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Table of Contents

Actuators:

Introduction

I – Electrical Actuators

• The advantages of the electric systems

• The disadvantages of the electric actuators
• Classification of the actuators
1-Linear Actuator

• Terms used in linear actuators

2 – Motors
• A.C. motors
• D.C. motors
• Stepper motors
• Detailed analysis of D.C. motors
• Starting Large D.C. motors
• The effect of inertia and inductance

3 - Solenoid
• Definition of Solenoid .
• Technical considerations .
• Types of solenoids .
• Example on Application of Solenoids .
II – Hydraulic Actuators
• Components of Hydraulic system .
• Types of valves used .
• Types of cylinders used .
• Advantages & Disadvantages of Hydraulic actuators .
III – Pneumatic Actuators
• Some basic characteristics of pneumatic systems .
• Some symbols for pneumatic systems .
• Advantages and Disadvantages of pneumatic actuators .

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Sensors:
Introduction
I – Proximity Sensors

• Definition of Proximity Sensor .

• Detection Mechanism .
• Working range .
• Classification .
• Features of Proximity Sensor .

II - Strain Gauge

• Introduction .
• Definition of Strain .
• Strain Gauge Measurement .
• Calibration .

III -Thermocouple
Introduction .
• Definition of thermocouple .
Thermoelectric characteristics .
Thermocouple Calibration Procedures .
Applications .
• Appendix 1 .

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 Actuators

Introduction
Actuators are a type of tool which is used to put something into
automatic action. It is used on a wide variety of sources, from humans
putting something into action to computers starting up a program.
Whichever type of actuator you are in need of, there are several
.different tools that can help you achieve putting something into motion
There are several reasons why actuators may be used in an office work
area. Most of these will be used as the thing that positions or moves a
certain object. For example, many will be used to move or position
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valve doors in certain systems. They may also be used to maneuver
certain mechanical devices that are used in a work area. By using
actuators, it is easier for one to work in their area, as well as easier to
maneuver something around in the certain area. The main way in which
actuators are divided for best use is through their shape and style.
Through the several different types of styles available, one is able to
determine which type of actuator will be best for their task . In this
.Report we will focus on hydraulic , pneumatic &electric actuators

:Definition of actuator

An actuator is the device that brings about the mechanical movements

required for any physical process in the factory. Internally, actuators
can be broken down into two separate modules: the signal amplifier
and the transducer. The amplifier converts the (low power) control
signal into a high power signal that is fed into the transducer; the
transducer converts the energy of the amplified control signal into
work; this process usually involves converting from one form of energy
into another, e.g. electrical motors convert electrical energy into kinetic
.energy

Types of Actuators
Here we will focus only on :

• Electric Actuators

• Hydraulic Actuators

• Pneumatic Actuators

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 I – Electric Actuators
Electrically actuated systems are very widely used in control systems
because they are easy to interface with the control systems which are
also electric and because electricity is easily available unlike fluid
power which require pumps and compressors .

Electric actuators mount on valves which, in response to a signal,

automatically move to a desired position using an outside power
source. Single-phase or three-phase AC or DC motors drive a
combination of gears to generate the desired torque level.

The advantages of the electric systems are :

• Electricity
is easily routed to the actuators ; cables are simpler than
pipe work .

• Electricity is easily controlled by electronic units .

• Electricity faults are often easier to diagnose .

The disadvantages of the electric actuators are :

• Electrical
equipment is more of a fire hazard than other systems
unless made intrinsically safe in which case it becomes expensive .

• Electric actuators have a poor torque – speed characteristics at low

speed .

• Electric
actuators are all basically rotary motion and complicated
mechanisms are needed to convert rotation into other forms of
motion .

• The power to weight ratio is inferior to hydraulic motors.

Classification of the actuators according to :

Movement

• Multi-turn actuators
• Part-turn actuators
• Linear actuators

Design

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 • Motor (1)
• Limit and torque sensors (2)
• Gearing (3)
• Valve attachment (4)
• Manual operation (5)
• Actuator controls (6)
• Electrical connection (7)
• Field bus connection (8)

Functions

• Automatic switching off in the end positions

• Safety functions
• Process control functions
• Diagnosis

Duty types

• Open-close duty
• Positioning duty
• Modulating duty

Service conditions

• Enclosure protection
• Ambient temperatures
• Explosion protection

We will focus only on the types given below :

• Linear actuators

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• Motors
• Solenoid

Linear Actuators
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Electric linear actuators provide linear motion via a motor-driven ball
screw, lead screw, or acme screw assembly. The load is attached to the
end of the screw and is unsupported. Acme screws are lead screws with
matching threads on both the screw and nut. Ball screws are lead screw
and ball nut combinations that enable the balls in the nut to circulate
when the actuator is in motion. Electric linear actuators with belt drives,
geared drives, and direct drives are also available. Belt drives connect
the motor to the actuator with a belt. Geared drives connect the motor
to the actuator with a set of gears. With direct drives, the motor is
connected directly to the electric linear actuator. In terms of
performance, important specifications include stroke, rated force or
load, system backlash, and rated speed. Stroke is the maximum
distance that the shaft travels from a fully extended position to a fully
retracted position. Backlash is the position error due to directional
change. The maximum rated speed is typically a low or no load
amount.

Electric linear actuators vary in terms of motor type, power, and

features. DC brush motors feature built-in commutation so that as the
motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically actuate coils on the
rotor. By contrast, brushless DC motors use an external power drive
that allows commutation of the coils on the stator. DC servomotors
have an output shaft that is positioned when a coded signal is sent to
the motor. Electric linear actuators also use a variety of AC motors.
Common types include single, multiphase, universal, induction, gear,
and synchronous motors. AC servomotors are permanent magnet
synchronous motors that have low torque-to-inertia ratios for high
acceleration ratings. AC stepper motors use a magnetic field to move a
rotor in small angular steps or fractions of steps. Motor voltage and
continuous power are important performance specifications for both AC
and DC motors. Motor features include motor encoder feedback, linear
position feedback, position switches, and integral brakes.
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There are several mounting options for electric linear actuators. Some
cylinders are equipped with a clevis or eye attachment that connects to
the extended end of the piston. Others are equipped with a mounting
flange or bracket, a floating mount bracket, tapped holes, or threaded
holes. Foot brackets are flanges that rest underneath the cylinder. Lugs
are short blocks with holes that attach to the side of the cylinder and
allow mounting to another surface. Cylinders equipped with trunnion
mounts feature specially designed mounting blocks that are located at
the cylinder cap or head. Face mount, nose mount, and rear mount
electric linear actuators are also available.

Electric linear actuators provide many optional features. Some devices

provide adjustable stroke, holding brakes, or shock absorbers. Other
devices include double-ended rods, a multi-position endplate, an
integrated overload slip clutch or torque limiter, and a protective boot.
Integral sensors monitor position and proximity. Integral flow control
incorporates a valve that limits the amount of air of fluid that enters the
cylinder. Magnetic switches indicate the thruster’s position. Thermal
overload protection trips a switch when a preset temperature is
exceeded. Bumpers or cushions soften the impact at the ends of a
stroke. Intrinsically safe electric linear actuators can be used in
hazardous environments such as chemical processing facilities. Water
resistant devices are sealed to prevent corrosion. Typically, body
materials consist of aluminum, steel, plastic, or stainless steel.
There are several things to consider when choosing a linear actuator.
These factors include the speed, stroke length and load rating of the
actuator. Also evaluate the duty cycle accuracy and programmability of
the actuator. Decide what the desired lifetime of the end product of the
linear actuator system will be. Are there particular safety mechanisms
required, environmental concerns to be addressed or space issues to
deal with? If the system is not battery-run, the size and kind of motor
(AC, DC or special) are important considerations. Compare the different
available motors, which include stepper, brushed DC or brushless
servomotors. Design system flexibility is determined by the anticipated
specification revisions.

Terms used in Linear Actuators :

Accuracy
The difference from the precise value of the intended velocity or
position.
ACME Screw
A threaded screw utilizing sliding friction surfaces between the nut
and the screw. It is self-locking and is about 30-40% efficient.
Back Drive
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 Torque produced by the applied load on a drive resulting in the
reversal of rotation of the nut.
Backlash
The space between the interactive elements in a drive train or
leadscrew assembly that creates a mechanical “deadband” when
shifting directions.
Ball Bearing Screw
A screw that operates on ball bearings. Ball bearing screws have a
low starting torque, are approximately 90% efficient and can be back
driven.
Bi-directional Repeatability
The divergence in the ending position attained by moving away
and then returning to a regular point from both plus and minus
directions. The error or non-repeatability factor is determined from the
sum of the hysteresis, the backlash and one unit of the system
resolution.
Cantilevered Load
Loads or forces that are not symmetrically placed on the center of
the positioner table.

Compression Load
A load that leads toward compressing the positioner.
Continuous Motor Torque
The torque created by the motor at rated constant current.
Cycle
A complete positioner extension and retraction returned to the
beginning point.
Duty Cycle
The amount of time a positioner can run and how much time it
needs to cool. It is on time to cooling time, meaning a duty cycle of
25% is a cycle in which a positioner operates continually for ten
seconds must rest for thirty seconds.

Dynamic Load Rating

A design constant used in calculating the estimated travel life of
the roller screw; the dynamic men load is the load at which the device
will perform one million revolutions.
Efficiency
The ratio of input power to output power.
Error
The difference between the actual and the intended condition.
Error typically refers to the position but could refer to velocity.
Extension Rate

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 The speed at which the positioner extends or retracts. Extension
rate differs with the load on DC positioners but differs very little on AC
positioners or step-motor positioners.
Force Rating
The linear force created by the actuator at constant motor torque.
Hardwired Signals
Electrical signals traveling between two control devices that are
connected with dedicated conductors.
Holding Brake
A brake that works against back driving to hold the positioner in
place under compression loads or tension.
Hysteresis
The opposing force accumulated in an elastic material or
mechanism after the outside forces acting on it have been changed
(e.g. the mechanical wind-up in the lead-screw assembly).
Jog
Moving or positioning a load in incremental steps.
Lead
The distance the leadscrew nut travels for every rotation of the
leadscrew.
Limit Switch
A switch that limits the travel or motion in a specific direction.
Linear Movement
Movement in a straight line.
Linear Position Accuracy
The error between the intended shift and real position attained by
a linear positioning component or stage system. The linear accuracy of
components and stage systems, which includes motor accuracy,
leadscrew accuracy, stage accuracy (pitch and yaw) and thermal
expansion, varies with complexity and number of components.

Linear Rate
Rate of movement of a linear component.
Load
The amount of force axially put on the positioner.
Max Velocity
The linear velocity the actuator will attain at a given motor rpm.
Maximum Static Load
The mechanical load limit of the actuator if recirculated oil or other
cooling method is used to allow higher than rated torque from the
motor.
Microstepping
The technique of electronically subdividing every complete step of
a stepping motor.
Multiplex System
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 A system that utilizes two lead-screws in order to actuate several
three-piece pump modules, the combination of which drives the pistons
in a linear motion to create displacement. Each system uses a
pneumatic rotary actuator to drive its main function.
Optical Encoder
A linear or rotary element that has alternating opaque and clear
spaces. Detectors calculate the light and dark changes, and the position
is determined by counting the amount of changes.
Resolution
The lowest exact positioning movement attainable from a system.
Stroke Length
The complete movement of the positioning table from complete
retraction to full extension.
Thrust
The complete force necessary to move a load, taking into account
friction, acceleration and gravity.
Unidirectional Repeatability
The capability of a system to return to an intended position, nearing
that position from a plus and minus direction.

Motors

There are three types of motors used in control applications:

• A.C. motors.
• D.C. motors.
• Stepper motors.

1. A.C. motors

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A.C. motors are mainly used for producing large power outputs at a
fixed speed. Typically these are 1420 or 2900 rev/min. Such motors are
controlled by switching them on and off.

Increasingly, speed control is being used with A.C. motors on

applications such as pumps where it is found to be more economical to
control the flow rate by changing speed rather than by opening or
closing a pipe line valve. Speed control is achieved electronically by
varying the frequency or by chopping the power supply.

These motors are usually geared down in order to produce a greater

torque and increase the control range. They may also have the rotation
converted into linear movement by a lead screw mechanism.

Lead screws are used to convert rotation into linear motion as shown.
Rotation screws the carriage back and forth along the lead screw.

2. D.C. motors

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Direct current motors are more widely used in control applications and
they are usually referred to as SERVO MOTORS. These are covered in
detail later in the tutorial. The development of more powerful magnets
is improving the power to weight ratio but they are still not as good as
hydraulic motors in this respect. Servo motors usually have a
transducer connected to them in order to measure the speed or angle
of rotation. The diagram shows a typical arrangement

3. Stepper motors
Basically a stepper motor rotates a precise angle according to the
number of pulses of electricity sent to it. Because there is confidence
that the shaft rotates to the position requested, no transducer is
needed to measure and check the position and so they are common on
open loop systems.

There are 3 types of stepper motor in common use and these are:
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1. The PERMANENT MAGNET TYPE.
2. The VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE.
3. The HYBRID TYPE.

3.1 THE PERMANENT MAGNET TYPE.

The rotor is a permanent magnet with a North and South poles as

shown. Two pairs of poles are placed on the stator and energized to
produce a pattern of N - S - N - S (starting at the top). The rotor will take
up a position in between the poles due to equal and opposite torques
being exerted on it.

If the polarity of both pairs of poles are reversed the pattern will change
to S - N - S - N and the rotor will flip 45o to a new position of balance.
In order to obtain more steps, more pairs of poles are used but there
are only two windings. Reversing the polarity of both windings moves
the rotor on one step. Stepping is produced by simply reversing the
polarity.

The rotor is held in position even when the

poles are not energized. In order to obtain many
steps, the poles are often stacked one behind
the other and not in a single ring. The number
of steps may also be increased by using a gear
box on the output shaft.

3.2. VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TYPE

The rotor is constructed of soft iron with a number of

teeth which are unequal in number to the number of
poles on the stator. The stator has multiple poles which are energized
by several separate phases. The diagram shows a
system with three phases.

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When a current is applied to the stator windings, the rotor aligns itself
in the position of least magnetic reluctance. This position depends upon
the number of phases energized.
The rotor retains very little magnetism so there is no holding torque
when the current is removed. The number of steps is given by N = SR/
(S-R) where S is the number of stator slots and R the number of rotor
slots.

3.3 HYBRID MOTORS

Hybrid motors are a combination of the last two types. Each pole is
divided into slots as shown. The rotor has two sets of slots, one behind
the other with one set offset to the other by 1/2 slot pitch. The rotor is
magnetized longitudinally. This produces a high resolution.

In general all stepper motors are controlled electronically.

4. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF D.C. MOTORS

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The theory of electrical machines is based on two basic discoveries
called the motor principle and the generator principle. In any given
machine, the two go together.

4.1 THE MOTOR PRINCIPLE

When a conductor is placed in a magnetic field at a right angle to it and

current flows in the conductor, a
force is exerted on the conductor.
The force F (Newton) is related to
the flux density B (Tesla), the
current I (Amps) and the length l
(metres) by the formula:
F=BℓI

The flux density is the flux per unit

area so B = φ/A

, where; φ is the flux in Webers and

A is the cross sectional area of the flux path in m2.
This force acting at a radius produces the torque T to rotate the motor.
The current in the conductor is Ia.

For a given motor the area, lengths and radius are constant so the
equation reduces to

T = k1 φ Ia ................ (1)

4.2 THE GENERATOR PRINCIPLE

When a conductor moves at velocity v m/s through a flux of density B

Tesla, an e.m.f is generated in the conductor such that E = B ℓ v. This
e.m.f opposes the flow of the applied current so a forward voltage is
required to overcome it. This effect is produced in the conductors of
motors as well as generators since the motor has moving conductors
passing through a flux.
The conductor is part of a coil rotating at speed N rev/s and v = 2πNR

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For a given motor in which the area and length may be considered
constant, the equation becomes
E = K2φ N ......................... (2)

4.3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTORS

A basic motor is constructed of a rotor

carrying the conductors in the form of a
loop. The loop is placed in a flux as
shown. The flux bends around the two
sides and produces a torque. The loop would flip to a vertical position
and no torque would be produced. In order to make the loop rotate
continuously, the current must be reversed by use of a commutator. In
reality, the conductor is made of many loops and the current is
switched to ensure that it flows in the loop normal to the flux.

All DC motors are based on these principles. The flux may be produced
by permanent magnetic poles or by separate coils called the FIELD
WINDINGS. The rotor in the diagram would be called the ARMATURE. It
is possible to have brushless motors and for the stator to be the
armature. A typical design is the use of two pairs of poles and many
loops on the rotor which are energized through the commutator.

Equation 2 may be deduced by equating mechanical and electric

power. The mechanical power produced is P = ωT = 2πNT
Where ω is the speed in radians/s and N is the speed in rev/s. Note that
ω = 2πN

Ea is the armature e.m.f. The electric power converted into mechanical

power is P = Ea Ia

Equating mechanical and electric power we have 2πNT = IaEa

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 Ea = 2πNT/Ia ........
(2a)
Or T = IaEa /2πN ........
(2b)

Since T = k1φIa we may substitute into (2a) Ea = k1φ2πN = k2φN

...... (2)

Due to losses in the armature windings, the terminal voltage Va is given

by

Ea = Va –
IaRa ................... (3)
Substitute for Ea N = (Va
- IaRa)/2πk1φ .......................... (4)

4.4 CONSTANT ARMATURE CURRENT or FIELD

CONTROL

If Ia is kept constant it follows that N = constant/φ = constant/If

Since T = k1 φ Ia and for constant Ia it follows that T=

constant x φ
Hence N=constant/T

It follows that the torque and speed may be controlled by varying the
field current. This has an advantage that a relatively large power may
be controlled by a small field current and the power amplifier needed in
the control circuit is relatively small. The diagram shows the
relationship between torque and speed for constant field current.

4.5 CONSTANT FIELD CURRENT OR ARMATURE CONTROL

In this case the field current is maintained constant or a permanent

magnet is used to produce constant flux.

Since Ea = 2πNT/Ia (equation 2a) and T ∝ φ Ia then

Ea ∝ Nφ
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If φ is constant then Ea = 2πN K ......................... (5) and N = Ea/2πk

Substituting for N in equation (2a) gives T=kIa hence T = ktIa

Or Ia = T/kt ..................................... (6)

Equating (3) and (5) we have

Ea = Va - IaRa = 2πNK = Ke N
Substitute (6) for Ia and

Va - TRa /kt = N Ke
T = ( Va - Nke )kt/Ra
T = C1Va - C2N ........................... (7)
Or
Va = C3T + C4N ...........................
(8)

These are the equations commonly used to explain the steady state
characteristic of a DC motor with armature control.

The diagrams above show equation 8 plotted for constant T and

equation 7 for constant Va.

4.6 MIXED CONTROL

So far you have studied motors with separate field and armature
windings and looked at the characteristics of these motors.
We will now study the characteristics of various motor configurations of
the type mainly used on large D.C. Machines. In the previous work it
was shown that

V = Ea + Ia Ra E = k1φ2πN = kNφ T = K1 φ Ia

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Ea is the back e.m.f on the armature, φ is the flux per pole, T is the
torque and N the speed (rev/s).

The Mechanical Power output of the motor

is less than the Electrical Power at the
terminals because of losses. The efficiency
of the motor is defined as

η = Mechanical Power/Electrical Power

Mechanical Power = 2πNT and Electrical

Power is terminal Volts x Amperes.

4.7 SERIES MOTOR

In this case, the field winding is in series with the

armature. The same current flows through the
armature and the field winding.

Equating mechanical and electrical powers we have

P = 2πNT = Ea Ia
Rearranging we have T = EaIa /2πN

If the electric power is constant, EaIa are constant

so T = Constant /N

In this case for constant electrical power the relationship between

torque and speed is inversely proportional.

The torque - speed characteristic shows that at

low torque (no load conditions) the motor is
liable to over speed and become damaged.

At low speed there is a high torque (starting

torque) which is ideal for servo applications

4.8 SHUNT MOTOR

In this case the field winding is connected across

the supply. Since the field current is constant,
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the characteristics are those of an armature controlled motor covered
earlier.

Ea = V - IaRa
T = k1φ Ia so Ia = T/φk1
Ea = V - TRa/φk1 = k Nφ but φ is constant so everything is a constant
except T and N so for constant
electrical power this reduces to
T = C1 - C2 N

This shows that at zero speed the

starting torque is C1 and as speed
increases, the torque drops off. The
ideal Torque - Speed characteristic is as shown. In reality the line is
curved down due to other effects not considered.

4.9 COMPOUND MOTOR

The compound motor is a cross between the other two with both a
parallel and series field winding. For constant
electric power, the Torque - speed characteristic
is between that of the other two.

4.10 D.C. SERVO MOTORS MANUFACTURERS APPROACH

Smaller servo motors are used for

robotic applications, that is, the control
of position and speed of a shaft. They
may use field control or armature
control or both.

FIELD CONTROL

The armature current Ia is maintained

constant and the field current If is
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supplied through a power amplifier and controls the torque. The torque
is unaffected by the speed. The relationship between torque and
current is
T = k If

ARMATURE CONTROL

This is quite common since smaller servo motors use permanent

magnets. With the development of more powerful permanent magnets,
DC servo motors are improving their power to weight ratio but are still
not as good as hydraulic motors in this respect.

Manufacturers of such motors

present the steady state
characteristics based on equations 7
and 8. However some practical
aspects must be brought in. First,
there is a permanent loss of torque
due to friction and a current is
needed to overcome friction torque
before any useful torque is produced.
This is expressed as Tf in catalogues.
There is also a loss of torque due to damping which is directly
proportional to the speed of the motor. This torque is Td and is found by
Td = kd N where N is in 1000 rev/min.

The other important constants quoted for such motors are the Torque
constant kt and the e.m.f. constant ke. Torque is normally quoted in N
cm which is not a recommended SI unit and the shaft speeds are
quoted in 1000 rev/min.

The current required to operate such a motor is given by the equation

I = (TL + Tf + Td)/kt where TL is the load torque.

The useful torque from the motor is TL = ktI - Tf - Td

The voltage required at the terminals is V = (N ke/1000) + (IaRa)

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 DATA TABLES FOR MOTORS

5. STARTING LARGE D.C. MOTORS

Consider a basic D.C Motor. The terminal

voltage is V. The back e.m.f on the armature is
E. The armature resistance is Ra. The field
resistance is Rf.
The flux per pole is Φ. N is the motor speed.

From earlier work it was shown that V = E + Ia

Ra
E = K1 NΦ T = K2 Φ If

When the motor is started, the speed is zero so there is no back e.m.f.
It follows that
V = Ia Ra
The starting current without protection would be V/Ra and this would
be very large. In addition to this, there will be a load with inertia
connected to the motor and a large current is needed to provide the
torque.

In order to limit the current, it is normal to insert a variable resistance

in series with the armature which is gradually reduced as the motor
speeds up and then latched in place in the zero resistance position. In
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the event of an interruption to the power, the starting resistance is
unlatched and springs back to the starting position. We should consider
how the starting resistance is used with different motor field
configurations.

The three types or configurations are shown below.

SERIES MOTOR

In the case of a series wound motor, the starting resistance is placed in

series as shown.

SHUNT MOTOR

In the case of a shunt wound motor, the starting resistance is placed as

shown so that the field is initially connected to the supply and the
armature is in series with it. As the motor speeds up the field resistance
is gradually increased and the resistance in series with the armature is
reduced.

COMPOUND MOTOR

Compound motor has a starting resistance as shown.

6. THE EFFECT OF INERTIA AND INDUCTANCE

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Most of the work covered so far has been concerned with the steady
state analysis of motors. When sudden changes are made to the speed
or torque, it takes time for the system to respond because of the time
dependant effects such as inertia, damping and inductance. A motor
may have damping torque which is directly proportional to speed. This
was given previously as:

Td = Kd x N/1000 where N is rev/min and T is in Ncm.

If we use S.I. units the damping torque would be given by:

Td = Kd ω where ω is rad/s and T is Nm

ω is the rate of change of angle per second and may be expressed in

calculus form as dθ/dt. Hence:
Td = Kd dθ/dt.

If the motor is accelerated, torque is needed to overcome the inertia Ti

and this is directly proportional to the angular acceleration. Ti = Iα

α is in rad/s2 and I is the moment of inertia in kg m2. (Many

manufacturers use the symbol J for moment of inertia)
The acceleration is the second derivative of angle with respect to time
so we may write

Ti = I d2θ/dt2

When a motor is producing acceleration the total torque acting on it is

T = TL + Tf + Kd dθ/dt + I d2θ/dt2

This results in a mechanical time constant τm which governs how

quickly a motor will accelerate. This is defined by manufacturers as the
time taken to accelerate the motor up to 63% of the required speed
with no load on it. This will be analysed and defined in detail in another
tutorial. Now consider that the terminal voltage of a servo motor was
defined earlier as V = Ea + IaRa
If the current is changing, the inductance of the armature winding also
produces a voltage (back emf) given by L di/dt where L is the inductance
in Henries and i the transient current.
The total terminal voltage is then V = L di/dt + Ea + IaRa
This gives rise to an electrical time constant defined as τe = L/Ra

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This will be explained in another tutorial. If the motor uses field control,
the electrical time constant is based on the field winding inductance
and resistance.

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 Solenoids
Definition of Solenoid
A solenoid is an electromechanical device that converts electrical
energy into linear or rotary mechanical motion.

All solenoids include a coil for conducting current and generating a

magnetic field, an iron or steel shell or case to complete the magnetic
circuit, and a plunger or armature for translating motion. Solenoids can
be actuated by either direct current (DC) or rectified alternating current
(AC).

Solenoids are built with conductive paths that transmit maximum

magnetic flux density with minimum electrical energy input. The
mechanical action performed by the solenoid depends on the design of
the plunger in a linear solenoid or the armature in a rotary solenoid.
Linear solenoid plungers are either spring-loaded or use external
methods to restrain axial movement caused by the magnetic flux when
the coil is energized and restore it to its initial position when the current
is switched off.

Cutaway drawing Figure 1-50 illustrates how pull-in and push-out

actions are performed by a linear solenoid. When the coil is energized ,
the plunger pulls in against the spring, and this motion can be
translated into either a “pull-in” or a “push-out” response. All solenoids
are basically pull-in-type actuators, but the location of the plunger
extension with respect to the coil and spring determines its function.
For example, the plunger extension on the left end (end A) provides
“push-out” motion against the load, while a plunger extension on the
right end terminated by a clevis (end B) provides “pull-in” motion.
Commercial solenoids

perform only one of these functions. Figure 1-51 is a cross-sectional

view of a typical pull-in commercial linear solenoid.

29
Rotary solenoids operate on the same principle as linear solenoids
except that the axial movement of the armature is converted into
rotary movement by various mechanical devices. One of these is the
use of internal lands or ball bearings and slots or races that convert a
pull-in stroke to rotary or twisting motion.

Motion control and process automation systems use many different

kinds of solenoids to provide motions ranging from simply turning an
event on or off to the performance of extremely complex sequencing.
When there are requirements for linear or rotary motion, solenoids
should be considered because of their relatively small size and low cost
when compared with alternatives such as motors or actuators.
Solenoids are easy to install and use, and they are both versatile and
reliable.

30
Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic
principle of operation is there is a moving ferrous core (a piston) that
will move inside wire coil as shown in Figure 5.1. Normally the piston is
held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage is applied to the coil
and current flows, the coil builds up a magnetic field that attracts the
piston and pulls it into the center of the coil. The piston can be used to
supply a linear force. Well known applications of these include
pneumatic values and car door openers.

Technical Considerations
Important factors to consider when selecting solenoids are their rated
torque/force, duty cycles, estimated working lives, performance curves,
ambient temperature range, and temperature rise. The solenoid must
have a magnetic return path capable of transmitting the maximum
amount of magnetic flux density with minimum energy input. Magnetic
flux lines are transmitted to the plunger or armature through the
bobbin and air gap back through the iron or steel shell. A ferrous metal
path is more efficient than air, but the air gap is needed to permit
plunger or armature movement. The force or torque of a solenoid is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between pole
faces. By optimizing the ferrous path area, the shape of the plunger or
armature, and the magnetic circuit material, the output torque/force
can be increased . The torque/force characteristic is an important
solenoid specification. In most applications the force can be a minimum
at the start of the plunger or armature stroke but must increase at a
rapid rate to reach the maximum value before the plunger or armature
reaches the backstop. The magnetizing force of the solenoid is
proportional to the number of copper wire turns in its coil, the
magnitude of the current, and the presence of the magnetic circuit. The
pull force required by the load must not be greater than the force
developed by the solenoid during any portion of its required stroke, or
the plunger or armature will not pull in completely. As a result, the load
31
will not be moved the required distance. Heat buildup in a solenoid is a
function of power and the length of time the power is applied. The
permissible temperature rise limits the
magnitude of the input power. If constant voltage is applied, heat
buildup can degrade the efficiency of the coil by effectively reducing its
number of ampere turns. This, in turn, reduces flux density and
torque/force output. If the temperature of the coil is permitted to rise
above the temperature rating of its insulation, performance will suffer
and the solenoid could fail prematurely. Ambient temperature in excess
of the specified limits will limit the
and conduction. Heat can be dissipated by cooling the solenoid with
forced air from a fan or blower, mounting the solenoid on a heat sink, or
circulating a liquid coolant through a heat sink. Alternatively, a larger
solenoid than the one actually needed could be used .The heating of
the solenoid is affected by the duty cycle, which is specified from 10 to
100%, and is directly proportional to solenoid on time. The highest
starting and ending torque are obtained with the lowest duty cycle and
on time. Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of on time to the sum of on
time and off time. For example, if a solenoid is energized for 30 s and
then turned off for 90 s, its duty cycle is 30⁄120 = 1⁄4, or 25%.

The amount of work performed by a solenoid is directly related to its

size. A large solenoid can develop more force at a given stroke than a
small one with the same coil current because it has more turns of wire
in its coil.

: Types of solenoids
Open-Frame Solenoids

Open-frame solenoids are the simplest and least expensive models.

They have open steel frames, exposed coils, and movable plungers
centered in their coils. Their simple design permits them to be made
inexpensively in high-volume production runs so that they can be sold
at low cost. The two forms of open-frame solenoid are the C-frame
solenoid and the box frame solenoid. They are usually specified for
applications where very long life and precise positioning are not critical
requirements.
32
C-Frame Solenoids

C-frame solenoids are low-cost commercial solenoids intended for light

duty applications. The frames are typically laminated steel formed in
the shape of the letter C to complete the magnetic circuit through the
core, but they leave the coil windings without a complete protective
cover. The plungers are typically made as laminated steel bars.
However, the coils are usually potted to resist airborne and liquid
contaminants. These solenoids can be found in appliances, printers,
coin dispensers, security door locks, cameras, and vending machines.
They can be powered with either AC or DC current. Nevertheless, C-
frame solenoids can have operational lives of millions of cycles, and
some standard catalog models are capable of strokes up to 0.5 in. (13
mm).

Box-Frame Solenoids

Box-frame solenoids have steel frames that enclose their coils on two
sides, improving their mechanical strength. The coils are wound on
phenolic bobbins, and the plungers are typically made from solid bar
stock .The frames of some box-type solenoids are made from stacks of
thin insulated sheets of steel to control eddy currents as well as keep
stray circulating currents confined in solenoids powered by AC. Box-
frame solenoids are specified for higher-end applications such as tape
decks, industrial controls, tape recorders, and business machines
because they offer mechanical and electrical performance that is
superior to those of C frame solenoids. Standard catalog commercial
box-frame solenoids can be powered by AC or DC current, and can have
strokes that exceed 0.5 in. (13 mm).

Tubular Solenoids

The coils of tubular solenoids have coils that are completely enclosed in
cylindrical metal cases that provide improved magnetic circuit return
and better protection against accidental damage or liquid spillage.
These DC solenoids offer the highest volumetric efficiency of any
commercial solenoids, and they are specified for industrial and
military/aerospace equipment where the space permitted for their
installation is restricted. These solenoids are specified for printers,
computer disk-and tape drives, and military weapons systems; both

33
pull-in and push-out styles are available. Some commercial tubular
linear solenoids in this class have strokes up to 1.5 in. (38 mm), and
some can provide 30 lbf (14 kgf) from a unit less than 2.25 in (57 mm)
long. Linear solenoids find applications in vending machines, photocopy
machines, door locks, pumps, coin-changing mechanisms, and film
processors.

Rotary Solenoids

Rotary solenoid operation is based on the same electromagnetic

principles as linear solenoids except that their input electrical energy is
converted to rotary or twisting rather than linear motion. Rotary
actuators should be considered if controlled speed is a requirement in a
rotary stroke application. One style of rotary solenoid is shown in the
exploded view Figure 1-52. It includes an armature-plate assembly that
rotates when it is pulled into the housing by magnetic flux from the coil.
Axial stroke is the linear distance that the armature travels to the
center of the coil as the solenoid is energized. The three ball bearings
travel to the lower ends of the races in which they are positioned. The
operation of this rotary solenoid is shown in Figure 1-53. The rotary
solenoid armature is supported by three ball bearings that travel
around and down the three inclined ball races. The de-energized state
is shown in (a). When power is applied, a linear electromagnetic force
pulls in the armature and twists the armature plate, as shown in (b).

Rotation continues until the balls have traveled to the deep ends of the
races, completing the conversion of linear to rotary motion.
34
This type of rotary solenoid has a steel case that surrounds and
protects the coil, and the coil is wound so that the maximum amount of
copper wire is located in the allowed space. The steel housing provides
the high permeability path and low residual flux needed for the efficient
conversion of electrical energy to mechanical motion. Rotary solenoids
can provide well over 100 lb-in. (115 kgf-cm) of torque from a unit less
than 2.25 in. (57 mm) long.

Rotary solenoids are found in counters, circuit breakers, electronic

component pick-and-place machines, ATM machines, machine tools,
ticket-dispensing machines , and photocopiers.

Example on Application of Solenoids :

The flow of fluids and air can be controlled with solenoid controlled
valves. An example of a solenoid controlled valve is shown below . The
solenoid is mounted on the side. When actuated it will drive the central
spool left. The top of the valve body has two ports that will be
connected to a device such as a hydraulic cylinder. The bottom of the
valve body has a single pressure line in the center with two exhausts to
the side. In the top drawing the power flows in through the center to
the right hand cylinder port. The left hand cylinder port is allowed to
exit through an exhaust port. In the bottom drawing the solenoid is in a
new position and the pressure is now applied to the left hand port on
the top, and the right hand port can exhaust. The symbols to the left of
the figure show the schematic equivalent of the actual valve positions.

35
Valves are also available that allow the valves to be blocked when
unused.

II – Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic systems are used in applications requiring a large amount of
force and slow speeds. When used for continuous actuation they are
mainly used with position feedback .They also suffer from maintenance
problems (e.g. leakage of the hydraulic fluid, dirt/contamination of
fluid.) Hydraulic actuators may be linear, or rotary.

An example system is shown below. The controller examines the

position of the hydraulic system, and drivers a servo valve. This
controls the flow of fluid to the actuator. The remainder of the provides
the hydraulic power to drive the system.

36
Hydraulic systems normally contain the following components :

1. Hydraulic Fluid .
2. An Oil Reservoir .
3. A Pump to Move Oil, and Apply Pressure .
4. Pressure Lines .
5. Control Valves - to regulate fluid flow .
6. Piston and Cylinder - to actuate external mechanisms .

The hydraulic fluid is often a noncorrosive oil chosen so that it

lubricates the components.

Types of control valves used :

In the standard terminology, the ’n-way’ designates the number of
connections for inlets and outlets. In some cases there are redundant
ports for exhausts. The normally open/closed designation indicates the
valve condition when power is off. All of the valves listed are two
position valve, but three position valves are also available.

2-way normally closed - these have one inlet, and one outlet. When
unenergized, the valve is closed. When energized, the valve will open,
allowing flow. These are used to permit flows.

2-way normally open - these have one inlet, and one outlet. When
unenergized, the valve is open, allowing flow. When energized, the
valve will close. These are used to stop flows. When system power is
off, flow will be allowed.
3-way normally closed - these have inlet, outlet, and exhaust ports.
When unenergized , the outlet port is connected to the exhaust port.
When energized, the inlet is connected to the outlet port. These are
used for single acting cylinders.

3-way normally open - these have inlet, outlet and exhaust ports. When
unenergized , the inlet is connected to the outlet. Energizing the valve
connects the outlet to the exhaust. These are used for single acting
cylinders .

3-way universal - these have three ports. One of the ports acts as an
inlet or outlet, and is connected to one of the other two, when
energized/unenergized. These can be used to divert flows, or select
alternating sources .

37
4-way - These valves have four ports, two inlets and two outlets.
Energizing the valve causes connection between the inlets and outlets
to be reversed. These are used for double acting cylinders.

Some of the ISO symbols for valves are shown below . When using the
symbols in drawings the connections are shown for the unenergized
state. The arrows show the flow paths in different positions. The small
triangles indicate an exhaust port.

ISO Valve Symbols

When selecting valves there are a number of details that should be

considered, as listed
below :
• pipe size - inlets and outlets are typically threaded to accept NPT
(national pipe thread).
• flow rate - the maximum flow rate is often provided to hydraulic
valves.
• operating pressure - a maximum operating pressure will be
indicated. Some valves will also require a minimum pressure to
operate.
• electrical - the solenoid coil will have a fixed supply voltage (AC or
DC) and current.
• response time - this is the time for the valve to fully open/close.
Typical times for valves range from 5ms to 150ms.

enclosure - the housing for the valve will be rated as :

• type 1 or 2 - for indoor use, requires protection against splashes .

• type 3 - for outdoor use, will resists some dirt and weathering .
• type 3R or 3S or 4 - water and dirt tight .
• type 4X - water and dirt tight, corrosion resistant .
38
Types of cylinders used :
A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion as
shown below. In the figure a fluid is pumped into one side of the
cylinder under pressure, causing that side of the cylinder to expand,
and advancing the piston. The fluid on the other side of the piston must
be allowed to escape freely - if the incompressible fluid was trapped the
cylinder could not advance. The force the cylinder can exert is
proportional to the cross sectional area of the cylinder.

A Cross Section of a Hydraulic Cylinder

Single acting cylinders apply force when extending and typically use a
spring to retract the cylinder. Double acting cylinders apply force in
both direction.

39
 Schematic Symbols for Cylinders

Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Actuators :

Hydraulic actuators have brute strength, essentially no compressibility

and excellent power-to-weight ratio. However, they tend to leak, have
lower reliability, are higher maintenance, expensive and loud, use
flammable fluids and generate heat.

III – Pneumatic Actuators

Pneumatic systems are very common, and have much in common with
hydraulic systems with a few key differences. The reservoir is
eliminated as there is no need to collect and store the air between uses
in the system. Also because air is a gas it is compressible and
regulators are not needed to recirculate flow. But, the compressibility
also means that the systems are not as stiff or strong. Pneumatic
systems respond very quickly, and are commonly used for low force
applications in many locations on the factory floor.

Some basic characteristics of pneumatic systems :

- stroke from a few millimeters to meters in length (longer strokes have

more springiness .
- the actuators will give a bit - they are springy .
- pressures are typically up to 85psi above normal atmosphere .
- the weight of cylinders can be quite low .

40
- additional equipment is required for a pressurized air supply- linear
and rotatory actuators are available.
- dampers can be used to cushion impact at ends of cylinder travel.
When designing pneumatic systems care must be taken to verify the
operating location. In particular the elevation above sea level will result
in a dramatically different air pressure.
Some symbols for pneumatic systems :

41
 • The flow control valve is used to restrict the flow, typically to slow
motions.
• The shuttle valve allows flow in one direction, but blocks it in the
other.
• The receiver tank allows pressurized air to be accumulated.
• The dryer and filter help remove dust and moisture from the air,
prolonging the life of the valves and cylinders.

Advantages and Disadvantages of pneumatic actuators :

pneumatic actuators are inexpensive, have rapid response and are

simple and easy to control, they are also loud and their position is
difficult to control.

42
Sensors

43
 Introduction
Sensors convert physical phenomena to measurable signals , typically
voltages or currents .

The basic physical phenomena measured with sensors include :

•Angular or linear position .

•Acceleration .

•Tempreature.

•Pressure or flow rates .

•Light intensity .

•Sound .

Most of these sensors based on electrical properties of materials and

devices . As a result signals often require signal conditioners . these
are amplifiers that boost currents and voltages to larger values .

Types of Sensors :
In this report we will focus only on the types mentioned below :

• Proximity Sensors

• Strain Gauge

•Thermocouple

44
 Proximity Sensor
Definition of Proximity Sensor
It is a device to detect object with no contact, making use of changes in
a magnetic/ electric field.

Detection Mechanism
A proximity sensor create a net of electro/magnetic field and detects an
object which enters the field , just as a spider form its web and catches
its prey. The net is created by the magnetic lines originated from the
oscillation circuit. When a metallic object comes into the field, the
magnetic lines get disordered, which is transmitted to the oscillating
circuit .The oscillating circuit will detect the object approaching and
output the decision.

Working range

45
Classification
• Detection mode and principles

46
• Shape

47
Features of Proximity Sensor

1. Stable operation, unsusceptible to water, oil, dust, light,

etc..
Be able to use for machine tools splashed with cutting oil or food
processing machine washed with water (magnetic type).
2. Resistant to vibration and shock
Anti-vibration/shock since the whole circuit can be coated with resin.
3. Able to detect without any contact
Detection distance is bout 0-30mm. No damage on an object.
4. Higher speed/performance compared with limit switch
Long life and quick response.
5. Magnetic type is for metal detection, capacitance is for
everything except fluid
Liquid in a paper cup can be also detectable.
6. Susceptible to magnet effect
High possibility of malfunction in an area where large amount of electric
current flows such as welding or electro magnetism.

Major Characteristics
(1) Effect according to materials of object

48
(2) Size of object and detection distance (Model E2E-XIR5E1)

(3) Thickness of object and detection distance (Model E2E-X10E1)

Surface effect
Electric current flows equally in a conductor
when frequency is low (DC), but flows densely
on the surface and sparsely inside with high
frequency. The higher the magnetic transparent
ratio is, the higher this tendency is.

Whirling electric current in the object

- Aluminum

49
Whirling current flows deep inside of an object due to low transparent
ratio. Small anti-magnetic bundle occurs from the surface and inside as
well.
Therefore a proximity sensor can only detect an object within a short
distance.
- Steel
Whirling current flows densely on
the very surface due to high
transparent ratio. Therefore, large
anti-magnetic bundle the occurs
on surface. As a result a proximity
from the detect distance.

50
51
 STRAIN GAUGE

INTRODUCTION
The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the
fundamental sensing element for many types of sensors, including
pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position sensors, etc.The
majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice
of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a
pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on a backing material. They
operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to stress, the
resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.

Strain gauges are sensing devices used in a variety of physical test and
measurement applications. They change resistance at their output
terminals when stretched or compressed. Because of this characteristic,
the gauges are typically bonded to the surface of a solid material and
measure its minute dimensional changes when put in compression or
tension. Strain gauges and strain gauge principles are often used in
devices for measuring acceleration, pressure, tension, and force. Strain
is a dimensionless unit,defined as a change in length per unit length.
Strain gauges have a characteristic gauge factor, defined as the
fractional change in resistance divided by the strain.Common gauge
resistance values typically range from 120 to 350(, but some devices
are as low as 30O or as high as 3 k).

Definition Of Strain
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force.
More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length,
as shown in Figure 1 below.

52
 Figure 1. Definition of Strain

Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although

dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or
mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of

measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as

microstrain (me), which is e x 10-6.
When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a
phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes the girth of the bar, D, to
contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The magnitude
of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its
Poisson's Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio n of a material is defined as the
negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to
the force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or n
= eT/e. Poisson's Ratio for steel, for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3.

The Strain Gauge

While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common
is with a strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in
proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used
gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge.

The metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more
commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern
maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the
parallel direction (Figure 2). The cross sectional area of the grid is
minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The
grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached
directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the
test specimen is transferred directly to the strain gauge, which
responds with a linear change in electrical resistance. Strain gauges are
available commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3000
Ω, with 120, 350, and 1000 Ω being the most common values.

53
 Figure 2. Bonded Metallic Strain Gauge

It is very important that the strain gauge be properly mounted onto the
test specimen so that the strain is accurately transferred from the test
specimen, through the adhesive and strain gauge backing, to the foil
itself.
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,
expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is
defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the
fractional change in length (strain):

The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.

Strain Gauge Measurement

In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger
than a few millistrain(e x 10-3). Therefore, to measure the strain
requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance.
For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of 500 me. A
strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 will exhibit a change in electrical
resistance of only 2 (500 x 10-6) = 0.1%. For a 120 W gauge, this is a
change of only 0.12 W.

To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gauges are almost

always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source.
The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below, consists of four
resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the
bridge.

54
 Figure 3. Wheatstone Bridge

The output voltage of the bridge, VO, will be equal to:

From this equation, it is apparent that when R1/R2 = R4/R3, the voltage
output VO will be zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be
balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of the bridge will result
in a nonzero output voltage.

Therefore, if we replace R4 in Figure 3 with an active strain gauge, any

changes in the strain gauge resistance will unbalance the bridge and
produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal resistance of the
strain gauge is designated as RG, then the strain-induced change in
resistance, DR, can be expressed as DR = RG·GF·e. Assuming that R1 =
R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above can be rewritten to express
VO/VEX as a function of strain (see Figure 4). Note the presence of the 1/
(1+GF·e/2) term that indicates the nonlinearity of the quarter-bridge
output with respect to strain.

55
 Figure 4. Quarter-Bridge Circuit

Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to change only
in response to applied strain. However, strain gauge material, as well as
the specimen material to which the gauge is applied, will also respond
to changes in temperature. Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to
minimize sensitivity to temperature by processing the gauge material
to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen material for
which the gauge is intended. While compensated gauges reduce the
thermal sensitivity, they do not totally remove it.

By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can
be further minimized. For example, Figure 5 illustrates a strain gauge
configuration where one gauge is active (RG + DR), and a second gauge
is placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little
effect on the second gauge, called the dummy gauge. However, any
changes in temperature will affect both gauges in the same way.
Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the
ratio of their resistance does not change, the voltage VO does not
change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized.

Figure 5. Use of Dummy Gauge to Eliminate Temperature Effects

The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both

gauges active in a half-bridge configuration. For example, Figure 6
illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in
tension (RG + DR) and the other mounted in compression (RG - DR). This
half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also illustrated in

56
Figure 6, yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately
doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit.

Figure 6. Half-Bridge Circuit

Finally, you can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making
all four of the arms of the bridge active strain gauges in a full-bridge
configuration. The full-bridge circuit is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Full-Bridge Circuit

The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an
initially balanced bridge that generates zero output when no strain is
applied. In practice however, resistance tolerances and strain induced
by gauge application will generate some initial offset voltage. This
initial offset voltage is typically handled in two ways. First, you can use
a special offset-nulling, or balancing, circuit to adjust the resistance in
the bridge to rebalance the bridge to zero output. Alternatively, you can
measure the initial unstrained output of the circuit and compensate in
software.

The equations given above for quarter, half, and full-bridge strain
gauge configurations assume that the lead wire resistance is negligible.
While ignoring the lead resistances may be beneficial to understanding
the basics of strain gauge measurements, doing so in practice can be a
major source of error. For example, consider the 2-wire connection of a
57
strain gauge shown in Figure 8a. Suppose each lead wire connected to
the strain gauge is 15 m long with lead resistance RL equal to 1 W.
Therefore, the lead resistance adds 2 W of resistance to that arm of the
bridge. Besides adding an offset error, the lead resistance also
desensitizes the output of the bridge.

You can compensate for this error by measuring the lead resistance RL
and accounting for it in the strain calculations. However, a more difficult
problem arises from changes in the lead resistance due to temperature
fluctuations. Given typical temperature coefficients for copper wire, a
slight change in temperature can generate a measurement error of
several me.

Using a 3-wire connection can eliminate the effects of variable lead wire
resistance because the lead resistances affect adjacent legs of the
bridge. As seen in Figure 8b, changes in lead wire resistance, R2, do not
change the ratio of the bridge legs R3 and RG. Therefore, any changes in
resistance due to temperature cancel each other.

Figure 8. 2-Wire and 3-Wire Connections of Quarter-Bridge Circuit

Heating
Resistive heating in strain gauges also should be considered because
the gauges respond to temperature as well as stress. In most standard
circuits, the heat that each gauge dissipates is less than 100 mW, so it's
not usually a problem. This is especially
true when the strain gauge is bonded to a material that conducts heat
quickly, such as metal. However, because most wood, plastic, or glass
materials do not conduct heat away as rapidly, use the lowest
58
excitation voltage possible without introducing noise problems. Also,
heat can become a problem when the strain gauges are uncommonly
small, or numerous gauges occupy a limited space.

Calibration
The signal-conditioning module also typically provides a shunt
calibration feature. See Figure 7. It lets users switch their own shunt
resistors into either one of the two lower legs of the bridge under
software control. For example, a shunt resistor can be calculated to
simulate a full load. Applying a shunt resistor is a convenient way to
simulate an unbalance without having to apply a physical load. For any
balanced bridge, a specific resistor can be connected in parallel with
one of the four bridge elements to obtain a predictable unbalance and
output voltage.

59
 Thermocouple
INTRODUCTION

Thermocouples are among the easiest temperature sensors to use and

obtain and are widely used in science and industry. The basic theory of
thermocouples dates back to 1821 when T.J. Seebeck discovered that a
current is induced into a closed circuit of two dissimilar metals by
heating one of the two junctions. And, as long as the temperature
differences exists between the two junctions, current will continue
flowing through the circuit.

While the theory is nearly 150 years old, incorrect application of

thermocouples still affects today's sophisticated industrial processes. In
any temperature control system, the heart of that system is the
temperature sensing device -- in this case, thermocouple. Without
proper application or understanding of basic thermocouple circuits,
even the most complicated system cannot function.

In his discovery, Seebeck also concluded that any two metals can be
used. However, the magnitude and direction of the generated current
are functions of the magnitude of the temperature difference between
the junctions and the thermal properties of the metals used in the
circuit. Therefore, not every combination of metals is acceptable for
thermocouple usage.

Definition Of Thermocouple
Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal wires joined at least at one
end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between the the open
pair according to the size of the temperature difference between the
ends, the relative Seebeck coefficient of the wire pair and the
.uniformity of the wire-pair relative Seebeck coefficient

60
 THERMOELECTRIC CHARACTERISTICS
A thermocouple should have thermoelectric characteristics such that
the electromotive force (emf) produced per degree of temperature
change is sufficient to be detected by standard measuring instruments.
The device must also be capable of withstanding temperature extremes
for prolonged periods, rapid temperature changes, and corrosive
atmospheres while exhibiting reproducibility and a high degree of
accuracy.

Thermocouple types can be identified based on wire insulation color.

Temperat
Temperatu ANSI
ure range Toleranc Toleranc IEC BS
re range Colou
Type °c e class 1 e class 2Colour Colour
°c (short r
(continuo (°c) (°c) code code
term) code
us)
-40 to -40 to
+375 ± +333 ±
1.5 °c, 2.5 °c,
-180 to
K 0 to +1100 375 to 333 to
+1300
1000 ± 1200 ±
0.004*[t]° 0.0075*[t
c ]°c
-40 to -40 to
+375 ± +333 ±
1.5 °c, 2.5 °c,
-180 to
J 0 to +700 375 to 333 to
+800
750 ± 750 ±
0.004*[t]° 0.0075*[t
c ]°c
-40 to -40 to
+375 ± +333 ±
1.5 °c, 2.5°c,
-270 to
N 0 to +1100 375 to 333 to
+1300
1000 ± 1200 ±
0.004*[t]° 0.0075*[t
c ]°c
61
 0 to
+1100 ±
0 to +600
1.0°c,
± 1.5 °c,
1100 to Not
-50 to 600 to
R 0 to +1600 1600 ± define
+1700 1600 ±
(1+0.003 d.
0.0025*[t
(t-
]°c
1100))*[t]
°c
0 to
+1100 ±
0 to +600
1.0 °c,
± 1.5°c,
1100 to Not
-50 to 600 to
S 0 to 1600 1600 ± define
+1750 1600 ±
(1+0.003 d.
0.0025*[t
(t-
]°c
1100))*[t]
°c
No No
600 to
standa standa Not
+200 to Not 1700 ±
B 0 to +1820 rd use rd use define
+1700 Available 0.0025*[t
copper copper d.
]°c
wire wire
-40 to
-40 to
+125 ±
+133 ±
0.5°c,
-185 to -250 to 1.0°c,133
T 125 to
+300 +400 to 350 ±
350 ±
0.0075*[t
0.004*[t]°
]°c
c
-40 to + -40 to
375 ± +333 ±
1.5°c, 2.5°c,
E 0 to +800 -40 to +900 375 to 333 to
800 ± 900 ±
0.004*[t]° 0.0075*[t
c ]°c
For further information on thermocouple types & other colour codes see
Appendix 1.

LOCATION

Proper location of the thermocouple is probably the most important

factor in obtaining accurate temperature control. Thermocouples should
62
be in a position to have a definite temperature relationship to the heat
source and workload. A good 'rule of thumb' in locating thermocouples
is to place them between the workload and heat source. The
thermocouple should be located 1/3 the distance from the heat source
and 2/3 the distance to the workload.

If a thermocouple is located too close to the heaters, a long warm-up

time will result. The thermocouple will sense the heat before it reaches
the workload, and this means rapid on/off action of the controller. In
effect, the controller is controlling the heater and not the workload. In
rare cases, voltage will be induced into the thermocouple circuit at high
temperatures when located too near the heaters.

63
When a thermocouple is located too close to the workload, there is a
substantial delay in sensing the proper control point and the result is
overshooting the temperature. In most cases, it is better to be too close
to the heaters than the workload as once a temperature point is
passed, it becomes difficult to cool the workload unless a forced cooling
system is used. Two thermocouples connected in parallel could be
used, one located near the heaters and the other near the workload.
Both will balance these two factors and provide closer control.

Another consideration in location is when locating a thermocouple in a

thermocouple well. If it is not bottomed correctly, located at the bottom
of the well, the thermocouple will be reading the air temperature
around it and not the temperature of the workload.

64
COMPENSATION

The compensation method used by all millivoltmeter manufacturers is

to attach a bi-metallic spiral to the top hairspring of the coil suspension
system. This spiral is selected according to the range of the instrument
and will deflect the indicating pointer correspondingly with changes in
ambient temperature. Once ambient is set mechanically, using a zero
adjust screw, it is not necessary to change the setting during the
operation of the instrument. In solid state instruments, the
compensation is achieved electronically by placing a temperature
sensor, such as a thermistor or RTD, at the cold junction to monitor its
temperature. The signal from this sensor is used to compensate for
variations in cold junction temperature.

The automatic compensation for ambient temperature is sufficient in

most industrial applications. However, in laboratory experiments or
critical control situations, when maximum accuracy is desired, one of
two cold junction compensation methods are used. One method is to
place the cold junction in an agitated ice bath, shown below. The
instrument will then be set at 32 deg F (0 deg C), which is the
temperature of the ice bath.

65
In the other method, the cold junction is situated in a precisely
controlled temperature above ambient, as shown below. In this case,
ambient compensation is not necessary. The mechanical zero
adjustment is set at the cold junction temperature being maintained.
The normal temperature being maintained is 150 to 200 degrees F at
the cold junction.

In normal applications, if the cold junction is located too close to the

heat source, conduction and radiation heating will cause inaccurate
readings. Errors will also occur when using copper wire or the wrong
thermocouple lead wire. When copper wire is used, the cold junction in
effect remains at the thermocouple connector block instead of the
instrument. This will cause the instrument to read low in most cases
unless the cold junction and instrument are known to have the same
ambient temperature.

There is one application where cold junction compensation is not a

factor. When two thermocouples are connected in series opposing, as
shown below, a millivoltage is produced which is the difference in
millivolts between the temperature at both thermocouples. As the
difference in degrees between the two thermocouples is being
measured, cold junction compensation is not necessary.

66
Each millivolt measuring instrument is calibrated for both the type of
thermocouple being used and the length and gauge of the lead wire.
The thermocouple lead wire is in effect in series with the thermocouple
wire and the meter movement. Using wrong thermocouple lead wire
can be avoided by simply following the color-coding used by all
manufacturers (Table, below). A solid state controller can be used with
up to 100 ohms of external resistance without having to be
recalibrated.

Calibration symbols and color codes for thermocouple and extension wire

ISA Positive Polarity- Negativ Overal

Type Conductor
Symbol (+) Color Code e (-) l

Thermocou White Re
J -- Iron + Constantan - Brown
ple (Magnetic) d

Re
Extension JX -- Iron + White Constantan - Black
d

Thermocou T -- Re
+ Blue Constantan - Brown
ple Copper d

TX -- Re
Extension + Blue Constantan - Blue
Copper d

Thermocou E -- Re
+ Tan Constantan - Brown
ple Chromel d

EX -- Re
Extension + Tan Constantan - Brown
Chromel d

Thermocou K -- Alumel Re
+ Yellow - Yellow
ple chromel (Magnetic) d

Extension KK -- + Yellow Alumel - Re Brown

67
 Chromel d

Thermocou S -- PT
+ -- Platinum - -- --
ple 10% RH

Thermocou R -- PT
+ -- Platinum - -- --
ple 13% RH

SX -- Re
Extension + Black Alloy 11 - Green
Copper d

When a millivoltmeter is calibrated, a series resistance (commonly

called a calibrating spool) is used between the moving element coil of
the instrument and the thermocouple tip. The resistance of the wire
must be determined and used in the calibration of the instrument. If the
resistance of the thermocouple wire and extension wire is higher than
the instrument is calibrated for, the temperature readings will be low
and if the resistance is lower, the temperature readings will be high.

Where the thermocouple and extension wire are a significant portion of

the circuit, then we must also consider the resistance change of the
thermocouple wire at elevated temperatures. It may be necessary to
calibrate instruments at the operating temperature. As an example: 5
feet of .020 dia. platinum vs. platinum 10% Rhodium thermocouple
wire, would have a resistance of 2.3 ohms. At 2500 deg F, the
resistance would be 2.3 x 3.5 ohms, or 8.5 ohms. A millivoltmeter with
a sensitivity of 10 ohms per volt would have an error of approximately
4% at 2500 deg F. The effects of temperature on the thermocouple and
thermocouple extension wire are shown in Table below.

To illustrate the effects of incorrect lead length calibration on the

millivoltmeters, we have charted the errors that can result for various
ranges and thermocouples by deviating in resistance from the
calibrated lead length. Table below is based upon 10 ohms per millivolt
sensitivity instrument. Instruments with less sensitivity would show
greater errors. A meter with a 5 ohm per millivolt sensitivity would have
errors twice as great.

Thermocouple resistance change with temperature

Multiplying factor for various temps; both wires

same gauge

200 deg 400 deg 800 deg 1600 deg 2500 deg

68
 F F F F F

Iron-Constantan 1.02 1.05 1.11 1.22 ----

Chromel Alumel 1.05 1.14 1.30 1.62 2.01

Chromel-
1.13 1.33 1.7 2.5 ----
Constantan

Plat. 10% RH -
1.13 1.34 1.83 2.67 3.50
Platinum

Plat. 13% RH -
1.13 1.33 1.80 2.60 3.40
Platinum

Deviation in Ohms from calibrated lead length

1 -- 0-2000 deg F C/A (4.02% at 20 Ohms)

2 -- 0-1200 deg F I/C, 0-1600 deg F C/A (4.97% at

20 Ohms)

3 -- 0-800 deg F I/C, 0-600 deg F C/A (7.65% at 20

Ohms)

4 -- 0-500 deg F CU/C, 0-2200 deg F PLT/PLT +

13% RH

69
 0-2400 deg F PLT/PLT + 10% RH (14.32% at 20
Ohms)

5 -- 0-300 deg F I/C, o-350 deg F CU/C (22.15% at

20 Ohms)

THERMOCOUPLE CONNECTION

There are two common errors in connection thermocouple circuits. One

is to connect the extension lead wire completely reversed. In this case,
you would receive a low reading because the reversal causes the emf
generated at the connection of the thermocouple and extension lead
wire to be subtracted from the emf generated by the thermocouple. A
more obvious error is to completely reverse the thermocouple. The
instrument in this case will read downscale with an increase in
temperature.

Some control instruments feature 'thermocouple break protection'

which means that in the event of an open or broken thermocouple, a
small voltage is applied to the instrument which will cause it to read full
scale and turn off the external circuit. Thus, in the event the
thermocouple breaks because of a mechanical shock or vibration or if it
is over-exposed to extremely high temperature and deterioration sets

70
in, an unattended process will not overheat because of the loss of
control.

Another consideration in the thermocouple use is that the leads wires

should never run in the same conduit with electrical lines. This may
induce currents in the thermocouple wire, resulting in instrument errors
and poor control. However, if this cannot be avoided, or if the induced
currents are being picked up at the thermocouple itself, then one side
of the thermocouple lead wire should be grounded through a 1.0
microfared paper capacitor at one of the thermocouple terminals in the
instrument. In emergencies, a direct ground will sometimes work as
well.

Occasionally, because of atmospheric conditions, corroding may occur

on connections which cause a loss of the millivolt signal. Or, a poor
connection between the lead wire and thermocouple could cause loss of
signal.

The gauge size of the wire used in thermocouples is again dependent

upon the application. Usually, when longer life is required, for the
higher temperature ranges, the larger size wires are chosen. When
sensitivity is the prime concern, the smaller sizes should be used.

THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION PROCEDURE

The following information is intended to give the reader a review, in
some detail, of the equipment requirements and proper techniques
needed to accurately calibrate thermocouples and thermocouple
materials.
71
Branom Instrument calibrates thermocouple and thermocouple wire in
accordance with one of the following American Society for Testing and
Material (ASTM) Standards: E207-88, standard method of Thermal EMF
Test of single thermoelement materials by comparison with a
secondary standard of similar EMF temperature properties. E220-86,
standard method for calibration of thermocouples by comparison
techniques.

In general these standards describe the type of temperature source,

measuring equipment, standards, and procedures needed to accurately
perform a calibration. Each of these elements will now be looked at
more closely.

CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE SOURCE

The temperature source used in the process of calibrating should as a

minimum be stable enough to provide a constant temperature (approx.
+/-.2 degrees F) for a short length of time (approx.20 mm.) at any
temperature at which the temperature bath or other source is to be
used. The temperature source should have a zone of uniform
temperature into which the thermocouple measuring junction may be
inserted. The length of the temperature source must be adequate to
permit a depth of immersion sufficient to assure that the measuring
junction temperature is not affected by a temperature gradient along
the thermocouple wires.

CONTROLLED TEMPERATURE SOURCES

• Fixed Point: When highly accurate measurements must be

made, fixed point cells are used. A fixed point cell consists of a
metal sample inside a graphite crucible with a graphite
thermometer well submerged into the metal sample. When the
metal sample is heated to the freezing point, it will produce a very
stable and constant temperature. In order to better understand
the operation of fixed point cells, the following definitions are
useful.
• Fixed Point: A reproducible temperature of equilibrium
between different phases of a material.
• Freezing Point: The fixed point between the solid and liquid
phases of a material.

REFERENCE JUNCTIONS

72
A thermocouple's output is based on the difference in temperature
between the measuring junction (hot junction) and the reference
junction (cold junction). See Figure A.

REFERENCE JUNCTION TEMPERATURE

A controlled temperature must be provided in which the reference

junction is maintained at a constant chosen temperature. The reference
junction temperature should be controlled to a better accuracy than
that expected from the thermocouple calibration. The most commonly
used reference temperature is 32 degrees F., but other temperatures
may be used if desired.

ICE BATH

One of the most common reference junctions is the ice bath. The ice
bath is made up of a mixture of melting shaved ice and water. The ice
bath is a convenient and inexpensive way to achieve an ice point, it can
be reproduced with ease and with exceptional accuracy. Junctions
formed between the thermocouple materials and instrument leads can
be simply immersed into the slush mixture, or alternatively glass "U"
tubes containing a quantity of mercury approximately 3/4" to 1" depth
can be placed into the slush mixture. Quick electrical connection can
then be made between thermocouple and instrument leads through the
mercury. (Figure B).

Note: An improperly used ice bath can result in serious errors. The
largest error which is likely to occur arises due to melting of the ice at
the bottom of the bath until the reference junctions are below the ice
level and surrounded by water alone. This water may be as much as 7
degrees F above the ice point.

AUTOMATIC ICE POINT

The automatic ice point is an electrical refrigerated device in which an

equilibrium between ice and water is constantly maintained. The
change of volume of water in freezing is used to control heat transfer.
Some commercially available devices provide wells into which the user
may insert reference junctions formed from his own calibrated wire.
Others are provided with many reference junction pairs brought out to
terminals which the user may connect into his system.

ELECTRONIC COMPENSATION

73
This method employs a compensation circuit containing a source of
current and a combination of fixed resistors and a temperature
sensitive resistor (TSR). This device can be designed to produce similar
EMF to that of the thermocouple being calibrated. The Electronic
Compensator will make EMF compensations to the thermocouple circuit
based in the difference in EMF from 32 to ambient temperature.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

The choice of a specific instrument to use for measuring the

thermocouple output will depend on the accuracy required of the
calibration being performed. In general, an instrument such as the
Fluke 702 calibrator or Altek 422 is sufficient for most thermocouple
calibrations.

REFERENCE THERMOMETERS

The reference thermometer to be used for the comparison calibration of

a thermocouple will depend upon the temperature range covered, the
accuracy desired, the capabilities, or the preference of the calibration
laboratory. The following are different examples of reference
thermometers.

PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS

A standard platinum resistance thermometer (SPRT) is the most

accurate standard available, however, it is the most expensive
standard, and other standards are acceptable alternatives depending
upon the temperature range covered, the accuracy desired, the
capabilities, or the preference of the calibration laboratory. The
following are different examples of reference thermometers.

LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETERS

Liquid-in-glass thermometers are available to cover the range from

-300 to 950 degrees Fahrenheit. with an accuracy of from .1 to 3
Fahrenheit depending on the type of thermometer and the width of the
range covered. They are relatively inexpensive but they are fragile, and
if the highest degree of accuracy of which they are capable is to be

74
achieved, an individual thermometer must cover a very narrow
temperature range so that the graduation intervals can be as large as
possible. A further disadvantage of the liquid-in-glass thermometer is
that because of their fine graduations reading errors are a distinct
possibility. Taylor Instruments offers Superior Grade Certified
Secondary Reference Thermometers individually or in matched Celsius
or Fahrenheit sets, which Branom stocks.

TEST ASSEMBLY PLACEMENT IN THE FURNACE

Depth of immersion is the most important consideration if accurate

calibration results are to be obtained. The depth of immersion must be
sufficient to eliminate the effects of heat transfer away from the
junction. It is impossible to establish a minimum depth of immersion
that would be useable under all circumstances since heat transfer
characteristics are dependent on the mass of material being put into
the temperature source.

WIRING CONNECTION FROM TEST ASSEMBLY TO READOUT

INSTRUMENT

The actual wiring necessary to connect the test assembly, reference

junction and readout instrument will depend on the quantity of
thermoelements in the test assembly, the type of reference junction
used and whether or not a switching device is used, but the basic
requirements are the same. Thermocouple extension wire is used to
connect the thermoelements to the reference junction. Copper wires
are used between the reference junction and readout instrument.

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE, WIRING PROCEDURE

Ideally, the samples of the thermocouple material to be calibrated and

the standard thermocouple element should be cut long enough so that
they reach directly from the temperature source to the reference
junction without the need for extension wires. If this is not possible
extension wires may be used, but they must be securely connected
directly to the test assembly conductors. If extension wires must be
used, remove any oxide layer that may be on the surface of the test
assembly conductors and attach an extension wire of the same material
75
to each conductor by laying the extension wire alongside the
conductors and joining them securely by means of an alligator clip.

THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION WIRING PROCEDURE

When calibrating thermocouples, it is faster and more convenient to

use a thermocouple switching box. The extension wires from the
thermocouples are placed into one side of the reference junction.
Multiple pairs of copper leadwire will exit the reference junction and will
be connected to the switch box. One pair of copper leadwires will run
from the readout instrument to the thermocouple switch box.

For a more in-depth look at thermocouples and thermocouple

calibration the reader is encouraged to read ASTM STP 470, manual on
the use of thermocouple in temperature measurement.

JUNCTION LOCATION

One of the primary advantages of calibrating thermocouple materials

against a base-metal standard of similar EMF output is that the
sample(s) to be calibrated are welded to the base-metal standard
forming a common junction thus achieving good isothermal conditions
between the test thermoelement and the standard. Furthermore,
because the test thermoelement and the standard produce nominally
the same EMF vs. platinum (pt-67) the EMF output changes little over a
fairly broad temperature range, thereby reducing the need for precise
temperature source control. See Figure C.

MEASUREMENT

Set your controlled temperature source to the specified temperature

and allow it to adequately stabilize. Immerse the test assembly into the
test temperature medium and provide sufficient time for the test
assembly to stabilize. Once the test assembly is stable the EMF
generated between the test specimen and the reference standard can
be recorded. Avoid soaking the test assembly at temperature for a
prolonged period of time, as it can cause permanent changes to occur
in the thermoelements.

Once the reading is taken, raise the test temperature to the next higher
temperature, first removing the test assembly from the temperature
source, or advance the test assembly to the next temperature source.
Allow the temperature source and the test assembly to stabilize as
before, and take a second set of readings at the new temperature.

76
In all cases take the reading in sequence from the lowest to the highest
temperature. A base metal reference standard shall be used for one
series of temperature changes only.

ASTM E 220 THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION

The Test thermocouple junction should be located so that it is in

intimate contact with the junction of the standard. Without making a
radiograph of the thermocouple it is impossible to know exactly where
the junction is located. A few generalizations can be made which
enables junctions to be located quite closely. First, the cap weld on a
metal sheathed thermocouple is normally about as thick as one-half the
sheathed diameter. Second, a "U" junction is normally about one-half
the sheathed diameter. Using these generalizations, a thermocouple .
125" diameter, will have a grounded junction approximately .063"
below the tip of the cap. The thermocouple standard should be tied to
the thermocouple (s) with a fine gauge wire. The junction of the
standard should be bent so that it is in contact or at least very close to
the point where it has been calculated that the junction is located. See
Figure D.

PLATINUM VERSUS PLATINUM RHODIUM THERMOCOUPLE

Platinum vs. platinum 10% Rhodium standard thermocouples (ANSI

Type S) are exceptionally accurate and stable devices. NIST offers
calibration uncertainty of.9 F. from 0 to 1112 F, and 1.26 F. from 1112
to 2012 F. When used as a working standard, understandably due to
the high cost of these materials, they cannot be discarded after each
use. Consequently, care must be taken to avoid contamination, work
hardening and other sources of de-calibration.

BASE METAL THERMOCOUPLE STANDARDS

An alternate approach to calibrating thermocouples and thermocouple

materials, and one which gives a high degree of accuracy, is calibrating
with a secondary standard that has similar FMF properties to those of
the test element. That is, calibrating a KP element against a KP
standard.

All thermocouple materials in the USA are referenced to a pure

platinum element (PT-67) which is retained at the National Institute of
Standards and Technology. It is important that regardless of the type of
standard used that traceability to this NIST standard be accomplished.

77
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE

The instruments mentioned previously as standards, fixed point cells,

platinum resistance thermometers and liquid-in-glass thermometers
can all be used to accurately calibrate thermocouples if the proper
calibration procedures are followed. As previously mentioned, the two
most common procedures are ASTM E207 & P220. We will now examine
both more closely.

ASTM E207 WIRE TO WIRE CALIBRATION

In order to achieve the maximum amount of accuracy when using base-

metal standards, it is desirable whenever possible to make wire to wire
readings, that is, reading the EMF developed between the
thermocouple material to be calibrated and the base-metal standard of
similar material.

Thermocouple material should be free of contaminants, insulated wire

should be stripped of insulation. Insulation should be removed carefully
in order to avoid cold working by nicking or stretching. Any one of these
conditions could cause erroneous calibration results.

FLUIDIZED BEDS

The fluidized bed is a unique method of providing closely controlled

temperatures. The bath consists of a very fine mesh aluminum oxide, a
heated chamber into which the medium is placed, and a means for
slowly agitating the bath by introducing a flow of air. By careful control
of heat input and air flow, temperatures of the bath can be controlled
within close limits thereby producing isothermal conditions between the
calibration standard and the test setup. Fluidized beds are useful for
calibrating over the temperature range from ambient to 1600 degrees
F.

STIRRED LIQUID BATHS

Stirred liquid baths operate on the same principal as fluidized beds and
are an excellent means of establishing closely controlled temperatures.
Although stirred liquid baths using molten salts or liquid tin are
available with a temperature range as high as 932 degrees F., the most

78
common application is in the range of ambient to 500 degrees F.
utilizing silicone oil as the bath material.

TUBE-TYPE HEATING ELEMENT FURNACE

For temperatures above 500 degrees F. an electrically heated tube

furnace is recommended. Tube furnaces operate in the range of 500 to
3100 Degrees. F.

Figure A:

79
Figure B:

Figure C:

Figure D:

80
 Applications
Thermocouples are most suitable for measuring over a large
temperature range, up to 1800 K. They are less suitable for applications
where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high
accuracy, for example the range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For
such applications, thermistors and RTDs are more suitable.

Steel Industry

Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used extensively in the steel and

iron industry to monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the
steel making process. Disposable, immersible, Type S thermocouples
are regularly used in the electric arc furnace process to accurately
measure the steel's temperature before tapping. The cooling curve of a
small steel sample can be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon
content of molten steel.
81
Heating appliance safety

Many gas-fed heating appliances like ovens and water heaters make
use of a pilot light to ignite the main gas burner as required. If the pilot
light becomes extinguished for any reason, there is the potential for un-
combusted gas to be released into the surrounding area,

thereby creating both risk of fire and a health hazard. To prevent such a
danger, some appliances use a thermocouple as a fail-safe control to
sense when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the thermocouple is
placed in the pilot flame. The resultant voltage, typically around 20 mV,
operates the gas supply valve responsible for feeding the pilot. So long
as the pilot flame remains lit, the thermocouple remains hot and holds
the pilot gas valve open. If the pilot light goes out, the temperature will
fall along with a corresponding drop in voltage across the thermocouple
leads, removing power from the valve. The valve closes, shutting off
the gas and halting this unsafe condition.

Many systems (Millivolt control systems) extend this concept to the

main gas valve as well. Not only does the voltage created by the pilot
thermocouple activate the pilot gas valve, it is also routed through a
thermostat to power the main gas valve as well. Here, a larger voltage
is needed than in a pilot flame safety system described above, and a
thermopile is used rather than a single thermocouple. Such a system
requires no external source of electricity for its operation and so can
operate during a power failure, provided all the related system
components allow for this. Note that this excludes common forced air
furnaces because external power is required to operate the blower
motor, but this feature is especially useful for un-powered convection
heaters.

A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using a thermocouple is

sometimes employed to ensure that the main burner ignites within a
certain time period, shutting off the main burner gas supply valve
should that not happen.

Out of concern for wasted energy, many newer appliances have

switched to an electronically controlled pilot-less ignition, also called
intermittent ignition. This eliminates the need for a standing pilot flame
82
but loses the benefit of any operation without a continuous source of
electricity.

Thermopile radiation sensors

Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity of incident radiation,

typically visible or infrared light, which heats the hot junctions, while
the cold junctions are on a heat sink. It is possible to measure radiative
intensities of only a few μW/cm2 with commercially available thermopile
sensors. For example, laser power meters are based on such sensors.

Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)

Thermopiles can also be applied to generate electricity in radioisotope

thermoelectric generators.

Appendix 1
Thermocouple Types
The selection of the optimum thermocouple type (metals used in their
construction) is based on application temperature, atmosphere,
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required length of service, accuracy and cost. When a replacement
thermocouple is required, it is of the utmost importance that the type of
thermocouple type used in the replacement matches that of the
measuring instrument. Different thermocouple types have very
different voltage output curves. It is also required that thermocouple or
thermocouple extension wire, of the proper type, be used all the way
from the sensing element to the measuring element. Large errors can
develop if this practice is not followed.

The thermocouple types are listed below with the positive electrode
first, followed by the negative electrode.

Type K (chromel–alumel) is the most commonly used general purpose

thermocouple. It is inexpensive and, owing to its popularity, available in
a wide variety of probes. They are available in the −200 °C to +1200 °C
range. The type K was specified at a time when metallurgy was less
advanced than it is today and, consequently, characteristics vary
considerably between examples. Another potential problem arises in
some situations since one of the constituent metals, nickel, is magnetic.
The characteristic of the thermocouple undergoes a step change when
a magnetic material reaches its Curie point. This occurs for this
thermocouple at 354°C. Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.

Type E (chromel–constantan) has a high output (68 µV/°C) which makes

it well suited to cryogenic use. Additionally, it is non-magnetic.

Type J (iron–constantan) is less popular than type K due to its limited

range (−40 to +750 °C). The main application is with old equipment
that cannot accept modern thermocouples. J types cannot be used
above 760 °C as an abrupt magnetic transformation causes permanent
decalibration. The magnetic properties also prevent use in some
applications. Type J thermocouples have a sensitivity of about 52 µV/°C.

Type N (nicrosil–nisil) thermocouples are suitable for use at high

temperatures, exceeding 1200 °C, due to their stability and ability to
resist high temperature oxidation. Sensitivity is about 39 µV/°C at
900°C, slightly lower than a Type K. Designed to be an improved type
K, it is becoming more popular.

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B, R, and S

Types B, R, and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum–rhodium

alloy for each conductor. These are among the most stable
thermocouples, but have lower sensitivity, approximately 10 µV/°C,
than other types. The high cost of these thermocouple types makes
them unsuitable for general use. Generally, type B, R, and S
thermocouples are used only for high temperature measurements.

Type B thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy for each

conductor. One conductor contains 30% rhodium while the other
conductor contains 6% rhodium. These thermocouples are suited for
use at up to 1800 °C. Type B thermocouples produce the same output
at 0 °C and 42 °C, limiting their use below about 50 °C.

Type R thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 13%

rhodium for one conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor.
Type R thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C.

Type S thermocouples use a platinum–rhodium alloy containing 10%

rhodium for one conductor and pure platinum for the other conductor.
Like type R, type S thermocouples are used up to 1600 °C. In particular,
type S is used as the standard of calibration for the melting point of
gold (1064.43 °C).

Type T (copper–constantan) thermocouples are suited for

measurements in the −200 to 350 °C range. Often used as a differential
measurement since only copper wire touches the probes. As both
conductors are non-magnetic, type T thermocouples are a popular
choice for applications such as electrical generators which contain
strong magnetic fields. Type T thermocouples have a sensitivity of
about 43 µV/°C.

Type C (tungsten 5% rhenium – tungsten 26% rhenium) thermocouples

are suited for measurements in the 0& °C to 2320 °C range. This
thermocouple is well-suited for vacuum furnaces at extremely high
temperatures and must never be used in the presence of oxygen at
temperatures above 500°F.

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M

Type M thermocouples use a nickel alloy for each wire. The positive
wire contains 18% molybdenum while the negative wire contains 0.8%
cobalt[1]. These thermocouples are used in the vacuum furnaces for the
same reasons as with type C. Upper temperature is limited to 1400 °C.
Though it is a less common type of thermocouple, look-up tables to
correlate temperature to EMF (milli-volt output) are available.

Thermocouple Color Codes

Thermocouple wiring is color coded by thermocouple types. Different countries
utilize different color coding. Jacket coloring is sometimes a colored stripe instead
of a solid color as shown.

United States ASTM:

British BS1843: 1952:

British BS4937: Part 30: 1993:

French NFE:

German DIN:
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