage of entrained air should be kept at the required
optimum value for the desired quality of the concrete. The optimum air content is 9% of the
mortar fraction of the concrete. Air entraining in excess of 5-6% of the total mix
proportionally reduces the concrete strength.
c) Aggregates
Aggregates are those parts of the concrete that constitute the bulk of the finished product.
They comprise 60 to 80% of the volume of the concrete and have to be so graded that the
whole mass of concrete acts as a relatively solid homogeneous, dense combination, with the
smaller sizes acting as an inert filler of the voids that exist between the larger particles.
Since the aggregates constitute the major part of the mixture, the more aggregate is used in
the mix the cheaper is the cost of the concrete, provided that the mixture is of reasonable
workability for the specific job for which it is used.
Aggregates are of two types: coarse aggregates and fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates are
usually manufactured by crushing stone and fine aggregates are natural sand obtained by
the natural disintegration of rock or artificial sand obtained by artificially crushing stones.
Coarse Aggregate
Properties of the coarse aggregates affect the strength of hardened concrete and its
resistance to disintegration, weathering, and other destructive effect. The coarse aggregate
must be clean of organic impurities and must bond well with the cement gel. Table 1.3.1.1-3
gives grading or particles size distribution requirements of coarse aggregates by Ethiopian
Standard for Concrete and Concrete Products, ES C.D3.201.
Nominal size of
graded aggregate
38-5
19-5
13-5
Percentage passing through test sieves having square openings

75mm
100
-
63mm
-
37.5mm
95 - 100
100
12
19mm
30 70
95 100
100
13.2mm
2.8
90 - 100
9.5mm
10 - 35
25 - 55
40 - 85
4.75mm
0-5
0 - 10
0 - 10
Table 1.3.1.1-3 Grading requirements for coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]
Coarse aggregate shall be free of injurious amounts of organic impurities. The amount of
deleterious substance in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits specified in Table
1.3.1.1-4.
Deleterious substance
Friable soft fragments

Coal and lignite
Clay lumps
Materials passing 63m sieve including
crushed dust
Maximum percentage by mass

3.00
1.00
0.25
1.50
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Table 1.3.1.1-4 Permissible limits for deleterious substances in coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]
Other requirements are soundness and resistance to abrasion. Concerning soundness,

coarse aggregate shall not show loss in mass exceeding 12 percent when subjected to five
cycles of wetting and drying with sodium sulphate solution or 18 percent when magnesium
sulphate solution is used. The maximum loss in mass when coarse aggregate is subjected to
abrasion test shall not exceed 50 percent.
Fine Aggregates
Fine aggregate is smaller filler made of sand. It ranges in size from No.4 to No. 100(4.75 mm
to 150m). A good fine aggregate should always be free of organic impurities, clay, or any
deleterious material or excessive filler of size smaller than No. 100 sieve. It should
preferably have a well-graded combination. The following requirements are given by
Ethiopian Standards [ES D3.201].
The grading requirement of fine aggregate shall be within the limit specified in table1.3.1.15
The fine aggregate shall not also have more than 45 percent retained between any two
consecutive sieves. The fineness modulus shall not be less than 2.0 or more than 3.5 with a
tolerance of 0.2.
Sieve
9.50mm
4.75mm
2.36mm
1.18mm
600m
300m
150m
Percentage passing
100
95 - 100
80 - 100
50 - 85
25 - 60
10 - 30
2 - 10
Table 1.3.1.1-5 Grading requirements for fine aggregates [ES D3.201]
Table 1.3.1.1-6 gives limits of deleterious substances for fine aggregates.

Deleterious Substance
Maximum percentage by mass
Friable particles
1.0
Clay or fine silt (materials passing 63m
sieve) in fine aggregates used for
- Concrete subject to abrasion
3.0
- All other concrete
5.0
Coal Ignite
1.0
Table 1.3.1.1-6 Permissible limits for deleterious substance in fine aggregates [ES C.D3.201]
Fine aggregates, when subjected to five cycles of soundness test, shall not show loss in
mass exceeding 10 percent when sodium sulphate solution is used or 15 percent
magnesium sulphate solution is used.
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Characteristics of the finished product, concrete can be varied considerably by varying the
proportion of its ingredients. Thus, for a specific structure it is economical to use concrete
with the desired characteristics though it may be weak in others. For example, concrete for
building should have high compressive strength whereas for water tanks, water tightness is
of prime importance.
Performance of concrete in service depends on properties both in the plastic and hardened
states.
1.3.1.2. Properties in the Plastic State

a) Workability - is an important property and concerns the ease with which the mix can be
mixed, handled, transported and placed with little loss of homogeneity so that after
compaction it surrounds all reinforcements completely, fills the form work and results in
concrete with the least voids.
b) Temperature - Care should be taken to minimize the temperature due to evolving heat
of hydration if cement is greater than or equal to400kg/m3 and the least dimension of
concrete to be placed at a single time is 600mm or more.
1.3.1.3. Properties in the Hardened State

a) Compressive strength
The main measure of the structural quality of concrete is its compression strength. Tests for
this property are made on cylindrical specimen of height equal to twice the diameter
(usually 6x12 inches, i.e. 150x300mm) originally as specified by American society for Testing
and materials (ASTM). According, the cylinder specimens are moist cured at about 7050F,
generally for 28 days and then tested in the laboratory at a specified rate of loading usually
to reach the maximum stress in 2 to 3 minutes. The compression strength obtained from
such test is known as the cylinder strength fc or fck and this is the main property specified for
design purpose.
Depending up on the mix (especially the water cement ratio) and the time and quality of
curing, compressive strength of concrete can be obtained up to 100 MPa . For most practical
and ordinary use(fck) available ranges between 20 to 50 MPa.
The compressive strength is calculated from failure load divided by cross-sectional area
resisting the load and reported in units of force per square area. In EBCS 2-1995, concrete is
graded based on tests of 150 mm cubes at the age of 28 days which may be considered as
the characteristic cube compression strength in MPa and graded as C5, C15, C20, C30, C40,
C50 and C60 the numbers being characteristic compressive strength in MPa.This may be
converted to equivalent cylinder compressive strength fck as
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The 28 day compressive strength may be obtained from 7 days compressive strength using
experimentally developed empirical relations. One formal is
S7 and S28 are7 and 28 day strengths in psi (W.A. Slater)

Strength can be increased by
Decreasing W/C ratio
Using high strength aggregates because that makes 65-75% of the volume of
concrete.
Grading the aggregates to produce a small percentage of voids in the concrete
Moist curing the concrete after it has set
Vibrating the concrete in the forms while plastic
Concrete strength is chiefly influenced by W/C ratio, it can be estimated by,
A and B are empirical constants that depend on age, curing condition, type of cement
properties of aggregates and testing method. W/C is water cement ratio.
Figure 1.3.1.3-1Effect W/C ration on strength
Other factor affecting concrete strength is degree of compaction.
Figure 1.3.1.3-2Effect of degree of compaction on strength
b) Tensile strength It is used to design for shear, torsion and crack width. This is much
lower than compressive strength and generally falls between 8 and 15 percent of
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compressive strength. It is difficult to determine from tension test due to problem
with gripping and is indirectly determined from split-cylinder test or flexure test
(modulus of rupture) or from empirical formulae.
In a split-cylinder test, a 150mm*300mm compression test cylinder is placed on its side
and loaded in compression along the diameter as shown in figure 1.3.1.3-3. The splitting
tensile strength, fct is determined as,
(
Figure 1.3.1.3-3 Split-cylinder test procedure
In flexure test a plain concrete beam, generally 150mm*150mm*750mm long is loaded in

flexure at the third points of a 600mm span until it fails due to cracking on the tension face
as shown in figure 1.3.1.3-4. It can be estimated by,
Figure 1.3.1.3-4 Flexure test
EBSC 2-1995 uses the following empirical formula,

Where fctk tensile strength of concrete in MPa
fck characteristic cylinder strength in MPa
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c) Creep
It is strain that occurs under constant sustained compressive load. It is also defined as
deformation of a member under sustained load. It results in stress redistribution and
additional deformation and should be considered. For example, in the design of RC
beams for allowable stress, the effects of creep are taken into account by reducing the
modulus of elasticity of concrete usually by 50%.
Creep is
Proportional to stress
Increases with increase in W/C ratio
Decrease with relative humidity of atmosphere
d) Volume change
Shrinkage is the shortening of concrete during hardening and drying under constant
temperature. The prime cause of shrinkage is due to loss of a layer of adsorbed water from
the surface of the gel particles. It depends on relative humidity (but recoverable on wetting
and of composition of the concrete.
Essentially, Shrinkage occurs as the moister diffuses out of the concrete which result the
exterior to shrink more rapidly than the interior. This leads to tensile stresses in the outer
skin of the concrete and compression stresses in the interior. The effect of shrinkage can be
reduced by using less cement and by adequate moist curing.
e) Density
Increase in density results in increase in strength. Density can be increased by using
denser aggregate, graded aggregates, vibrating and reducing w/c ratio.
f) Durability
Concrete durability has been defined by the American Concrete Institute as its resistance
to weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion and other degradation processes.
Concrete should be capable of withstanding
Weathering such as corrosion and mainly freezing and thawing. This can be
improved by increasing water tightness.
Chemical reaction
Wear
1.3.1.4. Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

Component of a mix should be selected to produce concrete with desired characteristics at
lowest cost possible. For economy the amount of cement should be kept to a minimum.
Because of the larger number of variables involved, it is usually advisable to proportion
concrete mixes by making and trail batches.
The selection of the relative proportion of cement, water and aggregate is called mix design.
The important requirements in mix design are the following, which can sum up as
workability, strength, durability and economy.
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a) The fresh concrete must be workable or placeable
b) The hardened concrete must be strong enough to carry the loads for which it has
been designed
c) The hardened concrete must be able to withstand the condition to which it will be
exposed to in service life
d) It must be capable of being produced economically.
A start is made with selection of W/C ratio, then largest size of aggregate (dictated by
sectional dimension of structural members and spacing of reinforcements). Then several
trial batches are made with varying ratio of aggregates to obtain the desired workability
with the least cement. Test should be made to evaluate compressive strength and other
desired characteristics. Observations should be made of the slump and appearance of
concrete. After a mix has been selected, some changes may have to be made after some
field experience with it.
If this is expensive or not justified the mix proportions which are appropriate for grades C5
to C30 may be taken from EBCS 2-1995 Structural use of concrete page 90.
Minimum mixing time measured from the time the ingredients are put together is given in
table 1.3.1.4-1. Over mixing can remove entrained air and increase fines requiring more
water for workability. The maximum mixing time may be taken 3 times the minimum mixing
time as a guide.
Capacity of mixer (m3)
1.5
2.3
3.0
4.5
Time of mixing (minutes)

1.5
2.2
2.5
3.0
Table 1.3.1.4-1 Minimum mixing time for production of Portland cement concrete
After mixing the concrete, the chemical reaction of cement and water in the mix is relatively
slow and requires time and favorable temperature for its completion. This setting time is
divided in to three distinct phases as:
1. First phase: time of initial set, requires from 30 to 60 minutes for completion, at
which the mixed concrete decreases its plasticity and develops pronounced
resistance to follow,
2. Second phase: time of final set requires from 5 to 6 hours after mixing operation,
where the concrete appears to be relatively soft solid without surface hardening,
3. Third phase: time of progressive hardening, may take about one month after mixing
where the concrete almost attains the major portions of its potential hardness and
strength.
1.3.2. Reinforcing Steel

It is a high-strength and high cost steel bar used in concrete construction (e.g., in a beam or
wall) to provide additional strength. When reinforcing steel is used with concrete, the
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concrete is made to resist compression stress and the steel is made to resist tensile stress
with or without additional compressive stress.
When RC elements are used, sufficient bond between the two materials must be developed
to ensure that there is no relative movement between the steel bars and the surrounding
concrete. This bond may be developed by,
chemical adhesion
natural roughness
closely spaced rib-shaped surface deformation of reinforcement bars as shown in
figure
Reinforcing bars varying 6 to 35 mm in size are available in which all are surface deformed
except 6.
Figure 1.3.2-1 Type of reinforcement bars
Some bar size and areas for design purpose available in Ethiopia are given in table
Diameter
(mm)
Area (mm2)
Weight (Kg/m)
10
12
14
16
20
24.
28
0.222
50
0.395
78.5
0.619
113
0.888
154
1.210
200
1.570
314
2.470
450
3.500
Table 1.3.2-1Reinforcement bar properties that are available in Ethiopia
Characteristic properties of reinforcing bars are expressed using its yield strength, fy (fyk) and
modulus of elasticity Es. Fy ranges between 220 to 500MPa, with 300MPa common in our
country. Es ranges between 200 to 210GPa.
1.4. Concrete Placement and Curing

1.4.1. Concrete Placement
When concrete is discharged from the mixer, precaution should be exercised to prevent
segregation. Vibration is desirable after pouring the fresh concrete because it eliminates
voids and brings particles into close contact. The resulting consolidation also ensures close
contact of the concrete with the forms, with reinforcement and other embedded items.
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For consolidation of structural concrete, immersion vibration are recommended. Oscillation
should be at least 7000 vibration per minute when the vibrator head is immersed in
concrete. Each yd3 (0.765m3) of concrete should be vibrated at least 1 minute.
Formwork retains concrete until it has set and produced the desired shape and sometimes
the desired surface finish. Formwork must be supported on false work of adequate strength
and rigidity. Forms must also be tight, yet they must be of low cost and often easily
demountable to permit reuse.
Early striking forms is generally desirable to permit quick reuse, start curing as soon as
possible and allow repairs and surface treatment while the concrete is still green and
condition are favorable for good bond.
The time between casting of concrete and removal of the formwork depends mainly on the
strength development of the concrete and on the function of the formwork. Provided the
concrete strength is confirmed by test on cubes stored under the same condition, formwork
can be removed when the cube strength is 50% of the nominal strength or twice the stress
to which it will then be subjected whichever is greater, provided such earlier removal will
not result in unacceptable deflection such as due to shrinkage and creep [EBCS 2-1995].
In the absences of more accurate data the following minimum periods are recommended by
EBCS 2-1995.
1. For non-load bearing parts of formwork like vertical forms for beams, columns and
walls 18 hours
2. For soffit formwork to slabs ... 7 days
3. For props to slabs .... 14 days
4. For soffits formwork to beams ... 14 days
5. For props to beams .... 21 days
1.4.2. Curing Concrete

While more than enough water for hydration is incorporated into normal concrete mixes,
the loss due to evaporation from the time the concrete is placed is usually so rapid that
complete hydration may be delayed or prevented. Rapid drying causes also drying shrinkage
surface cracks. Therefore it is important to keep fresh concrete moist for several days after
placing either by sprinkling, ponding or by surface sealing. This operation is called curing. If
curing is properly done for a sufficiently long period, curing produces stronger and more
watertight concrete. The most common field practice is curing by sprinkling. Portland
cement concrete should be cured this way for 7-14 days. Curing is especially important in
hot climate to replenish water lost due to rapid evaporation.
1.5. Stress-Strain Relation for Concrete and Reinforcements

Strength and deformation of reinforced concrete members can be calculated from stressstrain relations of concrete and reinforcement steel and the dimensions of the members.
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1.5.1. Concrete
a) Uniaxial Stress Behavior
Under practical conditions concrete is seldom stressed in one condition only (Uniaxial
stress). Nevertheless an assumed uniaxial stress conditions can be justified in many cases.
Compressive Stress Behavior

The compressive strength and deformation characteristics (-) of concrete is usually
obtained from cylinders with h/d = 2, normally h =300mm and d=150mm. Loaded
longitudinally at a slow strain rate to reach maximum stress in 2 or 3 minutes. Smaller size
cylinders or cubes are also used particularly for production control and the compressive
strength of these units is higher. These can be converted with appropriate conversion
factors obtained from tests to standard cylinder or cube strengths.
Figure1.5.1-1 presents typical stress-strain curves obtained from concrete cylinders loaded
in uniaxial compression.
Figure 1.5.1-1Stress-strain curves for concrete cylinders loaded in uniaxial compression
The curves are almost linear up to about half of the compressive strength. The peak of the
curve for high strength concrete is relatively sharp but for low strength concrete the curve
has a flat top. The strain at maximum stress is approximately 0.002. At higher strains, after
the maximum stress is reached, stress can still be carried even though cracks parallel to the
directions of loading become visible in the concrete. Tests by Rusch have indicated that the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress depends on the strength of the
concrete with more curvature for weaker concrete. A widely used approximation for the
shape of stress-strain curve before maximum stress is reached is a second-degree parabola.
The extent of falling branch behavior adopted depends on the limit of concrete strain
assumed useful (0.0035 for LSD and 0.003 for USD).
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Tangent and Secant Moduli of Elasticity

Three ways of defining the modulus of elasticity are illustrated in figure 1.5.1-2. The slope of
the line that is tangent to a point on the stress-strain curve, such as A, is called the tangent
modulus of elasticity, ET, at the stress corresponding to point A. The slope of the stressstrain curve at the origin is initial tangent modulus of elasticity. The secant modulus of
elasticity at a given stress is the slope of the line through the origin and through the point on
the curve representing that stress for example point B. Frequently, the secant modulus is
defined by using the point corresponding to 0.4 - 0.5 of the compressive strength (fck),
representing the service-load stress. Whenever Ecm is used it usually means the secant
modulus in MPa.
Figure 1.5.1-2 Initial, tangent and secant modulus of elasticity
In the absence of more accurate data, in case accuracy is not required, an estimate of the
mean secant modulus Ecm can be obtained from table 1.5.1-1 for given concrete grades as
given by EBCS 2-1995.
Grades of Concrete
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
2
fck (N/mm )
12
16
20
24
32
40
48
fctm (N/mm2)
1.6
1.9
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
fctk (N/mm2)
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.5
2.8
Ecm(GPa)
26
27
29
32
35
37
39
For concrete cubes of size 200 mm, the grade of the concrete is
obtained by multiplying the cube strength by 1.05 (EBCS2 2.3).
Table 1.5.1-1Grades of Concrete and their strength characteristics
The following empirical formula is also given by EBCS 2-1995, in which Ecm is in GPa and fck is
in MPa.
The stress-strain curve in figure 1.5.1-3 is simplified for design to a parabolic rectangular
stress block as given by EBSC 2-1995.
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Figure 1.5.1-3Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for concrete
When the load is applied at a fast strain rate, both the strength and modulus of elasticity of
concrete increase, for example it is reported that for a strain rate of 0.01/sec the concrete
strength may increase by as much as 17%.
Rusch, conducting long term loading tests on confined concrete found that the sustained
load compressive strength is 0.8 of in short-term strength, where short term strength is
determined from an identically old and identically cast specimen that is loaded to failure
over a 10-minute period when the specimen under sustained load has collapsed. In practice
concrete strength considered in design of structures is short-term strength at 28 days. The
strength reduction due to long term will be partly offset by higher strength attained by
concrete at greater ages.
Creep strains due to long-term loading cause modification in the shape of the stress-strain
curve. Some curves obtained by Rusch for various rates of loading are given in figure 1.5.1-4.
It can be seen that for various rates of loading, the maximum stress reached gradually
decreases but the descending branch falls less quickly, the strain at which maximum stress is
reached increases with a decreasing rate of loading (strain).
Figure 1.5.1-4 Stress-strain curves for concrete with various rates of axial compressive loadings
Tensile Stress Behavior

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It is difficult to get tensile strength of concrete from direct tension test due to difficulties of
holding specimens to achieve axial tension and the uncertainties of secondary stresses
induced by the grips of testing devices. Therefore, it is indirectly determined from splitcylinder test or from flexure test on plain concrete beams of 150mm square cross-section.
The split-cylinder strength from theory of elasticity is,
(
The split-cylinder strength ranges from 0.5 to 0.75 of the modulus of rupture. The difference
is mainly due to non-linear stress distribution near failure in flexural members when failure
is imminent.
Because of the low tensile strength of concrete, tensile strength of concrete is usually
ignored for flexure in strength calculations of reinforced concrete members. When it is
taken in to account like for shear or torsion the stress-strain curve in tension may be
idealized as a straight line up to the tensile strength. Within this range the modulus of
elasticity in tension may be assumed to be the same as in compression.
Poison's Ratio
Poisons ratio for concrete is usually in the range 0.15 to 0.2; however values between 0.1
and 0.3 have been determined. Poisons ratio is generally lower for high strength concrete.
At high compressive stresses the transverse strains increase rapidly owing to internal
cracking parallel to the direction of loading.
b) Combined Stress behavior

In many structural situations concrete is subjected to direct and shear stresses. By
transformation of stresses, stress at a point can be represented by three mutually
perpendicular principal stresses.
In spite of extensive research, no reliable theory has been developed for determining the
failure strength of concrete under a general three dimensional state of stress.
Biaxial Stress Behavior

Some investigators reported that the strength of concrete subjected to biaxial compression
may be as much as 27% higher than uniaxial strength.
For equal biaxial compressive stresses, the strength increase is approximately 16%. The
strength in biaxial tension is approximately equal to the uniaxial tensile strength.
On other planes than the principal, normal and shear stresses act. Mohr's failure theory is
used to obtain strength for this combined case. Figure 1.5.1-5 shows how a family of Mohr's
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circle for failures in tension, compression and other combinations is enclosed in an envelope
curve.
Figure 1.5.1-5 Strength of concrete under general two-dimensional stress system
A failure curve for elements with direct (normal) stress in one direction combined with
shear stress shown in figure1.5.1-6.
Figure 1.5.1-6 Combinations of normal stress and shear stress causing failure of concrete
The curve shows that the compressive strength of concrete is reduced in the presence of
shear stress.
c) Creep
Figure 1.5.1-7 shows that the stress-strain relationship of concrete is a function of time. The
final creep strain may be several times as large as the initial elastic strain. Generally creep
has little effect on the strength of a structure but it results in increase in service load
deflections.
The creep deformation due to constant axial compressive stress is shown in figure 1.5.1-7.
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Figure 1.5.1-7 Typical creep curve for concrete with constant axial compressive stress
The creep proceeds at a decreasing rate with time. The magnitude of creep strain depends
on the composition of the concrete (aggregate type and proportions, cement type and
content and W/C ratio), the environment and the stress-time history.
d) Shrinkage in Concrete
When concrete loses moisture by evaporation, it shrinks. Shrinkage strains are independent
of the stress in the concrete. If restrained, shrinkage strains can cause cracking of concrete
and generally results in increase in deflection of structural members with time.
A curve showing the increase in shrinkage strain with time appears in figure1.5.1-8. The
shrinkage occurs at a decreasing rate with time. The final shrinkage strains vary greatly
being generally in the range 0.0002 to 0.0006 but sometimes as much as 0.0010.
Figure 1.5.1-8Shrinkage strain of concrete
1.5.2. Reinforcement Steel

Bar Shape and Size
Reinforcement steel bars are round in cross-section. To restrict longitudinal movement of
the bars relative to the surrounding concrete and for force transfer from the bars to the
concrete, deformations are rolled on to the bar surfaces. Minimum requirements for
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deformations such as spacing, height and circumferential coverage have been established
by experimental research. ASTM specifications require the deformations to have average
spacing not exceeding 0.7 of the nominal bar diameter and a height at least 0.04 to 0.05 of
the bar diameter. The deformations must cover 75% of the bar circumference. The angle
that these deformations make with the axis of the bar should not be less than 45. Generally
longitudinal ribs are also present.
Figure 1.5.2-1 Deformed Bar
Deformed steel bars are produced in sizes ranging from 8mm to 35mm in Ethiopia. 6mm is
plain bar and is used for stirrups.
Monotonic Stress Behavior

Typical stress-strain Curves for reinforcement steel figure 1.5.2-2 are obtained from
monotonic tension test. The curve exhibits an initial linear elastic portion, a yield plateau a
strain hardening range and finally a range in which the stress drops of until fracture occurs.
The slope of the linear elastic portion gives modulus of elasticity, which ranges from 200 to
210 GPa.
The yield strength fy is a very important property of reinforcement steel and is used as
design stress in ultimate strength design (USD) and design stress obtained from y in limit
state design (LSD).
Figure 1.5.2-2 Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcement steel
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y can easily be read for ductile steel. It is taken as stress at 0.2% offset for steel without
well-defined yield plateau.
The minimum strain in the steel at fracture is essential for the safety of the structure that
the steel be ductile enough to undergo large deformation before fracture. This should
usually be 4.5 to 12%.
Generally the stress-strain curves for steel in tension and compression are assumed to be
identical. Tests have shown that this is a reasonable assumption.
The effect of fast rate of loading is to increase the yield strength of steel. For example, it has
been reported that for strain rate of 0.01/sec the lower yield strength may be increased by
14%.
In design it is necessary to idealize the shape of the stress-strain curve. Generally the curve
is simplified idealizing it as two straight lines. EBCS 2 gives the simplified stress-strain curve
shown in figure 1.5.2-3 for LSD.
Figure 1.5.2-3 Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel
Reversed Stress Behavior

If reversed (tension-compression) type loading is applied to a steel specimen in the yield
range, a stress-strain curve of the type shown infigure1.5.2-4 (a) is obtained. This figure
shows that under reversed loading the stress-strain curve becomes non-linear at a stress
much lower than the initial yield strength. This effect is called Bauschinger effect.
Figure1.5.2-4 (b) gives an elastic perfectly plastic idealization for reversed loading which is
only an approximation. Reversed loading curves are important when considering the effect
of high intensity seismic loading on members.
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Figure 1.5.2-4a) Bauschinger effect for steel under reversed loading, b)Elastic-perfectly plastic
idealization for steel under reversed loading
1.6. Overview of Design Philosophies

Design is a process used in engineering to specify how to create or do something. A design
must satisfy such requirements like functional, performance and resource usage. It is also
expected to meet restrictions on the design process, time of completion, cost, or the
available tools for doing the design.
Structural design can be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the engineers
feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound knowledge of the principles of statics,
dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural analysis, to produce a safe economical
structure that will serve its intended purpose (Salmon and Johnson 1990). It is the process
of determining the dimensions and layout of the load resisting (structural) components of a
structure to satisfy the purpose of use, to possess safety and durability, and to be
economical. In civil works, buildings, bridges, dams, retaining walls, highway pavements,
aircraft landing strips are typical with individual specialized design procedure.
Structural Analysis is the assessment of the performance of a given structure under given
loads and other effects, such as support movements or temperature change.
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Figure 1.6-1 Reinforced Concrete Building Components
This course provides the first encounter on the analysis and design of the individual
structural elements of reinforced concrete structures, with emphasis on:
Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads and subjected to flexural

stress,
Slabs horizontal plate elements carrying gravity loads and subjected to
flexural stress, and
Columns vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally
subjected to axial compressive force with or without bending moment.
In (reinforced concrete) buildings, architectural planning and design is carried out to

determine the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the clients requirements.
The structural engineer then determines the best structural system or forms to realize the
architects concept. The structural analysis versus design cycle is represented by the
flowchart in figure 1.6-2.
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Figure 1.6-2The Structural Design Process
Once the form and structural arrangement have been finalized the structural design
procedure consists of the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
idealization of the structure into component parts

load estimation on the various structural components
analysis to determine the maximum internal stresses and strains
design of sections and reinforcement arrangements
detail drawings and bar schedule preparation
Serviceability, Strength and Structural Safety

To serve its purpose, a structure must be safe against collapse and serviceable in use.
Serviceability requires that deflections be adequately small; that cracks, if any, be kept to
tolerable limits; that vibrations be minimized; etc. Durability requirements are concerned
with the deterioration and decay of materials with age and environmental impact.
Safety requires that the strength of a structure, built as designed, could be predicted
accurately, safety could be ensured by providing a carrying capacity just barely in excess of
the known loads. However there are a number of sources of uncertainty in the analysis,
design and construction of RC structures. These sources of uncertainty, which require a
definite margin of safety, may be listed as follows:
1. Actual loads may differ from those assumed.
2. Actual loads may be distributed in a manner different from that assumed.
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3. The assumptions and simplifications inherent in any analysis may result in calculated
load effects moments, shears, etc. different from those that, in fact, act in the
structure.
4. The actual structural behavior may differ from that assumed, owing to imperfect
knowledge.
5. Actual member dimensions may differ from those specified.
6. Reinforcement may not be in its proper position.
7. Actual material strength may be different from that specified.
The purpose of structural design is to provide a structure with least possible construction
and maintenance costs, provision of necessary space and of all guaranteeing satisfactory
performance during the lifetime of the structure. Satisfactory performance in this context
implies that under all unfavorable action of load combination imposed on the structure:
-
The existence of adequate safety against collapse must be ensured,

Limited deformation showing structure function shall not be impaired, and
Adequate safety against any hazardous events to enable escape of the occupants
must be possible.
Hence, design involves selection of structural forms, assessment of the dimension of the
various members for the selected structural forms to satisfy the stated performances,
maintaining a proper balance between safety and economy.
Therefore, a structure must be designed
durability requirements.
on the basis of strength, serviceability and
There are three methods of concrete design. These are

1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method
2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method (also called Load Factor Method (LFD))
3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method
1.6.1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method

In this method the section of reinforced concrete members are designed assuming straightline stress-strain relationships, i.e., the response and stresses are elastic. The stresses in the
concrete and steel at service load are kept below a stress called allowable or permissible
stress, which is obtained dividing the ultimate strength of the materials by safety factor. For
instance, the allowable compressive stress in extreme fiber of concrete should not exceed
0.425 fck and that of tensile stress in steel 0.52 fyk, for class-I works.
The internal bending moments and forces for a structure are calculated assuming linear
elastic behavior. Because of elastic stress distribution is assumed in design, it is not really
applicable to a semi-plastic (elasto-plastic) material such as concrete, nor is it suitable when
deformations are not proportional to the load, as in slender columns. It has also been found
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to be unsafe when dealing with the stability of structures subject to overturning forces. This
method was used from 1900-1950 for the design of reinforced concrete members.
1.6.2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

After about half a century of practical experience and laboratory tests the knowledge of the
behavior of structural concrete under load has vastly increased and the deficiencies of
elastic theory (working stress design method) have become evident. The deficiencies of
WSD are,
i.
ii.
iii.
Reinforced concrete sections behave in-elastically at high loads; hence elastic

theory cannot give a reliable prediction of the strength of the members because
inelastic strains are not taken into account.
Because reserve of strength in the inelastic range of stress-strain of concrete is
not utilized, the Working Stress Design Method is conservative and hence results
in uneconomical design.
The stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear and is time dependent. Creep
strains can be several times elastic strains. Therefore, modular ratio used in WSD
is a crude approximation. Creep Strains can cause a substantial redistribution of
stresses and actual stresses in structures are far from allowable stress used in
design.
In the ultimate strength method, sections are designed taking the actual inelastic strains
into account. The design stresses used are the ultimate strengths of materials and for safety
the loads are magnified or scaled up by load factors. Typical load factors used are 1.4 for
dead load and 1.7 for live load. Structural analysis is carried out either assuming linear
elastic behavior of the structure up to ultimate load or by taking some account of the
redistribution of actions due to the non-linear behavior at high loads.
As this method does not apply factors of safety to material stresses, it cannot directly take
account of variability of the materials, and also it cannot be used to calculate the deflections
or cracking at working loads.
USD method became accepted as an alternative design method in building codes of ACI in
1956 and of UK in 1957. This method was popular from 1950 up to 1960s.
1.6.3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method

More recently, it has been recognized that the design approach for reinforced concrete
should ideally combine the best features of ultimate strength and working stress design.
This is desirable because if sections are proportioned by ultimate strength requirements
alone there is a danger that although the load factors are adequate to ensure safety against
strength failure, the cracking and deflections at service loads may be excessive. Cracking
may be excessive if the steel stresses are high or if the bars are badly distributed.
Deflections may be critical if the shallow section, which are possible in USD, are used and
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the stress are high. Thus, to ensure a satisfactory design, the deflections and crack widths
must be checked for service loads to make sure that they lie within reasonable limiting
values dictated by functional requirements of the structure. This check requires the use of
elastic theory. Therefore, in the LSD method structures will be designed for strength at
ultimate loads (ULS), and deflection and crack width checked at service loads (SLS).
This design philosophy is gaining acceptance in many countries throughout the world
including Ethiopia. EBCS2-1995 is based on the LSD method.
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Assignment I
1. Enumerate the advantages of concrete and major weaknesses of concrete and give ways
to overcome the weaknesses.
2. What factors make concrete a dominant structural material?
3. Discuss the different hypotheses on strength development of concrete and give your
position with your rationale.
4. Enumerate the factors that affect the strength and performance of concrete and
describe how these affect strength and performance of concrete.
5. How are characteristic strengths and moduli of elasticity of concrete and steel obtained
for design?
6. What are the two most important factors affecting strength of concrete?
7. What requirements should form-work and false-work meet in order to produce quality
structural concrete?
8. Discuss the care that should be exercised in concrete placement and curing.
9. What is the importance and use of codes in reinforced concrete design?
10. What is the weakness of WSD method that led to the development of USD method?
Describe the weaknesses of USD that led to the development of the LSD method?
11. Compare and contrast structural concrete and structural steel. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
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CHAPTER II
LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR FLEXURE

2.1. Introduction
The WSD method discussed in chapter I have some shortcomings that led to the
development of USD and LSD. The Limit State Design (LSD) method combines the best
features of WSD and USD and has gained acceptance in many countries throughout the
world including Ethiopia. Ethiopian Building Code Standards (EBCS) are based on the LSD
method.
The Limit State Design Method is based on the limit state design philosophy. This design
philosophy considers that any structure that has exceeded a limit state for which it was
designed is unfit for the intended function or use. The limit state may be reached because
the structure is in danger of collapse (ultimate limit state) or because excessive deflection
has resulted in the structure's being unable to carry out its design functions (serviceability
limit state). Other limit states may be reached due to vibration, cracking, durability, fire or
various other factors, which mean that the structure can no longer fulfill the purpose for
which it was designed. These limit states are classified into three as ultimate, serviceability
and special limit states.
1. Ultimate Limit State (ULS) concerns:
failure by rupture, loss or stability, transformation into a mechanism
loss of equilibrium
failure caused by fatigue
To satisfy the design requirements of the ULS,
Appropriate safety factors are used
The most critical combinations of loads are considered.
Brittle failure is avoided (Ductility is ensured).
Accuracy of concrete works checked.
2. Serviceability Limit State (SLS) concerns not failure of structures but:
deformation
vibrations which cause discomfort to people
damage (cracking) - appearance, durability or function
To satisfy the design requirements of the SLS,
Minimum depth for defection requirements is provided
Adequate cover is provided and
Necessary detailing of reinforcement.
3. Special Limit States concerns:
extreme earthquakes, fires, explosion or vehicular collisions
A special feature of this philosophy is that it uses statistics to assess the variation in the
contributions of the factors influencing the limit states of a structure. These are material
30
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strength and loads, which affect resistance (capacity) of structural members and action
effects (internal actions) respectively.
The distributions of material strength and variation in structural loads follow normal or
Gaussian distribution. Section capacity and internal actions follow a similar distribution.
The number of specimens with extremely low strength or extremely high strength, though
small is never zero. It is, therefore, possible to have the situation in which two extremes are
reached simultaneously and if this is the extreme of high load together with low strength,
then a limit state of collapse may be reached. The probability of the collapse limit state
being reached will not be zero, but it will be kept sufficiently low by selecting suitable design
stresses and design loads that the probability may practically be taken as zero.
The use of statistical procedures has resulted in what are called characteristic strength and
characteristic loads as reference values. Characteristic strength of a material is that value
below which some percent of the test results fall (5% according to EBCS 2-1995 for concrete
and steel).
Where
fk = characteristics strength
fm = mean strength,
=standard deviation,
K1 = a factor that ensures the probability of the characteristics strength is not
being exceeded is small. (K1 =1.64)
Figure 2.1-1Characteristic strength definition
Table 2.1-1 gives different grades of concrete and characteristic cylinder compressive
strength in MPa. These values are obtained for standard cubes and cylinders at a slow rate
of loading to reach maximum stresses with in 2 or 3 minutes.
Grades of Concrete
fck
C15
12
C20
16
C25
20
C30
24
C40
32
C50
40
C60
48
Table 2.1-1 Grades of concrete and characteristic compressive strength fck
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Where
fcu = characteristic standard cube strength (obtained from 150mm cubes),
fck= characteristic standard cylinder strength (for 150mm diameter and
300mm high cylinder).
The characteristic tensile strength of concrete is calculated using,
The characteristic strength of reinforcement steel, f yk is defined as the fractile of the proof
stress fy or the 0.2% offset strength.
The same basic procedure as for strength may be used for the calculation of characteristic
loads but the practically insufficient statistical information reduce the effectiveness of the
approach for loads. Hence these are defined in and given by codes. Characteristic load is
that value of the load, which has an acceptable probability of not being exceeded during the
service life of the structure. EBCS 1-1995 gives values of characteristic permanent loads Gk
and characteristic imposed loads Qk and EBCS8-1995 gives characteristic seismic loads AEd.
The LSD method is a design method that involves identification of all possible modes of
failure and determining acceptable factors of safety against exceedence of each limit state.
These factors of safety are those which take care of material variability m and load
variability F.
Suitable design stress fd is obtained as,
m allows for differences that may occur between the strength of the material as
determined from laboratory tests and that achieved in the structure. The difference may
occur due to a number of reasons including method of manufacture, duration of loading,
corrosion and other factors.
Table 2.1-2 gives partial safety factors of materials at ULS according to EBCS 2-1995
Material and
workmanship
Design Situation
Persistent and
transient
Accidental
Concrete c
Steel s
Class I
Class II
Class I
Class II
1.50
1.65
1.15
1.20
1.30
1.45
1.00
1.10
Table 2.1-2Partial safe factors of materials at ULS according to EBCS 2 -1995
Persistent design situations refer to conditions of normal use. Transient design situations
refer to temporary conditions such as during construction or repair. Accidental design
situations refer to exceptional conditions such as during fire, explosion or impact.
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The difference in values for the two materials is indicative of the comparative lack of control
over the production of concrete the strength of which is affected by such factors as
water/cement ratio, degree of compaction, rate of drying, etc., which frequently cannot be
accurately controlled on site to conditions in factory.
Design stress of concrete in compression is,
Design stress of concrete in tension is,
Design stress of steel for both in tension and compression,
The characteristics load is given by EBCS 2-1995 as,
Where
Fk = characteristics load,
Fm = mean load,
=standard deviation,
K2 = a factor that ensures the probability of the characteristics load being
exceeded is small. (K2 =1.64)
Figure 2.1-2Characteristics load definition
Suitable design loads are obtained from characteristic loads by applying partial safety factor
for loads or load factors F.
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F accounts for possible increase of loads above those considered in design, relative
accuracy in determining the loads, inaccuracy in the analysis and design stage, difference
between dimensions shown on structural drawings and as built due to inaccuracy,
construction and the importance of the limit state that is considered.
Load combination for ULS

1. Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qk)
2. Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable action (Qk)
3. Permanent action, variable action and accidental (seismic) action
Load combination for SLS

1. Permanent action (Gk) and only one variable action (Qk)
2. Permanent action (Gk) and two or more variable action (Qk)
With the design loads for ULS on the structure, the structure is assumed to be on the verge
of collapse and ultimate moments and forces are determined by structural analysis. Analysis
can be carried out assuming linear elastic response (with or without plastic redistribution of
moments), non-linear response, or plastic response.
Finally serviceability requirements will be checked for the structure under service loads.
Elastic methods of analysis may be applied for analysis in the Serviceability Limit States.
Statics of beam action

A beam is a structural member that supports applied loads and its own weight primarily by
internal moments and shears. Figure 2.1-3a) shows a beam that supports its own dead
weight w, plus some applied load P. If the axial applied load, N, is equal to zero as shown,
the member is referred to as a beam. If N is a compressive force, the member is called a
beam-column. If it were tensile, the member would be a tension tie. These cause bending
moments, distributed as shown in figure 2.1-3 b).The bending moments are obtained
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directly from the loads using the laws of statics and for a given span and combination of
loads w and P. The moment diagram is independent of the composition or size of the beam.
The bending moment is referred to as a load effect. Other load effects include shear force,
axial force, torque, deflection and vibration.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, shown in figure 2.1-3 c)is
necessary to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting shear, V, is also required
as shown. The internal resisting moment, when the cross section fails, is referred to as the
moment capacity or moment resistance. The word "resistance" can also be used to describe
shear resistance or axial load resistance.
The beam shown in figure 2.1-3will safely support the loads if at every section the resistance
of the member exceeds the effects of the loads.
Figure 2.1-3 Internal force in a beam
The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force, C, and an
internal tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, jd, as shown in figure 2.1-3 (d).
The conventional elastic beam theory results in the equation = My/I, which for an
uncracked, homogeneous rectangular beam without reinforcement gives the distribution of
stresses shown in figure 2.1-4.The stress diagram shown in figure 2.1-4 (c) and (d) may be
visualized as having a "volume," and hence one frequently refers to the compressive stress
block and the tensile stress block. This is equal to the volume of the compressive stress
block shown in figure 2.1-4 (d). In a similar manner one could compute the force T from the
tensile stress block. The forces, C and T, act through the centroids of the volumes of the
respective stress blocks. In the elastic case these forces act at h/3 above or below the
neutral axis, so that jd = 2h /3. From above equations we can write,
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Figure 2.1-4Elastic beam stresses and stress blocks
Stress-strain distribution for beams

In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted by
the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the
corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two type of materials is assured if the
relative slip is prevented which is achieved by using deformed bars with high bond strength
at the steel-concrete interface. Figure 2.1-5 shows a simple test beam installed with gauges
to measure strains at different levels. The measured strains are seen to be linear as shown
in figure 2.1-5 (b). Corresponding stress are computed from strains at each level using
Hooks Law i.e. E = /. The results are plotted in figure 2.1-5 (c) and are found to be
parabolic in nature.
Figure 2.1-5 Side view of test beam with gauges
To illustrate the stress-strain development for increased loading, consider the following,
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Figure 2.1-6 Loading on a simply supported beam
Figure 2.1-7 Stress and strain distribution
Major points to notice are,
At low loads where tensile stress is less than or equal to the characteristics tensile
strength of concrete (fctk), the stress & strain relation shown in figure 2.1-7 (a)
results.
At increased loading, tensile stress larger than fctk in figure 2.1-7 (b) cause cracks
below neutral axis (NA) and the steel alone carry all tensile force. If the compressive
stress at extreme fiber is less than fc'/2, stresses and strains continue to be closely
proportional (linear stress distribution) otherwise non-linear.
For further increment of load, the stress distribution is no longer linear as shown in
figure 2.1-7 (c).
If the structure say the beam has reached its maximum carrying capacity one may conclude
the following on the cause of failure.
1. When the amount of steel is small at some value of the load the steel reaches its
yield point. In such circumstances:
The steel stretches a large amount.
Tension cracks in the concrete widen, visible and significant deflection of the
beam occurs.
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Compression zone of concrete increase resulting in crushing of concrete

(secondary compression failure).
Such failure is gradual and is preceded by visible sign, widening and lengthening of
cracks, marked increase in deflection.
2. When a large amount of steel is used, compressive strength of concrete would be
exhausted before the steel starts yielding. Thus concrete fails by crushing.
Compression failure through crushing of concrete is sudden and occurs without
warning.
3. When the amount of tensile strength of steel and compressive strength of concrete
are exhausted simultaneously then the type of failure that occurs is called balanced
failure.
Therefore it is a good practice to dimension sections in such a way that, should there be
overloading, failure would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than crushing of
concrete.
2.2. ULS of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

In the ULS the materials are used to their maximum capacity, i.e., the concrete is strained to
its maximum usable strain of 0.0035 and steel to its design stress f yd (s<0.01 also) as given
by EBSC 2-1995.
Design of reinforced concrete sections may be carried out using equations or charts and
tables. You may have to design irregular compressed areas like a triangle, trapezium, or
composite areas. The bases for all these are strain compatibility and equilibrium equations.
Therefore, we have to begin with stress-strain diagrams to derive expressions for flexural
strength of reinforced concrete members.
2.2.1. Basic assumptions at ULS

Three basic assumptions are made when deriving the expression for flexural strength of
reinforced concrete sections.
Sections perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remain
plane after bending.
The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same
level.
The stress in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the strains by
using stress-strain curves for concrete and steel.
The three assumptions already made are sufficient to allow calculation of the strength and
behavior of reinforced concrete elements. For design however, several additional
assumption are introduced to simplify the problem with little loss of accuracy.
The tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural strength calculations.

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Concrete is assumed to fail when maximum compressive strain reaches a limiting

value of 0.0035 in bending and 0.002 in axial compression according to EBCS 2-1995.
The compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete may be based on stressstrain curves or may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic or any
other shape as long as it is in agreement with comprehensive tests.
The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcements is taken to be 0.01 according to
EBCS 2-1995.
Stress-strain curve for steel is known.
The strain diagram shall be assumed to pass through one of the three points A, B or
C as shown in figure 2.2.1-1 as given by EBSC 2-1995.
Figure 2.2.1-1 Strain diagram in the ULS
Figure 2.2.1-2 Idealized stress-strain diagrams
2.2.2. Analysis of Singly Reinforced Concrete Beams

Stress and Strain Compatibility and Equilibrium
Two requirements are satisfied through the analysis and design of reinforced concrete
beams and columns.
1. Stress and strain compatibility. The stress at any point in a member must correspond
to the strain at that point.
2. Equilibrium. The internal forces must balance the external load effects.
Consider the stress and strain distribution at ULS for a rectangular cross section of singly
reinforced concrete beam subjected to bending as shown in the figure below.
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Figure 2.2.2-1 Singly reinforced rectangular beam
1. The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly
proportional to the strains, which generally occur at the loading level encountered
under working condition and it is, therefore, used at the serviceability limit state.
2. The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the
compressive strains are within the plastic range and it is associated with the design
for the ultimate limit state.
3. The equivalent rectangular stress block us a simplified alternative to the rectangularparabolic distribution.
1. If one wants to use the idealized parabolic-rectangular stress block given in EBCS 21995, as shown in figure 2.2.1-2
Figure 2.2.2-2 Derivation
and
Moment about the T,
Moment about the C,
c and c are values calculated by integrating the stress-strain diagram for the different
location of the N.A. depth. i.e.
40
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i.
cm2and N.A. within the section
ii.
cm2 and N.A. within the section
iii.
cm2 and N.A. outside the section
To understand the mechanics behind the derivation of the above equations, referring to
figure 2.2.2-2, the capacity of section when the cm 0.002 and N.A. within the section,
)(
))
C is the compression stress resultant,
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)(
))
Taking moment about the top fiber,
)(
))
2. If one wants to use the rectangular stress block given in EBCS 2-1995,
Tensile force in the reinforcement bars become,
Compressive force in the concrete,
The moment resistance of the cross-section is,
One should note that, the rectangular stress block approximation is only valid if the
concrete stain is 0.0035 and that if the steel is below fracture stain (0.01). The justification
for reducing the depth of N.A by 80% is shown below.
Figure 2.2.2-3 Derivation
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From similarity of triangle,
To find the compressive force for the parabolic rectangular stress block,
[
To find the moment arm c, taking moment about the top fiber,
[
(
Thus to accommodate both c and c, the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block is
reduced by 80%.
Example
Calculate the moment capacity of a beam with b = 250mm, h = 500mm and cover to
reinforcement of 25mm. The beam is reinforced with 320 bars with fyk = 400Mpa and fck =
30MPa. Use both parabolic-rectangular stress block and rectangular stress block. Comment
on the accuracy of rectangular stress block approximation.
2.2.3. Types of flexural failures

There are three types of flexural failures of reinforced concrete sections: tension,
compression and balanced failures. These three types of failures may be discussed to
choose the desirable type of failure from the three, in case failure is imminent.
a) Tension Failure
If the steel content As of the section is small, the steel will reach fyd before the concert
reaches its maximum strain cu of 0.0035. With further increase in loading, the steel force
remains constant at fyd As, but results a large plastic deformation in the steel, wide cracking
in the concrete and large increase in compressive strain in the extreme fiber of concrete.
With this increase in strain the stress distribution in the concrete becomes distinctly nonlinear resulting in increase of the mean stress. Because equilibrium of internal forces should
be maintained, the depth of the N.A decreases, which results in the increment of the lever
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arm z. The flexural strength is reached when concrete strain reaches 0.0035. With further
increase in strain, crushing failure occurs. s may also be so large as to exceed 0.01. This
phenomenon is shown in figure 2.2.3-1. This type of failure is preferable and is used for
design.
Figure 2.2.3-1 Tension failure
b) Compression Failure
If the steel content As is large, the concrete may reach its capacity before steel yields. In
such a case the N.A depth increases considerably causing an increase in compressive force.
Again the flexural strength of the section is reached when c= 0.0035.The section fails
suddenly in a brittle fashion. This phenomenon is shown in figure 2.2.3-2.
Figure 2.2.3-2Compression failure
c) Balanced Failure
At balanced failure the steel reaches fyd and the concrete reaches a strain of 0.0035
simultaneously. This phenomenon is shown in figure 3.2.3-3.
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Figure 2.2.3-3 Balanced failure
Figure 2.2.3-4Strain Diagrams for tension (1), Balanced (2) and compression (3) failures
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2.2.4. Design equations for singly reinforced rectangular beams

Compression failures are dangerous because they are brittle and occur suddenly giving little
visible warning. Tension failures, however, are preceded by large deflections and wide
cracking and have a ductile character. To ensure that all beams have the desirable
characteristic of visible warning if failure is imminent, as well as reasonable ductility at
failure, it is recommended that the depth of the N.A be limited or the steel ratio be limited
to a fraction of b. In our code of practice, EBCS 2-1995 limits the depth of the N.A to,
Where is percent plastic moment redistribution = (moment after redistribution)/original

moment.
In the case of no moment redistribution, = 1.0
Usually d is obtained from serviceability limit state. EBCS 2-1995 gives the following
minimum effective depth,
(
Where,
fyk = characteristics strength of reinforcement (MPa)
Le = effective span
a = constant from table
Member
Beams
Slabs
a) Span ratio 2:1
b) Span ratio 1:1
Simply Supported
20
End Spans
24
Interior Spans
28
Cantilevers
10
25
35
30
40
35
45
12
10
Table 2.2.4-1 Values of afrom EBCS 2-1995
The design of singly reinforced section can be carried out using chart or tables found in
EBCS-2-1995 Part 2 and are summarized below.
Referring to figure 2.2.2-2, the force cared by the compression and tensile zone can be
calculated using,
and
Moment capacity of the section in terms of tension force in the steel,
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Where is defined as geometrical ratio of steel reinforcement and is given by,
In the general design tables No 1a and No 1b in EBCS 2-1995 part 2, the design of the
section is formulated using empirical parameters Km and Ks.
Moment capacity of the section in terms of the compression force C in the concrete is,
For the limiting case of x/d = 0.45, sd,s = *sd,s = 0.295
Steps to be followed
a. Design using tables
1. Evaluate Km
2. Enter the general design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade,
a. If Km Km*, the value of Km*show shaded in design Table No 1.a, then the
section is singly reinforced.
Enter the design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade
Read Ks from the table corresponding to the steel grade and Km
Evaluate As
b. Design using general design chart

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1. Calculate
2. Enter the general design chart,
If
, section is singly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from
by reading value of
Evaluate
from chart using
Minimum reinforcement
At Some sections of continuous beams, moment may be so small that require a small
amount of steel. If the moment is less than that which cracks the section and with any load
causing cracking moment, failure is sudden and brittle. To prevent this, it is recommended
that a minimum reinforcement, As,min required to resist Mcracking be provided. As,min is
obtained from the cracking moment. Empirical relations are given in codes and standards.
EBCS2-1995 gives for beams,
2.2.5. Design equation for singly reinforced one-way slabs

One-way slabs carrying predominantly uniform load are designed on the assumption that
they consist of a series of rectangular beams of 1 m width spanning between supporting
beams or walls.
Figure 2.2.5-1One-way Slab Panels
A rectangular slab panel is classified as one way slab if the ratio of the long span to that of
the short span is greater than two. If the long span/short span is less than 2, the slab is
classified as two-way slab; the load in this case is transmitted along two orthogonal
directions.
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One way slabs may be simply supported or continuous over a number of supports. The
bending moments, on which design is to be based, are calculated from elastic analysis in the
same way as for beams. Approximate analysis could also be used in the case of continuous
slabs as recommended in some code of practices.
The flexural design of one-wayslab sections are treated in the same manner as for singly
reinforced rectangular beam sections, considering the slab as strips of beams having a width
of 1m. The reinforcement bar obtained is distributed uniformly with spacing between bars
given as,
Where:
as An area of reinforcement bar to be used

As Total area of steel required
2.1. ULS of doubly reinforced rectangular section

Occasionally, beams are built with both tension reinforcement and compression
reinforcements. The effect of the compression reinforcement on the behavior of the beam
and the reason it used are discussed in this section.
Figure 2.1-1 Effect of compression reinforcement
The effect of the compression on the design resistance capacity is very little. For normal
steel tension reinforcement ration ( 0.015), the increase in the moment is generally < 5%.
The notable difference between section with or without compression reinforcements is that
the NA depth of the section with compression reinforcement is less than the later, and the
effectiveness of compression steel decrease as it moves away the compression face.
Reasons for providing compression reinforcement

1. Reduce sustained-load deflection
First and most important, the addition of compression reinforcement reduces the
long term deflection of a beam subjected to sustained loads.
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Figure 2.1-2 Effect of compression reinforcements on deflection under sustained loading
Creep of the concrete in the compression zone transfers load from the concrete to
the compression steel, reducing the stress in the concrete.
2. Increased ductility
The addition of the compression reinforcements causes reduction in the depth of the
compression block.
Figure 2.1-3 Effect of compression reinforcements on strength and ductility.
3. Change of mode of failure from compression to tension

When > b, beam fails in a brittle manner, through crushing of the compression
zone before the reinforcement yields.
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Figure 2.1-4 Moment curvature diagram for beams with or without compression reinforcement
4. Fabrication ease
When assembling the reinforcement cage for the beam, it is customary to provide
bars in the corners of stirrups to hold the stirrups in place in the form and also to
help anchor the stirrups. If developed properly, these bars in effect are compression
reinforcements, although they are generally disregarded in design.
Analysis of Beams with Double Reinforcements

If the depth of an RC beam is limited due to architectural or other reasons the section may
not have sufficient compressive area of concrete to resist the moment induced in it. In such
cases the capacity of the section can be increased by placing steel in the compression zone.
This additional steel carries the additional compressive force that is required to resist
moment M over and above the maximum capacity of the section as singly reinforced
section as shown in figure 2.3-5.
Figure 2.1-5 Doubly reinforced section
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For analysis the beam is hypostatically divided into two beams. Beam 1 consisting of the
concrete web and sufficient steel at the bottom so that T s1 = Cc and having a maximum
capacity of a singly reinforced section. Beam 2 consisting of the compression reinforcement
at the top and the remaining tension reinforcement to carry additional moment.
Beam 1
Beam 2
In the derivation of the above formula, the stress in the compression reinforcement has
been shown as fs2.
If the steel has yielded (s2 yd)
If the steel has yielded (s2 < yd)
In the case of analysis type of problem, the steel may not have yielded. The analysis of such
a section a best carried but by assuming first that all the steel has yielded, the calculation
can be modified later if it is found that some or all of the steel have not yielded.
The step to be followed is, calculate first c assuming all steel yielded and reading values of
s1 and s2 from the chart and compare with yd.
The design resistance or capacity of the section can be calculated by
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For design problems the following procedures can be followed,
a. Design using tables

1. Evaluate Km
2. Enter the general design table No 1.a using Km and concrete grade,
If Km> Km*, the value of Km*show shaded in design Table No 1.a, then the
section is doubly reinforced.
- Evaluate Km/ Km* and d2/d
- Read Ks, Ks, and from the same table corresponding to Km/ Km*, d2/d
and concrete grade
- Evaluate
b. Design using general design chart

1. Calculate
2. Enter the general design chart,
If
, section is doubly reinforced.
Evaluate Z from chart using
Evaluate
Calculate
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2.2. ULS of T- and L- Sections

Reinforced concrete floors or roofs are monolithic and hence, a part of the slab will act with
the upper part of the beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam crosssection is, then, T-shaped (inverted L), rather than rectangular with the slab forming the
beam flange where as part of the beam projecting below the slab forms the web or stem.
Figure 2.2-1 Slab and Beam floor System
The T -sections provide a large concrete cross-sectional area of the flange to resist the
compressive force. Hence, T-sections are very advantageous in simply supported spans to
resist large positive bending moment, whereas the inverted T-sections have the added
advantage in cantilever beam to resist negative moment.
As the longitudinal compressive stress varies across the flange width of same level, it is
convenient in design to make use of an effective flange width (may be smaller than the
actual width) which is considered to be uniformly stressed.
Effective flange width (according to EBCS 2, 1995)
Figure 2.2-2 Typical slab
The part of the slab that is acting together with the beam, called effective flange width b e is
provided in codes of practices. The EBCS recommends that the effective flange width for Tsections and L- sections must not exceed:
For in interior beams (T-sections)
{
For in edge beams (L-sections)
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RCS I
{
Le is the effective span length and bw is width of the beam.
The neutral axis of a T-beam may be either in the flange or in the web, depending upon the
proportion of the cross-section, the amount of tensile steel and the strength of the
materials. If the calculated depth to the neutral axis is less or equal to the slabs thickness, h f
the beam can be analyzed as if it were a rectangular beam of width equal to b e. If the NA is
in the web x>hf, a method is developed which account for the actual T -shaped compression
zone. The compression block shall be divided into two parts; one is for the compression in
the flange (Beam F) and the other is for the compression in the web (Beam W). T-beams
with compression flanges rarely require compression reinforcement, but if this is
unavoidable, the same principles apply as for doubly reinforced sections for the
compression in the web.
When designing T- and L- sections, since the compression blocks are irregular in shape, it is
one of the special cases where the equivalent rectangular stress block approximation are
used instead of the parabolic rectangular one. Referring to figure 2.4-3,
Assume b = be,
Usually,
We solve for x from the above quadratic equation,

i.
If
, section is T- or L-, thus it is convenient to consider two
hypothetical beams: Beam F and Beam W
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RCS I
Beam W
Beam F
Figure 2.2-3ULS T-section
Beam F
) or
The force in the remaining steel area Asw is balanced by compression in the rectangular
portion of the beam. (i.e. Asw = As - Asf)
Beam W
or
The total moment capacity of the section now becomes,
ii.
If 0.8x hf, then the beam is considered to be a rectangular beam for the
calculation purpose. The effect of small area of the web under compression is
insignificant.
Note:- In the derivation of the design resistance capacity of the section, it was assumed that
fs = fyd. This has to be verified by determining the NA and checking the strain profile.
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Assignments Problems on Chapter 2

1. Determine the imposed (uniformly distributed) load and the tensile steel of the
singly reinforced rectangular beam of L = 8.0m simply supported, thickness of
supporting brick wall = 300 mm, width b = 300 mm, effective depth d = 550 mm,
total depth D = 600 mm, grade of concrete = C25 and characteristic strength of the
steel = 415MPa. (Height of brick wall=?)
2. A singly reinforced beam has a width of 300mm and an effective depth of 600 mm.
The concrete is C25 and the steel is Grade 300. Determine
a. the maximum design moment of resistance of the section and the required
reinforcement, if the maximum aggregate size is 20mm and the cover to the
main reinforcement is 40 mm, and
b. the area of reinforcement required to resist a moment of 350kNm.
3. Determine the moment of resistance of a section whose width is 200mm, effective
depth 450mm and is reinforced with 220 and 216 bars. The concrete is C30 and
steel is????.
4. A singly reinforced beam constructed from C25 concrete has a width of 200mm and
an effective depth of 450mm. If the reinforcement has characteristic yield strength
of 420MPa, determine the maximum capacity of the section and the reinforcement.
5. A doubly reinforced beam constructed from C30 concrete has a width of 250mm and
an effective depth of 450mm. The reinforcement has a characteristic strength of
300MPa, and the axis depth of the compression reinforcement, if required, is 50mm.
If the moment applied to the section is 400kNm, determine the reinforcement
requirements.
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6. Determine the ultimate moment capacity of the doubly reinforced beam of b = 350
mm, d' = 60 mm, d = 600 mm, As = 2945 mm2, As = 1256 mm2, using C30 and S415.
7. A T-beam has an effective flange width of 1370mm, a flange thickness of 150mm, a
web width of 250mm and an overall depth of 500mm. The concrete is C25 and the
steel 300MPa. The axis distance from the reinforcement to any face is 50mm. Design
suitable reinforcement for the following moments:
a. 400kNm (sagging), and
b. 300kNm (hogging).
8. A beam with a flange width of 1500 mm, flange thickness 150 mm, effective depth
800mm and web width 350mm carries a moment of 2000kNm. If the concrete is C25
and the steel strength is 300MPa, design suitable reinforcement.
9. Design the main reinforcement(s) of a rectangular RC beam section having a width of
300mm, a total depth of 500mm and carries a positive moment of 400kN-m. Use C30
concrete, fyk = 420MPa and d' = 50mm.
10. Determine the maximum permissible span (in meters) of a simply supported RC oneway slab having a thickness of 15cm and reinforced with 10c/c100mm. The
working live-load on the slab is 5kPa; C25 concrete and steel fyk = 300MPa are used.
Consider both ultimate and serviceability limit states to select the appropriate value.
11. For the reinforced concrete cantilever beam shown in the figure below, design the
total depth (not be higher than 600mm), as well as the flexural reinforcements. Use
C30 concrete, fyk = 300Mpa, d = 60mm. (The given loads are factored loads.)
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RCS I
12. Determine (a) the theoretical and (b)
practical curtailment point for 2 diam
20 bars for the cantilever beam
shown below. Assume b = 300mm, d
= 700mm, C25 concrete, fyk =
300MPa
and
total
uniformly
distributed design load of 20 kN/m.
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Serviceability limit state
Chapter V
CHAPTER III
LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR SHEAR
3.1. Introduction
Beams resist loads primarily by means of internal moment M and shear V. In the design of
reinforced concrete members flexure is usually considered first, (i.e. sections are
proportioned and areas of longitudinal reinforcement determined for the moment M),
because flexural failure is ductile. The beams are then designed for shear. Because shear
failure is frequently sudden and brittle, the design for shear should ensure that shear
strength equals or exceeds the flexural strength at all points in the beam. Fig 3.1 shows
internal forces of a simple beam.
Figure 3.1-1 Internal force in beams
3.2. Basic Theory

Stresses in an Uncracked Beam
From the FBD in Fig. 3.1-1 c, it can be seen that dM/dx = V. Thus shear forces exist in those
parts of a beam where the moment changes from section to section. The shear stresses, V
on elements 1 and 2 cut out of a beam (Fig. 3-2-1 a) is calculated from the equation,
Where
V = shear force on the cross section

I = moment of inertia of the section
Q = first moment of part of the cross-sectional area about the centroid
b = width of the member at which the stresses are calculated
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RCS I
Chapter V
e ) Photograph of half of a cracked reinforced concrete beam
Figure 3.2-1 Normal, shear and principal stress in a homogenous un-cracked beam
For uncracked rectangular beam Fig. 3-2-1b gives the distribution of shear stresses on a
section. In regions where we have M and V we have biaxial states of stress and the principal
stresses are
(
)
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RCS I
Chapter V
The principal stresses on the elements are shown in Fig. 3-2-1c. The surfaces on which
principal stresses act in an uncracked beam are plotted by curved lines as in Fig 3-2-1d and
are known as stress trajectories. Since concrete cracks when the principal stresses exceed
the tensile strength of the concrete, the initial cracking pattern resembles the family of
curves (stress trajectories) shown in Fig 3-2-1d.
Two types of cracks can be seen. The vertical cracks occurred first, due to flexural stresses.
These start at the bottom of the beam where the flexural stresses are the largest. The
inclined cracks at the ends of the beam are due to combined shear flexure. These are
commonly referred to as inclined cracks, shear cracks or diagonal tension cracks. Such
cracks must exist before a beam can fail in shear.
Although there is similarity between the planes of maximum principal tensile stress and the
cracking pattern, it is by no means perfect, because in RC flexural cracks generally occur
before the principal tensile stress at mid height become critical. Once the flexural cracks
have occurred, the tensile stress perpendicular to the cracks drops to zero. To maintain
equilibrium, a major redistribution is necessary. As a result, the onset of inclined cracking in
a beam cannot be predicted from the principal stresses unless shear cracks precedes
flexural cracking. This very rarely happens in RC, but it does occur in some pre-stressed
beams.
Shear transfer of reinforced concrete beams heavily relies on the tensile and compressive
stresses of the concrete. Most of the time the problem of concrete in shear design is not
shear stress exceeding the shear strength of the concrete; rather, it is the major principal
stress exceeding the tensile strength of concrete due to the low tensile strength. When the
tensile stress exceeds the tensile strength then cracks will form. With the formation of
cracks ensues a complex pattern of stresses.
3.3. Mechanism of shear resistance in concrete beams without shear

reinforcements
After formation of cracks we will have a different stress distribution. Fig 4-3-1a shows a
cracked beam.
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RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.3-1 Calculation of average shear stress between cracks
The concrete below the neutral axis in a cracked reinforced concrete beam is in a state of
pure shear because tensile stress is zero.
From fig 3-3-1b
From the moment equilibrium of the element
If the shaded portion of Fig 3-3-1b is isolated, the force T must be transferred by horizontal
shear stress on the top of the element. The average value of these stresses below the top of
the crack is
The distribution of the average horizontal shear stress is shown in Fig 3-3-1d. Since the
vertical shear stresses on an element are equal to the horizontal shear stresses on the same
element, the vertical shear stress distribution will be as shown in Fig. 3-3-1d.
Fig 3.3-2 shows mechanism of shear resistance across an inclined crack in a beam without
shear reinforcement (stirrups). Observe that a typical vertical plane cuts (passes): the
compression zone, the crack and the flexural reinforcement, unlike the entire section of the
un-cracked homogenous beam. Shear resistance along A, B, C is provided by the sum of
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RCS I
Chapter V
shear in the compression zone Vcz, the vertical component of force due to aggregate
interlock Vay and force due to dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement V d.
Figure 3.3-2 Internal force in a cracked beam without stirrups
Immediately after inclined cracking it is found that 40-60% of the shear is resisted by Vay and
Vd,
Considering portions D, E, F below the crack and summing up moments about E we see that
Va and Vd will have moment about E in the clockwise direction which should be balanced by
moment due to compression force C1.
From horizontal force equilibrium on vertical face A, B, D, E we see that T1=C1+C1 and finally
T1 and C1+C1 must equilibrate the external moment at the section.
As the crack widens Va decreases and much of the resistance is provided by Vcz and Vd. As Vd
gets larger it leads to splitting crack in the concrete along the reinforcement. When this
crack occurs Vd drops to zero. When Va and Vd disappear so do Vcz and C1 with the result
that all shearing is transmitted in the width AB above the crack. This may cause crushing of
concrete in region AB.
It is important to note also that, if C1 =0, T2 = T1 and T2=C1. In other words, the inclined crack
has made the tensile force at C to be a function of the moment on the vertical section A, B,
D, E. This shift in tensile force must be considered when determining bar cutoff points and
when anchoring bars.
For a typical RC beam, the approximate proportions are
It has been found that the dowel action is generally the first to reach its capacity followed
by failure of the aggregate interlock, which is followed by shear failure of the concrete in
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RCS I
Chapter V
compression (abruptly and explosively). However, the precise proportion is difficult to
establish and the shear strength is represented by a single expression accounting for all
mechanisms.
The shear resistance of the concrete depends on the tensile strength of concrete, shear
span to depth ratio, av/d, size of the member, aggregate interlock and the amount of
longitudinal reinforcement. Empirical relations are given in codes which may consider all of
these factors or only some.
EBCS 2 gives empirical relations as a function of the tensile strength of the concrete fctd, area
of longitudinal reinforcement, effective depth d, and breadth of web, bw.
As the area of tensile reinforcement anchored beyond the intersection of the steel and the
line of possible 450 cracking starting from the edge of the section.
3.4. Design of shear reinforcement

In subsection 3.3 we saw that formation of diagonal cracks is followed by widening of cracks
and brittle compression failure. This type of failure can be suppressed and development of
full flexural capacity can be ensured using shear reinforcement. Inclined stirrups, bent up
longitudinal bars or vertical stirrups can be used.
Figure 3.4-1 Inclined cracks and shear reinforcements
65
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.4-2 Vertical and Inclined Shear reinforcements
The most commonly used type is vertical stirrup. The use of bent bars has almost
disappeared. Inclined stirrups cannot be used for beams resisting shear reversal such as
building resisting seismic loads.
Stirrups restrain the cracks from opening wide and so not only maintain the shear resistance
due to aggregate interlock and dowel action but also contribute to shear resistance. The
shear resistance at section of the beam is categorized into two contributions as the part
resisted by concrete and as shear resisted by stirrups.
Where:
Vc = Vcz+Vay+Vd, shear resisted by the concrete

Vs = shear resisted by the stirrups
The stirrups are required to carry shear over and above the capacity of the concrete.
Figure 3.4-3 Distribution of internal shears in a beam with web reinforcements
66
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.4-4 Internal force in a cracked beam with stirrups
The amount of shear reinforcement or the spacing S of the stirrups having cross sectional
area Av (of the two vertical bars) is obtained from a mathematical model called TrussAnalogy. This model was proposed by Professor Mrsch in 1902 for the design of beam for
shear. The stirrups are modeled as vertical tension members, the longitudinal flexure
reinforcement as horizontal tension members the concrete diagonals between cracks as
diagonal compression members and the concrete in flexural compression as top horizontal
compression members as shown in fig 3.4-5.
The shear reinforcement spacing S can be calculated as follows because it has to carry V s,
The horizontal projection of cross section A-A is
and
No. of stirrups in this width is;
Therefore,
EBCS 2 gives
67
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.4-5 Truss analogy
Before determining the spacing of reinforcement S, whether diagonal compression failure of

concrete occurs or not should be checked. The average compression stress in the concrete
diagonal in concrete diagonals in fig.3.4-6 b is
68
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.4-6Forces in stirrups and compression diagonals
The shear V on B-B has been replaced by diagonal compression force D and axial tension
force Nv as shown in Fig 3.4-6c.
V is the shear at which diagonal compression failure occurs. Internal shear induced by loads
should be less than V. If internal shear is greater than or equal to 0.5f cdbwZ then the section
has to be increased.
EBCS 2 gives even a smaller limit on Vsd to avoid diagonal compression failure,
If Vsd>VRd, then the beam section has to be increased.

Assuming uniform shear stress distribution in the concrete the resultant of V and D act at
mid height of the section as a result, Nv acts through mid-height which means that Nv/2 acts
in each of the top and bottom chord members.
At the bottom total tension,
At the top net compression,
In design the value of should be 25 65. The choice of small value of reduces the
number of stirrups required but increases the compression stress in the web and increases
Nv, and hence the shift of moment diagrams. The opposite is true for large angles.
Because the shear within a distance of D from face of support is resisted by the support for
a 450 crack, the maximum design shear force is taken as the one at a distance d from face of
support.
Minimum shear reinforcement according to EBCS 2

Because shear failure of RC beams without shear reinforcement is brittle and sudden,
minimum shear reinforcement should be provided in regions of beam where we need no
shear reinforcement theoretically.
69
RCS I
Chapter V
The practical design procedure recommended by EBCS 2 is essentially empirical and may be
summarized as follows:
Calculate the design shear force at the section to be designed, V sd

If Vsd VRd, Diagonal compression failure, increase the cross sectional dimension
If Vsd VRd and Vsd Vc, provide shear reinforcement , S, as
If Vsd Vc , provide minimum reinforcement, min
Maximum spacing according to EBCS 2,

S Smax =0.5d 300 mm if V 2/3VRd,
S Smax =0.3d 200 mm if VRd>V > 2/3VRd
The first limit is given so that a 450 crack will be intercepted by at least one stirrup.
Commonly used stirrup bars have diameters ranging between 6 mm and 10 mm.
3.5. Bond and development length

3.5.1. Bond
In reinforced concrete, the concrete carries compression and the steel carries tension. In the
tension zone there is no slip between the concrete and the steel transfers its tension to the
surrounding concrete by shear stresses at the bar-concrete interface. This interface shear
stress is called bond stress.
This bond when fully developed enables the two materials to form a composite structure. If
this bond could not be developed then the bars pull out of the concrete and the tension
drops to zero.
The bond strength varies along the length of the bar Fig 3.5.1-1e and usually average bond
stress is used.
70
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.5.1-1 Steel, concrete and bond stresses in a cracked beam
The mechanism by which smooth plane bars develop this bond is by adhesion between the
concrete and the bar surface and by a small amount of bar friction.
For a bar loaded in tension both of these will be lost quickly because of reduction in
diameter due to Poissons ratio and the bar pulls out. For this reason, smooth plane bars are
not used as reinforcement. For cases where smooth bars are embedded in concrete (anchor
bolts, stirrups made of small diameter bars, etc) mechanical anchorage in the form of hooks,
nuts and washers on the embedded end, or similar devices are used.
In deformed bars although adhesion and friction are present at first loading, this will be lost
quickly leaving the load to be transferred by bearing on the ribs (Fig 3.5.1-2). If these
bearing forces are too big, the radial component will cause splitting along the reinforcement
which propagate out to the surface along the shortest distance (fig 3.5.1-3)
71
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.5.1-2 Bond transfer mechanism
The load at which splitting failure develops is a function of:

1. The minimum distance from the bar to the surface of the concrete or to the next bar.
The smaller this distance, the smaller the splitting load.
2. The tensile strength of the concrete
3. The average bond stress. As this increase the wedging force increase leading to a
splitting failure.
Figure 3.5.1-3 Typical splitting failure surfaces
72
RCS I
Chapter V
Bond stresses arise from two situations; from anchorage of bars and from change of bar
force along the length of the bar such as due to change in bending moment (fig 3.5.1-4).
Average bond stress in a beam
If there are more than one bars
Where p is the sum of perimeters of all

bars
Alternatively
Figure 3.5.1-4 Average flexural bond stress
3.5.2. Development Length

The full design tensile strength of a deformed straight bar can be developed at a given
section provided the bar extends into the concrete a sufficient length beyond the section.
The length of the bar required to develop the length of the bar is known as development
length, lb or anchorage length. Since bond stress varies along the length of the bar, the
concept of development length is used instead of bond stress in codes.
This length lb is a function of
a) Whether we have tension or compression, longer lb is required for tension.
b) The quality of concrete surrounding the bar which in turn is affected by depth of the
section and position of the bar.
c) The diameter and grade of steel.
EBCS 2 gives the basic anchorage length lb for a bar of diameter as
73
RCS I
Chapter V
Where: fbd is the design bond strength defined below.

The design bond strength fbd depends on the type of reinforcement, the concrete strength
and the position of the bar during concreting. The bond conditions are considered to be
good for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
all bars which are in the lower half of an element

all bars in elements whose depth does not exceed 300mm.
all bars which are at least 300mm from top of an element in which they are placed
all bars with an inclination of 45-900 with the horizontal during concreting
For good bond conditions the design bond strength of may be obtained from
For other bond conditions the design bond strength may be taken as 0.7*the value for good
bond conditions. Local bond should be checked at sections where there are high shear
combined with rapid changes in bending moments such as: simply supported ends of a
member, points of contra flexure, supports of a cantilever, and points where tension bars
are terminated.
The required anchorage length lbnet depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress in
the reinforcement.
[
]
[
Where:
a = 1.0 for straight bar in tension or in compression

a = 0.7 for hook anchorage with standard hooks in fig 3.5.2-1
As[calculated] and As [provided] are area of reinforcement calculated, and provided
respectively.
lb,min = minimum anchorage length:
for bars in tension
lb,min = 0.3lb 10 or lb,min 200 mm
for bars in compression lb,min = 0.6lb 10 or lb,min 200 mm
Figure 3.5.2-1 Standard hooks
74
RCS I
Chapter V
3.5.3. Lapped splices

When the available standard length of bars (which is 12m) is less than the required length
we extend reinforcement bars by lap splices. In lapped splices, the force in one bar is
transferred to the surrounding concrete which in turn transfers the force to the adjacent
bars. Due to the stress influence of the two bars in the surrounding concrete a large
development length is required for lapped splices than for anchorage.
The requirement in lapped splices is to locate in regions of small bending moment and avoid
splicing in critical zones (large tension zones).
EBCS 2 gives the lap length `lo to be at least,
Where:
lb net and a are given in section 4.5.2

a1 is obtained from the following table; it is a function of percentage of rebars
lapped at one section. Lapped joints are considered to be at the same section
if the distance between their centers does not exceed the required lap
length.
Distance between
two adjacent laps
Distance to the
nearest surface
Percentage of reinforcement
lapped with in required lap length
20%
25%
33%
50%
100%
a < 10 and /or
b < 5
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
a > 10 and
b >5
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Table 3.5.3-1 values for a1
3.5.4. Bar cutoff

For economy some bars are cut off where they are no longer needed where the remaining
bars are adequate to carry the tension. The location of points where bars are cutoff is a
function of the tension due to moment and shear.
The flexure envelope tension diagram will be displaced horizontally by a1 as shown in Fig.
3.5.4-1 to take care of additional tension resulting from shear force.
75
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 3.5.4-2 Tensile force or M/Z diagram
The displacement a1 depends on the spacing of potential shear cracks and may be taken as:
a) members without shear reinforcement (slabs)
b) members with Vsd < 2Vc,
c) members with Vsd 2Vc,
a1 = 1.0d
a1= 0.75d
a1= 0.5d
Where Vsd is the applied design shear force

Near points of zero moment a1 d shall be taken for both positive and negative moments.
The anchorage length of reinforcement is as follows
1) Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist
tension for a length given by lb or lb.net d provided that in this case the continuing bars
are capable of resisting twice the applied moment at the section
2) The anchorage length of bars that are bent up as shear reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 1.3lb.net in zones subject to tension and to 0.7lb.net in zones subject to
compression
When considering anchorage of bottom reinforcement at supports, the following must be
applied
1. At least one-quarter of the positive moment reinforcement in simple beams and onehalf of the positive moment reinforcement in slabs shall be extended along the same
face of the member in to the support
2. The anchorage of this reinforcement shall be capable of developing the following tensile
force
3. The anchorage length is measured from
a) The face of the support for a direct support
4. A plane inside the support located at a distance of 1/3 the width of the support from the
face of the support for an indirect support
5. The anchorage length of the bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports shall be at
least 10.
76
RCS I
Chapter V
CHAPTER IV
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
4.1. Introduction
In design of structures, the chief items of behavior of which are of practical significance are
1) The strength of the structure. i.e., the magnitude of loads which will cause
the structure to fail and
2) The deformations, such as deflections and extent of cracking, which the
structure will undergo when loaded under service conditions.
In the previous chapter we mainly deal with the strength design of RC beams. It is also
important that member performance in normal service be satisfactory, when loads are
those actually expected to act, (i.e. when load factor is 1.0), which is not guaranteed simply
by providing adequate strength. Serviceability studies are carried out based on elastic
theory, with stress in both concrete and steel assumed to be proportional to strain. The
concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may be assumed un-cracked, partially
cracked, or fully cracked, depending on the loads and material strengths.
The concept of Serviceability limit states has been introduced in chapter 2 and for RC
structures these states are often satisfied by observing empirical rules which affect the
detailing only. In some circumstances, however, it may be desired to estimate the behavior
of a member under working conditions, and mathematical methods of estimating
deformations and cracking must be used.
The major SLS for reinforced concrete structures are: excessive crack widths, excessive
deflections, and undesirable vibrations.
Historically, deflections and crack widths have not been a problem for RC building
structures. With the advent high strength steel (fyk 400 MPa), the reinforcement stresses
at service loads have increased by about 50%. Since crack widths, deflections and fatigue
are all related to steel stress, each of these has become more critical.
4.2. Elastic analysis of beam sections

4.2.1. Section Un-cracked
As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than the tensile strength of concrete
(fctk) the strain and stress is the same as in an elastic, homogeneous beam. The only
difference is the presence of another material, i.e. the steel reinforcement. As it can be
shown, in the elastic range, for any given value of strain, the stress in the steel is 'n' times
that of the concrete, where n =Es/Ec is the modular ratio. In calculation the actual steel and
concrete cross-section could be replaced by a fictitious section (transformed section)
thought of as consisting of concrete only. In this section the actual steel area is replaced
with an equivalent concrete area (nAs) located at the level of the steel. Once the
77
RCS I
Chapter V
transformed section has been obtained, the beam is analyzed like an elastic homogeneous
beam.
Figure 4.2.1-1 Un-cracked Transformed Section
4.2.2. Section Cracked

When the tension stresses fct exceeds fctk, cracks form in the tension zone of the section. If
the concrete compressive stress is smaller than approximately 0.5fck and the steel has not
reached the yield strength, both materials continue to behave elastically.
At this stage, it is assumed that tension cracks have progressed all the way to the neutral
axis and that sections that are plane before bending remain plane in the bent member. This
situation of the section, strain and stress distribution is shown in the figure 4.2.2-1 below.
Figure 4.2.2-1 Cracked Transformed Section
To determine the location of the NA (a), the moment of the tension area about the NA is set
equal to the moment of the compression area, which gives,
78
RCS I
Chapter V
Having obtained 'a' by solving this equation, the moment of inertia and other properties of
the transformed section can be determined as in the preceding case. Alternatively, one can
proceed from basic principle by accounting directly for the forces which act in the crosssection as shown in figure 4.2.2-1.
From the strain distribution,
Applying Hookes Law and using modular ration the above equation becomes,
For horizontal force equilibrium,
But equation
can be simplified to
Equating equation
and
which reduces to
and solving for practical value of k yields,
Note that
satisfies the stress -strain relation as well as the equilibrium of horizontal
forces and hence is a useful relation for analysis.
79
RCS I
Chapter V
4.3. Serviceability Limit States of Cracking

4.3.1. General
The occurrence of cracks in reinforced concrete is inevitable because of the low tensile
strength of concrete. Structures designed with low steel stresses at service load serve their
intended function with very limited cracking. Crack widths are of concern for three main
reasons: aesthetic appearance, leakage and corrosion.
Aesthetic appearance:- The limits on aesthetic acceptability are difficult to set because of
the variability of personal opinion. The maximum crack width that will neither impair a
structures appearance nor create public alarm is probably in the range of 0.25 to 0.38 mm.
Leakage:- Crack control is important in the design of liquid-retaining structures. Leakage is
basically a function of the crack width.
Corrosion:- Concrete made from portland cement usually provide good protection for
reinforcement steel due its high alkalinity. Corrosion of the reinforcement happens when an
electrolytic cell is formed due to the carbonization of the concrete or chlorides penetrate
through the concrete reaches the bar surface. The time taken for this to occur will depend
on whether or not the concrete is cracked, the environment, the thickness of the cover, and
the permeability of the concrete. If the concrete is cracked, the time required for a
corrosion cell to be established is the function of the crack width.
At present cracking is controlled by specifying maximum allowable crack widths at the
surface of the concrete for given type of environment.
4.3.2. Causes of Cracks

1. Load induced cracks: Tensile stress induce by loads, moments, and shear cause
distinctive crack patterns as shown in Fig. 4.3.2-1
80
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 4.3.2-1 Load-induced cracks
2. Heat of hydration cracking: a frequent cause of cracking in structures is restrained

contraction resulting from the cooling down to ambient temperatures of very young
members which have expanded due to heat of hydration which developed as the
concrete was setting. A typical heat of hydration cracking pattern of a wall cast on
foundation concrete is shown in Fig. 4.3.2-2. Such cracking can be controlled by
controlling the heat rise due to the heat of hydration and the rate of cooling, or both; by
placing the wall in short lengths; or by reinforcements.
81
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 4.3.2-2 Heat of hydration cracking
3. Plastic slumping cracks: plastic shrinkage and slumping of the concrete occurs as newly
placed concrete bleeds and surface dries, results in settlement cracks along the
reinforcement as shown in Fig 4.3.2-3a, or a random cracking pattern, referred to as
map cracking shown in Fig. 4.3.2-3b. These types of cracks can be avoided by proper mix
design and by preventing rapid drying of the surface during the first hour or so after
placing. Map cracking can also occur due to alkali-aggregate reaction.
Figure 4.3.2-3 Other types of cracks
4. Cracks caused by corrosion: rust occupies two to three times the volume of the metal
from which it is formed. As a result, if rusting occurs, a bursting force is generated at the
bar location which leads to splitting cracks and eventual loss of cover (4.3.2-3b). Such
cracking looks similar to bond cracking (4.3.2-1e) and may accompany bond cracking.
4.3.3. EBCSs Provisions of Cracking

(1) For reinforced concrete, two limit states of cracking: the limit state of crack formation
and the limit state of crack widths are of interest.
(2) The particular limit state to be checked is chosen on the basis of the requirements for
durability and appearance. The requirements for durability depend on the conditions of
exposure and the sensitivity of the reinforcement to corrosion.
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RCS I
Chapter V
4.3.3.1. Minimum Reinforcement Areas

(1) In assessing the minimum area of reinforcement required to ensure controlled cracking
in a member or part of a member which may be subjected to tensile stress due to the
restraint of imposed deformations, it is necessary to distinguish between two possible
mechanisms by which such stress may arise. The two mechanisms are:
(a)
Restraint of intrinsic imposed deformations - where stresses are generated in
a member due to dimensional changes of the member considered being
restrained (for example stress induced in a member due to restraint to
shrinkage of the member).
(b)
Restraint of extrinsic imposed deformations - where the stresses are
generated in the member considered by its resistance to externally applied
deformations (for example where a member is stressed due to settlement of
a support).
(2) It is also necessary to distinguish between two basic types of stress distribution within
the member at the onset of cracking. These are:
(a)
Bending - where the tensile stress distribution within the section is
triangular (i.e. some part of the section remains in compression).
(b)
Tension - where the whole of the sections subject to tensile stress.
(3) Unless more rigorous calculation shows a lesser area to be adequate, the required
minimum areas of reinforcement may be calculated from the relation given
As K e Kf ct .ef Act / s
Where
As = area of reinforcement
Act = area of concrete within tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of
the section which calculated to be in tension just before formation of
the first crack.
S = maximum stress permitted in the reinforcement immediately after
formation the crack. This may be taken as 100% of the yield strength
of the reinforcement, A lower value may, however, be needed to
satisfy the crack with limits
f ct .ef = tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when the cracks
may first be arises from dissipation of the heat of hydration, this may
be within 3-5 days from casting depending on the environmental
conditions, the shape of the member and the nature of the formwork.
When the time of cracking cannot be established with confidence as
being less than 28 days, it is suggested that a minimum tensile
strength of 3 MPa be adopted.
K e = a coefficient which takes account of the nature of the stress
distribution within the section immediately prior to cracking. The
stress distribution is that resulting from the combination of effects of
loading and restrained imposed deformation.
= 1.0 for pure tension
= 0.4 for bending without normal compressive force
83
RCS I
K=

Chapter V
a coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform selfequilibrating stresses
Values of K for various situations are given below:
a) tensile stresses due to restraint of intrinsic deformations generally
K = 0.8 for rectangular sections when h 300mm, K = 0.8
h 800mm, K =1.0
b) tensile stresses due to restraint of extrinsic deformations K = 1.0.
Parts of sections distant from the main tension reinforcement, such as outstanding parts of
a section or the webs of deep sections, may be considered to be subjected to imposed
deformations by the tension chord of the member. For such cases, a value in the range of
0.5 < K < 1.0 will be appropriate.
(4) The minimum reinforcement may be reduced or even be dispensed with altogether if
the imposed deformations sufficiently small that it is unlikely to cause cracking. In such
cases minimum reinforcement need only be provided to resist the tensions due to the
restraint.
4.3.3.2. Limit state of Crack Formation

(1) The maximum tensile stresses in the concrete are calculated under the action of design
loads appropriate to a serviceability limit state and on the basis of the geometrical
properties of the transformed un-cracked concrete cross section.
(2) The calculated stresses shall not exceed the following values:
ct 1.70 f ctk
a) Flexure
b) Direct tension
ct f ctk
(3) In addition to the above, minimum reinforcement in accordance with Chapter 7 shall be
provided for the control of cracking.
4.3.3.3. Limit state of Crack Widths

4.3.3.3.1. General
(1)
Adequate protection against corrosion may be assumed provided that the minimum
concrete covers in section (EBCS-2, 1995 section 7.1.3) are complied with and
provided further that the characteristic crack widths wk do not exceed the limiting
values given in Table 4.3.3.3.1 1 appropriate to the different conditions of exposure.
84
RCS I
Type of
Exposure
Chapter V
Dry
environment:
Interior of
buildings of
normal
habitation or
offices
Humid environment:
Interior components
(e.g. laundries); exterior
components;
components in nonaggressive soil and/or
water
Seawater and/ or aggressive

chemical environment:
Components completely or
partially submerged in
seawater; components in
saturated salt air; aggressive
industrial atmospheres
(Mild)
(Moderate)
(Severe)
0.4
0.2
0.1
Characteristic
crack width, wk
Table 4.3.3.3.1-1 Characteristic Crack Width for Concrete Members
4.3.3.3.2. Cracks due to Flexure

(1)
Checking of the limit state of flexural crack widths is generally not necessary for
reinforced concrete where
(a) at least the minimum reinforcement given by section 4.3.3.1 is provided
(b) the reinforcement consists of deformed bars, and
(c) their diameter does not exceed the maximum values in Table 4.3.3.3.2-1.
wk 0.4mm
s ( MPa ) (mm)
160
200
240
280
320
wk 0.2mm
s ( MPa ) (mm)
40
32
25
20
16
160
200
240
320
400
25
16
12
6
4
Table 4.3.3.3.2-1 Maximum Bar Diameter for which Checking Flexural Crack width may be omitted
Note: Where necessary linear interpolation may be used

In Table 4.3.3.3.2 1
s is the steel stress under service condition

wk is the permitted characteristic crack width
(2)
If crack widths have to be calculated, the following approximate equations may be

used in the absence of more accurate methods
wk = 1.7 wm
wm = S m sm
Where wk = the characteristic crack width
wm = the mean crack width

85
RCS I
Chapter V
S m = the average distance between cracks

sm = the mean strain of the reinforcement considering the contribution of
concrete in tension.
(3)
The average distance between cracks may be obtained from
S m 50 0.25k1k 2
Where:
= diameter
k1 a coefficient which characterizes the bond properties of the bars
= 0.8 for deformed bars
= 1.6 for plain bars
k 2 a coefficient representing the influence of the form of the stress diagram.
= 0.50 for bending
= 1.00 for pure tension
= ( 1 2 ) / 2 1 for bending with tension
1 , 2 are the larger and the smaller concrete strains, respectively, below the
neutral axis of the cracked section given in Fig. 4.3.3.3.2-1

The coefficient r is defined as
r
Where
As
Ac ,ef
(5.15)
As is the area of the reinforcement contained in Ac , ef
Ac , ef is the section of the Zone of the concrete (effective embedment zone)

where the reinforcing bars can effectively influence the crack widths shown
by the shaded area in Fig 4.2.3.3.2-1.
Figure 4.3.3.3.2-1 Definition of Ac , ef
(4)
The mean strain of the reinforcement may be obtained as
sm
1 1 2 sr
Es
s
0.4 s
Es
86
RCS I
Chapter V
s is the service stress in the steel and may be obtained by elastic theory
Where:
using modular ratio equal to 10.

s r is the steel stress at rupture of concrete section; i.e., stress for the
cracked section under the action of the theoretical moment M cr
1 is a coefficient which characterizes the bond properties of the bars and
is equal to
= 1.0 for high bond bars
= 0.5 for plain bars
2 is a coefficient representing the influence of the duration of the
application or repetition of the loads.
= 1.0 at the first loading
= 0.5 for sustained loads or for a large number of lead cycles
4.3.3.3.3. Cracking due to Shear

(1) Checking of shear crack widths is not necessary in slabs and in the web of beams if the
spacing of the stirrups does not exceed the values given in Table 4.3.3.3.3-1.
wk (mm)
f yd ( MPa )
Bond Properties
Vsd Vc
0.4
220
(1)
400
(2)
300
0.2
360 500
(1)
(2)
250
220 400
(1)
(2)
200
360 500
(1)
(2)
150
Vc Vsd 3Vc
250
200
150
100
Vsd > 3Vc
200
150
100
75
Table 4.3.3.3.3-1 Maximum spacing (mm) of Vertical Stirrups for which checking of shear crack
width can be omitted
Where (1) Plain bars (2) high bond bars

In 4.3.3.3.3-1,
wk is the permitted characteristic crack width

Vsd is the shear acting during the combination under consideration
Vc is the shear resistance of concrete given in chapter 3;
i.e. Vc= 0.25 fctd k1 k2 bw d
(2) If more precise data are available, then the widths of the shear cracks in the webs of
beams can be calculated for sustained loads by means of Eq. wm = S m sm
together with the following equations:
87
RCS I
Chapter V
wk 1.7 k w wm
s m 50 0.25k1 k 2
0.4 s
Es
V Vc
1
s sd
.
40 MPa
bw d w sin cos
sm
dx
r sin
V
1 c
E s Vsd
Where
wm = the mean crack width (see Eq. 5.12)

= the angle of inclination of the stirrup from the horizontal
k w = a correction coefficient to take account of the effect of slope of the
stirrups on the spacing of the cracks.
= 1.2 for vertical stirrups ( = 900 )
= 0.8 for inclined stirrups with = 450 to 60 0
w = the geometric percentage of web reinforcement
x = the height of the compression zone in the cracked section.
(3) When several adjacent bars in the same layer are bent in the same zone (for example, at
the corners of a frame), the diameter of mandrel shall be chosen with a view to avoiding
crushing or splitting of the concrete under the effect of the pressure that occurs inside the
bend. (See Eqn. 7.7 in ECBS-2, 1995)
4.4. Serviceability Limit States of Deflection

4.4.1. General
In addition to limitation on cracking, described in the preceding sections, it is usually
necessary to impose certain controls on deflections of beams to ensure serviceability.
Excessive deflections can lead to cracking of supported walls and partitions, ill-fitting doors
and windows, poor roof drainage, misalignment of sensitive machinery and equipment, or
visually offensive sag. It is important, therefore, to maintain control of deflections, in one
way or another, so that members designed mainly for strength at prescribed overloads will
also perform well in normal service.
According to EBCS-2, 1995, the deflection of a structure or any part of the structure shall not
adversely affect the proper functioning or appearance of the structure. This may be ensured
either by keeping calculated deflections below the limiting values or compliance with the
requirements for minimum effective depth given in section 5.3.2.
4.4.2. Limits on Deflections

The final deflection including the effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage of all
horizontal members shall not in general exceed the value
Le
200
88
RCS I
Where Le is the effective span
Chapter V
For roof or floor construction supporting or attached to non-structural elements such as

partitions and finishes likely to be damaged by large deflections, that part of the deflection
which occurs after the attachment of the non-structural element shall not exceed the value
Le
20 mm
350
In any calculation of deflections, the design properties of the materials and the design loads
shall be those appropriate for a serviceability limit states.
4.4.3. Requirements for Effective Depth

The minimum effective depth given below shall be provided unless computation of
deflection indicates that smaller thickness may be used without exceeding the limits
stipulated in the above section.
f yk Le
d 0.4 0.6
400 a
Where:
fyk is the characteristic strength of the reinforcement in MPa
a is the appropriate constant from Table 5.6, and for slabs carrying
partition walls likely to crack, shall be taken as a 150 Lo
Lo is the distance in meters between points of zero moments; and for a
cantilever, twice the length to the face of the support.
Member
Beams
Slabs
a)Span ratio 2:1
b)Span ratio 1:1
Simply
Supported
20
End
spans
24
Interior
spans
28
Cantilevers
25
35
30
40
35
45
12
10
Table 4.4.3-1 Values of a
10
Note: For slabs with intermediate span ratio interpolate linearly
4.4.4. Calculation of Deflection

Before discussing about how to calculate deflections, it is important to understand the
deflection behavior of beams. Let us consider the loaddeflection history of a reinforced
concrete fixed ended beam shown in Fig. 4.4.4-1.
89
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 4.4.4-1 Load-deflection behavior of a concrete beam
Initially the beam is uncracked and stiff (O-A). With further load, cracking occurs when the
moment at the ends exceed the cracking moment, Mcr. When a section cracks, its moment
of inertia decreases leading to a decrease in the stiffness of the beam (A-B). Cracking in the
mid-span region causes further reduction in stiffness (point B). Eventually, the
reinforcements would yield at the ends, or at mid-span, leading to increased deflection with
little change in load (points D and E). The service load is represented by point C. he beam is
essentially elastic at point C, the nonlinear load deflection being caused by a progressive
reduction of flexural stiffness due to increased cracking as the loads are increased.
With time, the service load deflection would increase from C to C, due to creep and
shrinkage of concrete. The short-time, or instantaneous, deflection under service loads
(point C) and the long-time deflection under service loads (point C) are both of interest in
design.
4.4.5. Immediate Deflections

Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, deflections which occur
immediately on application of load shall be computed by the usual elastic method as sum of
the two parts i and ii , but nor more than max .
90
RCS I
i L2
M cr
E cm I i
ii L2
M k M cr
0.75 E s As z (d x)
max L2
Chapter V
Mk
E s As z (d x)
Unless the theoretical cracking moment is obtained by a more comprehensive method, it

shall be computed by
Mcr = 1.70 fctk Z
Where:
i = deflection due to the theoretical cracking moment on uncracked
transformed section
ii = deflection due to the balance of applied moment over and above
cracking value and acting on a section with an equivalent stiffness of 75% of
the cracked value.
max = deflection of the fully cracked section
Ii = moment of inertia of the un-cracked transformed concrete section
Mk = the maximum applied moment at mid-span due to sustained
characteristic loads; for cantilevers Mk is the moment at the face of the
support
Z = section modulus
d = effective depth of the section
x = neutral axis depth at the section of maximum moment
z = internal lever arm at the section of the maximum moment
= deflection coefficient depending on the loading and support conditions
(e.g. = 5/48 for simply supported span subjected to UDL)
Note: The value of x and z may be determined for service load condition using a modular
ratio of 10, or for the ultimate load condition.
4.4.6. Long Term Deflections

The deflection of reinforced concrete beams increases with time due to creep and
shrinkage. Additional deflections two or three times as large as the immediate deflections
may result eventually.
The presence of compression reinforcement can reduce the additional deflection due to
shrinkage and creep significantly. In addition to the content of the compression steel, the
extent of the long-term deflection depends on humidity, temperature, curing conditions and
age of concrete at the time of loading, ratio of stress to strength and many other factors.
For this reason, only estimates can be made for long-term deflections.
The effect of creep is to increase the strain in the concrete with time, as illustrated in the
figure below.
91
RCS I
Chapter V
Figure 4.4.6-1 Effect of creep
Deflection calculations can allow for this increase in stress by reducing the value of the
elastic modulus for concrete, Ec to an effective elastic modulus, Ec,eff
Where, is a creep coefficient taken from table 4.4.6-1 below.

Age of concrete
at loading (days)
1
7
28
90
365
Notional size 2Ac/U (mm)

Dry Atmospheric
Humid Atmospheric
Condition (Inside)
Condition (Outside)
50
150
600
50
150
600
5.5
4.6
3.7
3.6
3.2
2.9
3.9
3.1
2.6
2.6
2.3
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
Table 4.4.6-1 Creep coefficient, , for normal weight concrete
According to EBCS-2, unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the
additional long-term deflection of flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the
immediate deflection caused by sustained load considered, computed in accordance with
Section 4.4.5, by the factor
[2 1.2 As' / As ] 0.6

Where:
As= area of compression reinforcement

As= area of tension reinforcement
92
RCS I
Assignment set III
Chapter V
1. A floor system is supported by beams spaced at 3m on the center lines which are
simply supported at one end and fixed at the other. The beam are 8m in span with
web width 250mm, overall depth limited to 500mm and slab thickness 100mm. The
floor is subjected to a super imposed service load of 4KN/m 2. Design the typical
interior beam for flexure and shear reinforcement. Use concrete C30, steel S300 and
Class I works.
2. The beam reinforced for shear and flexure as shown below is made of concrete C25,
steel S420 and Class I works. It is supporting a factored dead load of 6KN/m and a
factored live load of 50KN/m. Calculate bar-cut off and development length for the
critical sections.
3. A rectangular reinforced concrete beam 250x700mm is reinforced with 820 in two

rows to sustain a maximum bending moment of 180KNm. Evaluate the stress in the
concrete and steel. Assume n = 8.
4. A rectangular reinforced concrete beam has depth of 600mm and width of 200mm
and is reinforced with 622 in two rows. If fck = 24MPa and steel fyk = 280 MPa and
Class I work is used. Determine
a. The moment capacity just before cracking
b. The maximum moment due to service load which the section may sustain if
the allowable stress for steel and concrete is 0.52fyk and 0.425fck respectively.
5. A simply supported rectangular reinforced concrete beam with b/D = 300/500, d/d
= 50/50 is reinforced with As1 = 1473mm2 and As2 = 402mm2. If Ec = 30.5GPa and Es =
200GPa, fctk = 2.6MPa, DL = 15KN/m, LL = 8KN/m and L = 8m,
a. Calculate the immediate and long term deflection.
b. Crack width for moderate exposure
93

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1.2. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

1.3. Material Aspect of Reinforced Concrete

Table 1.3.1.1-1Properties of Cements

High early strength: III

56.0 15.0 12.0

Table 1.3.1.1-2 Percentage Composition of Portland Cements

Percentage passing through test sieves having square openings

Table 1.3.1.1-3 Grading requirements for coarse aggregates [ES C.D3.201]

Friable soft fragments

Maximum percentage by mass

AAiT Department of Civil Engineering

Other requirements are soundness and resistance to abrasion. Concerning soundness,

Table 1.3.1.1-5 Grading requirements for fine aggregates [ES D3.201]

Table 1.3.1.1-6 gives limits of deleterious substances for fine aggregates.

1.3.1.2. Properties in the Plastic State

1.3.1.3. Properties in the Hardened State

S7 and S28 are7 and 28 day strengths in psi (W.A. Slater)

Figure 1.3.1.3-1Effect W/C ration on strength

Other factor affecting concrete strength is degree of compaction.

Figure 1.3.1.3-2Effect of degree of compaction on strength

Figure 1.3.1.3-3 Split-cylinder test procedure

In flexure test a plain concrete beam, generally 150mm*150mm*750mm long is loaded in

Figure 1.3.1.3-4 Flexure test

EBSC 2-1995 uses the following empirical formula,

1.3.1.4. Proportioning and Mixing Concrete

Time of mixing (minutes)

1.3.2. Reinforcing Steel

Figure 1.3.2-1 Type of reinforcement bars

Table 1.3.2-1Reinforcement bar properties that are available in Ethiopia

1.4. Concrete Placement and Curing

1.4.2. Curing Concrete

1.5. Stress-Strain Relation for Concrete and Reinforcements

Compressive Stress Behavior

Figure 1.5.1-1Stress-strain curves for concrete cylinders loaded in uniaxial compression

Tangent and Secant Moduli of Elasticity

Figure 1.5.1-2 Initial, tangent and secant modulus of elasticity

Figure 1.5.1-3Idealized and design stress-strain diagram for concrete

Tensile Stress Behavior

b) Combined Stress behavior

Biaxial Stress Behavior

Figure 1.5.1-5 Strength of concrete under general two-dimensional stress system

Figure 1.5.1-8Shrinkage strain of concrete

1.5.2. Reinforcement Steel

Figure 1.5.2-1 Deformed Bar

Monotonic Stress Behavior

Figure 1.5.2-2 Typical stress-strain curves for reinforcement steel

Reversed Stress Behavior

1.6. Overview of Design Philosophies

Figure 1.6-1 Reinforced Concrete Building Components

Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads and subjected to flexural

In (reinforced concrete) buildings, architectural planning and design is carried out to

Figure 1.6-2The Structural Design Process

idealization of the structure into component parts

Serviceability, Strength and Structural Safety

The existence of adequate safety against collapse must be ensured,

on the basis of strength, serviceability and

There are three methods of concrete design. These are

1.6.1. The Working Stress Design (WSD) method

1.6.2. The Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method

Reinforced concrete sections behave in-elastically at high loads; hence elastic

1.6.3. The Limit State Design (LSD) method

LIMIT STATE DESIGN FOR FLEXURE

In flexure test a plain concrete beam, generally 150mm150mm750mm long is loaded in