Charles Sanders Peirce - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

11/03/2016
CharlesSandersPeirceWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
CharlesSandersPeirce
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
CharlesSandersPeirce(/prs/,[9]like"purse",
September10,1839April19,1914)wasanAmerican
philosopher,logician,mathematician,andscientistwho
issometimesknownas"thefatherofpragmatism".He
waseducatedasachemistandemployedasascientist
for30years.Todayheisappreciatedlargelyforhis
contributionstologic,mathematics,philosophy,
scientificmethodology,andsemiotics,andforhis
foundingofpragmatism.
Aninnovatorinmathematics,statistics,philosophy,
researchmethodology,andvarioussciences,Peirce
consideredhimself,firstandforemost,alogician.He
mademajorcontributionstologic,butlogicforhim
encompassedmuchofthatwhichisnowcalled
epistemologyandphilosophyofscience.Hesawlogic
astheformalbranchofsemiotics,ofwhichheisa
founder,andwhichforeshadowedthedebateamong
logicalpositivistsandproponentsofphilosophyof
languagethatdominated20thcenturyWestern
philosophyadditionally,hedefinedtheconceptof
abductivereasoning,aswellasrigorouslyformulated
mathematicalinductionanddeductivereasoning.As
earlyas1886hesawthatlogicaloperationscouldbe
carriedoutbyelectricalswitchingcircuitsthesame
ideawasuseddecadeslatertoproducedigital
computers.[10]
In1934,thephilosopherPaulWeisscalledPeirce"the
mostoriginalandversatileofAmericanphilosophers
andAmerica'sgreatestlogician".[11]Webster's
BiographicalDictionarysaidin1943thatPeircewas
"nowregardedasthemostoriginalthinkerandgreatest
logicianofhistime."[12]KeithDevlinsimilarlyreferred
toPeirceasoneofthegreatestphilosophersever.[13]
Born
September10,1839inCambridge,
Massachusetts
Died
April19,1914(aged74)inMilford,
Pennsylvania
Alma
mater
HarvardUniversity
Institutions JohnsHopkinsUniversity
Nationality American
Fields
Logic,Mathematics,
Statistics, [1][2]Philosophy,
Metrology, [3]Chemistry,
Experimentalpsychology[4]
Economics, [5]Linguistics, [6]
Historyofscience
Religious
stance
Episcopal(unconventional)[7]
Contents
1 Life
1.1 Earlyemployment
1.2 JohnsHopkinsUniversity
1.3 Poverty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce
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1.4 Slavery,theCivilWarandracism
2 Reception
3 Works
4 Mathematics
4.1 Mathematicsoflogic
4.2 Continua
4.3 Probabilityandstatistics
5 Philosophy
5.1 Theoryofcategories
5.2 Aestheticsandethics
6 Philosophy:logic,orsemiotic
6.1 Logicasphilosophical
6.2 Signs
6.3 Modesofinference
6.4 Pragmatism
7 Philosophy:metaphysics
8 Scienceofreview
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 Externallinks
Life
Peircewasbornat3PhillipsPlaceinCambridge,Massachusetts.HewasthesonofSarahHuntMillsand
BenjaminPeirce,himselfaprofessorofastronomyandmathematicsatHarvardUniversityandperhapsthe
firstseriousresearchmathematicianinAmerica.Atage12,Charlesreadhisolderbrother'scopyof
RichardWhately'sElementsofLogic,thentheleadingEnglishlanguagetextonthesubject.Sobeganhis
lifelongfascinationwithlogicandreasoning.[14]HewentontoearntheA.B.andA.M.(1862)from
Harvardin1863theLawrenceScientificSchoolawardedhimaB.Sc.thatwasHarvard'sfirstsummacum
laudechemistrydegree[15]andotherwisehisacademicrecordwasundistinguished.[16]AtHarvard,he
beganlifelongfriendshipswithFrancisEllingwoodAbbot,ChaunceyWright,andWilliamJames.[17]One
ofhisHarvardinstructors,CharlesWilliamEliot,formedanunfavorableopinionofPeirce.Thisopinion
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provedfateful,becauseEliot,whilePresidentofHarvard
18691909aperiodencompassingnearlyallofPeirce's
workingliferepeatedlyvetoedHarvard'semploying
Peirceinanycapacity.[18]
Peirce'sbirthplace.NowpartofLesley
University'sGraduateSchoolofArtsand
SocialSciences
Peircesufferedfromhislateteensonwardfromanervous
conditionthenknownas"facialneuralgia",whichwould
todaybediagnosedastrigeminalneuralgia.Brentsaysthat
wheninthethroesofitspain"hewas,atfirst,almost
stupefied,andthenaloof,cold,depressed,extremely
suspicious,impatientoftheslightestcrossing,andsubject
toviolentoutburstsoftemper".[19]Itsconsequencesmay
haveledtothesocialisolationwhichmadehislife'slater
yearssotragic.
Earlyemployment
Between1859and1891,PeircewasintermittentlyemployedinvariousscientificcapacitiesbytheUnited
StatesCoastSurveyanditssuccessor,theUnitedStatesCoastandGeodeticSurvey,[20]whereheenjoyed
hishighlyinfluentialfather'sprotection[21]untilthelatter'sdeathin1880.Thatemploymentexempted
PeircefromhavingtotakepartintheCivilWaritwouldhavebeenveryawkwardforhimtodoso,asthe
BostonBrahminPeircessympathizedwiththeConfederacy.[22]AttheSurvey,heworkedmainlyin
geodesyandgravimetry,refiningtheuseofpendulumstodeterminesmalllocalvariationsintheEarth's
gravity.[20]HewaselectedaresidentfellowoftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciencesinJanuary
1867.[23]TheSurveysenthimtoEuropefivetimes,[24]firstin1871aspartofagroupsenttoobservea
solareclipsethere,hesoughtoutAugustusDeMorgan,WilliamStanleyJevons,andWilliamKingdon
Clifford,[25]Britishmathematiciansandlogicianswhoseturnofmindresembledhisown.From1869to
1872,hewasemployedasanAssistantinHarvard'sastronomicalobservatory,doingimportantworkon
determiningthebrightnessofstarsandtheshapeoftheMilkyWay.[26]OnApril20,1877hewaselecteda
memberoftheNationalAcademyofSciences.[27]Alsoin1877,heproposedmeasuringthemeterasso
manywavelengthsoflightofacertainfrequency,[28]thekindofdefinitionemployedfrom1960to1983.
Duringthe1880s,Peirce'sindifferencetobureaucraticdetailwaxedwhilehisSurveywork'squalityand
timelinesswaned.Peircetookyearstowritereportsthatheshouldhavecompletedinmonths.Meanwhile,
hewroteentries,ultimatelythousandsduring18831909,onphilosophy,logic,science,andothersubjects
fortheencyclopedicCenturyDictionary.[29]In1885,aninvestigationbytheAllisonCommission
exoneratedPeirce,butledtothedismissalofSuperintendentJuliusHilgardandseveralotherCoastSurvey
employeesformisuseofpublicfunds.[30]In1891,PeirceresignedfromtheCoastSurveyat
SuperintendentThomasCorwinMendenhall'srequest.[31]Heneveragainheldregularemployment.
JohnsHopkinsUniversity
In1879,PeircewasappointedLecturerinlogicatthenewJohnsHopkinsUniversity,whichhadstrong
departmentsinanumberofareasthatinterestedhim,suchasphilosophy(RoyceandDeweycompleted
theirPhDsatHopkins),psychology(taughtbyG.StanleyHallandstudiedbyJosephJastrow,who
coauthoredalandmarkempiricalstudywithPeirce),andmathematics(taughtbyJ.J.Sylvester,whocame
toadmirePeirce'sworkonmathematicsandlogic).1883sawpublicationofhisStudiesinLogicby
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MembersoftheJohnsHopkinsUniversitycontainingworksbyhimselfandAllanMarquand,Christine
Ladd,BenjaminIvesGilman,andOscarHowardMitchell,severalofwhomwerehisgraduatestudents.[32]
Peirce'snontenuredpositionatHopkinswastheonlyacademicappointmentheeverheld.
BrentdocumentssomethingPeirceneversuspected,namelythathiseffortstoobtainacademic
employment,grants,andscientificrespectabilitywererepeatedlyfrustratedbythecovertoppositionofa
majorCanadianAmericanscientistoftheday,SimonNewcomb.[33]Peirce'seffortsmayalsohavebeen
hamperedbyadifficultpersonalityBrentconjecturesastofurtherpsychologicaldifficulty.[34]
Conversely,KeithDevlinbelievesthatPeirce'sworkwastoofaraheadofhistimetobeappreciatedbythe
academicestablishmentofthedayandthatthisplayedalargeroleinPeirce'sinabilitytoobtainatenured
position.[13]
Peirce'spersonallifeworkedagainsthisprofessionalsuccess.Afterhisfirstwife,HarrietMelusinaFay
("Zina"),lefthimin1875,[35]Peirce,whilestilllegallymarried,becameinvolvedwithJuliette,whose
name,givenvariouslyasFroissyandPourtalai[36]andnationality(shespokeFrench[37])remain
uncertain.[38]WhenhisdivorcefromZinabecamefinalin1883,hemarriedJuliette.[39]Thatyear,
NewcombpointedouttoaJohnsHopkinstrusteethatPeirce,whileaHopkinsemployee,hadlivedand
traveledwithawomantowhomhewasnotmarriedtheensuingscandalledtohisdismissalinJanuary
1884.[40]OvertheyearsPeircesoughtacademicemploymentatvariousuniversitieswithoutsuccess.[41]
Hehadnochildrenbyeithermarriage.[42]
Poverty
In1887Peircespentpartofhisinheritancefromhisparentstobuy
2,000acres(8km2)ofrurallandnearMilford,Pennsylvania,which
neveryieldedaneconomicreturn.[43]Therehehadan1854
farmhouseremodeledtohisdesign.[44]ThePeircesnamedthe
property"Arisbe".Theretheylivedwithfewinterruptionsforthe
restoftheirlives,[45]Charleswritingprolifically,muchofit
unpublishedtothisday(seeWorks).Livingbeyondtheirmeans
soonledtogravefinancialandlegaldifficulties.[46]Hespentmuch
ofhislasttwodecadesunabletoaffordheatinwinterandsubsisting
onoldbreaddonatedbythelocalbaker.Unabletoaffordnew
stationery,hewroteontheversosideofoldmanuscripts.An
outstandingwarrantforassaultandunpaiddebtsledtohisbeinga
fugitiveinNewYorkCityforawhile.[47]Severalpeople,including
hisbrotherJamesMillsPeirce[48]andhisneighbors,relativesof
GiffordPinchot,settledhisdebtsandpaidhispropertytaxesand
mortgage.[49]
Peircedidsomescientificandengineeringconsultingandwrote
muchformeagerpay,mainlyencyclopedicdictionaryentries,and
reviewsforTheNation(withwhoseeditor,WendellPhillips
Garrison,hebecamefriendly).Hedidtranslationsforthe
SmithsonianInstitution,atitsdirectorSamuelLangley'sinstigation.
PeircealsodidsubstantialmathematicalcalculationsforLangley's
Cambridge,wherePeircewasborn
andraised,NewYorkCity,wherehe
oftenvisitedandsometimeslived,
andMilford,wherehespentthelater
yearsofhislifewithhissecondwife
Juliette.
JulietteandCharlesbyawellattheir
homeArisbein1907
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researchonpoweredflight.Hopingtomakemoney,Peircetriedinventing.[50]Hebeganbutdidnot
completeanumberofbooks.[51]In1888,PresidentGroverClevelandappointedhimtotheAssay
Commission.[52]
From1890on,hehadafriendandadmirerin
JudgeFrancisC.RussellofChicago,[53]who
introducedPeircetoeditorPaulCarusandowner
EdwardC.HegelerofthepioneeringAmerican
philosophyjournalTheMonist,whicheventually
publishedatleast14articlesbyPeirce.[54]He
wrotemanytextsinJamesMarkBaldwin's
DictionaryofPhilosophyandPsychology(1901
5)halfofthosecreditedtohimappeartohave
beenwrittenactuallybyChristineLaddFranklin
underhissupervision.[55]Heappliedin1902tothe
newlyformedCarnegieInstitutionforagrantto
Arisbein2011
writeasystematicbookofhislife'swork.The
applicationwasdoomedhisnemesisNewcomb
servedontheInstitution'sexecutivecommittee,anditsPresidenthadbeenthePresidentofJohnsHopkins
atthetimeofPeirce'sdismissal.[56]
TheonewhodidthemosttohelpPeirceinthesedesperatetimeswashisoldfriendWilliamJames,
dedicatinghisWilltoBelieve(1897)toPeirce,andarrangingforPeircetobepaidtogivetwoseriesof
lecturesatornearHarvard(1898and1903).[57]Mostimportant,eachyearfrom1907untilJames'sdeath
in1910,JameswrotetohisfriendsintheBostonintelligentsiatorequestfinancialaidforPeircethefund
continuedevenafterJamesdied.PeircereciprocatedbydesignatingJames'seldestsonashisheirshould
Juliettepredeceasehim.[58]IthasbeenbelievedthatthiswasalsowhyPeirceused"Santiago"("St.James"
inEnglish)asamiddlename,butheappearedinprintasearlyas1890asCharlesSantiagoPeirce.(See
CharlesSantiagoSandersPeircefordiscussionandreferences).
PeircedieddestituteinMilford,Pennsylvania,twentyyearsbeforehiswidow.
Slavery,theCivilWarandracism
PeircegrewupinahomewherethesupremacyofthewhiteAngloSaxonmalewastakenforgranted,
IrishimmigrantswereconsideredinferiorandNegroslaverywasconsiderednatural.[59]
UntiltheoutbreakoftheCivilWarhisfatherdescribedhimselfasasecessionist,butaftertheoutbreakof
thewar,thisstoppedandhebecameaUnionpartisan,supportingwithdonationstheSanitaryCommission,
theleadingNorthernwarcharity.NomembersofthePeircefamilyvolunteeredorenlisted.Peirceshared
hisfather'sviewsandlikedtousethesyllogism
AllMenareequalintheirpoliticalrights,
NegroesareMen
Negroesareequalinpoliticalrightstowhites
toillustratetheunreliabilityoftraditionalformsoflogic.[60]See:Peirce'slaw#OtherproofsofPeirce's
law
Reception
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BertrandRussell(1959)wrote,[61]"Beyonddoubt[...]hewasoneofthemostoriginalmindsofthelater
nineteenthcentury,andcertainlythegreatestAmericanthinkerever."(RussellandWhitehead'sPrincipia
Mathematica,publishedfrom1910to1913,doesnotmentionPeircePeirce'sworkwasnotwidelyknown
untillater.)[62]A.N.Whitehead,whilereadingsomeofPeirce'sunpublishedmanuscriptssoonafter
arrivingatHarvardin1924,wasstruckbyhowPeircehadanticipatedhisown"process"thinking.(On
Peirceandprocessmetaphysics,seeLowe1964.[26])KarlPopperviewedPeirceas"oneofthegreatest
philosophersofalltimes".[63]YetPeirce'sachievementswerenotimmediatelyrecognized.Hisimposing
contemporariesWilliamJamesandJosiahRoyce[64]admiredhim,andCassiusJacksonKeyserat
ColumbiaandC.K.OgdenwroteaboutPeircewithrespect,buttonoimmediateeffect.
ThefirstscholartogivePeircehisconsideredprofessionalattentionwasRoyce'sstudentMorrisRaphael
Cohen,theeditorofananthologyofPeirce'swritingstitledChance,Love,andLogic(1923)andtheauthor
ofthefirstbibliographyofPeirce'sscatteredwritings.[65]JohnDeweystudiedunderPeirceatJohns
Hopkins[32]and,from1916onwards,Dewey'swritingsrepeatedlymentionPeircewithdeference.His
1938Logic:TheTheoryofInquiryismuchinfluencedbyPeirce.[66]Thepublicationofthefirstsix
volumesoftheCollectedPapers(193135),themostimportanteventtodateinPeircestudiesandonethat
Cohenmadepossiblebyraisingtheneededfunds,[67]didnotpromptanoutpouringofsecondarystudies.
Theeditorsofthosevolumes,CharlesHartshorneandPaulWeiss,didnotbecomePeircespecialists.Early
landmarksofthesecondaryliteratureincludethemonographsbyBuchler(1939),Feibleman(1946),and
Goudge(1950),the1941Ph.D.thesisbyArthurW.Burks(whowentontoeditvolumes7and8),andthe
studieseditedbyWienerandYoung(1952).TheCharlesS.PeirceSocietywasfoundedin1946.Its
Transactions,anacademicquarterlyspecializinginPeirce,pragmatism,andAmericanphilosophy,has
appearedsince1965.
In1949,whiledoingunrelatedarchivalwork,thehistorianofmathematicsCarolynEisele(19022000)
chancedonanautographletterbyPeirce.Sobeganher40yearsofresearchonPeircethemathematician
andscientist,culminatinginEisele(1976,1979,1985).Beginningaround1960,thephilosopherand
historianofideasMaxFisch(19001995)emergedasanauthorityonPeirceFisch(1986)[68]includes
manyofhisrelevantarticles,includingawiderangingsurvey(Fisch1986:42248)oftheimpactof
Peirce'sthoughtthrough1983.
Peircehasgainedasignificantinternationalfollowing,markedbyuniversityresearchcentersdevotedto
PeircestudiesandpragmatisminBrazil(CeneP/CIEP),Finland(HPRC,includingCommens),Germany
(Wirth'sgroup,Hoffman'sandOtte'sgroup,andDeuser'sandHrle'sgroup[69]),France(L'I.R.S.C.E.),
Spain(GEP),andItaly(CSP).Hiswritingshavebeentranslatedintoseverallanguages,includingGerman,
French,Finnish,Spanish,andSwedish.Since1950,therehavebeenFrench,Italian,Spanish,British,and
BrazilianPeirceansofnote.Formanyyears,theNorthAmericanphilosophydepartmentmostdevotedto
PeircewastheUniversityofToronto's,thanksingoodparttotheleadershipofThomasGoudgeandDavid
Savan.Inrecentyears,U.S.PeircescholarshaveclusteredatIndianaUniversityPurdueUniversity
Indianapolis,homeofthePeirceEditionProject(PEP),andthePennsylvaniaStateUniversity.
Currently,considerableinterestisbeingtakeninPeirce'sideasbyresearcherswhollyoutside
thearenaofacademicphilosophy.Theinterestcomesfromindustry,business,technology,
intelligenceorganizations,andthemilitaryandithasresultedintheexistenceofasubstantial
numberofagencies,institutes,businesses,andlaboratoriesinwhichongoingresearchintoand
developmentofPeirceanconceptsarebeingvigorouslyundertaken.
RobertBurch,2001,updated2010[20]
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Inrecentyears,Peirce'strichotomyofsignsisexploitedbyagrowingnumberofpractitionersfor
marketinganddesigntasks.
Works
Peirce'sreputationrestslargelyonanumberofacademicpaperspublishedinAmericanscientificand
scholarlyjournalssuchasProceedingsoftheAmericanAcademyofArtsandSciences,theJournalof
SpeculativePhilosophy,TheMonist,PopularScienceMonthly,theAmericanJournalofMathematics,
MemoirsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,TheNation,andothers.SeeArticlesbyPeirce,publishedin
hislifetimeforanextensivelistwithlinkstothemonline.Theonlyfulllengthbook(neitherextractnor
pamphlet)thatPeirceauthoredandsawpublishedinhislifetime[70]wasPhotometricResearches(1878),a
181pagemonographontheapplicationsofspectrographicmethodstoastronomy.WhileatJohns
Hopkins,heeditedStudiesinLogic(1883),containingchaptersbyhimselfandhisgraduatestudents.
Besideslecturesduringhisyears(18791884)asLecturerinLogicatJohnsHopkins,hegaveatleastnine
seriesoflectures,manynowpublishedseeLecturesbyPeirce.
HarvardUniversityobtainedfromPeirce'swidowsoonafterhisdeaththepapersfoundinhisstudy,but
didnotmicrofilmthemuntil1964.OnlyafterRichardRobin(1967)[71]cataloguedthisNachlassdidit
becomeclearthatPeircehadleftapproximately1650unpublishedmanuscripts,totalingover100,000
pages,[72]mostlystillunpublishedexceptonmicrofilm.OnthevicissitudesofPeirce'spapers,seeHouser
(1989).[73]Reportedlythepapersremaininunsatisfactorycondition.[74]
ThefirstpublishedanthologyofPeirce'sarticleswastheonevolumeChance,LoveandLogic:
PhilosophicalEssays,editedbyMorrisRaphaelCohen,1923,stillinprint.Otheronevolumeanthologies
werepublishedin1940,1957,1958,1972,1994,and2009,moststillinprint.Themainposthumous
editions[75]ofPeirce'sworksintheirlongtrektolight,oftenmultivolume,andsomestillinprint,have
included:
193158:CollectedPapersofCharlesSandersPeirce(CP),8volumes,includesmanypublishedworks,
alongwithaselectionofpreviouslyunpublishedworkandasmatteringofhiscorrespondence.Thislong
timestandardeditiondrawnfromPeirce'sworkfromthe1860sto1913remainsthemostcomprehensive
surveyofhisprolificoutputfrom1893to1913.Itisorganizedthematically,buttexts(includinglecture
series)areoftensplitupacrossvolumes,whiletextsfromvariousstagesinPeirce'sdevelopmentareoften
combined,requiringfrequentvisitstoeditors'notes.[76]Edited(16)byCharlesHartshorneandPaul
Weissand(78)byArthurBurks,inprintandonline.
197587:CharlesSandersPeirce:ContributionstoTheNation,4volumes,includesPeirce'smorethan
300reviewsandarticlespublished18691908inTheNation.EditedbyKennethLaineKetnerandJames
EdwardCook,online.
1976:TheNewElementsofMathematicsbyCharlesS.Peirce,4volumesin5,includedmanypreviously
unpublishedPeircemanuscriptsonmathematicalsubjects,alongwithPeirce'simportantpublished
mathematicalarticles.EditedbyCarolynEisele,backinprint.
1977:SemioticandSignifics:TheCorrespondencebetweenC.S.PeirceandVictoriaLadyWelby(2nd
edition2001),includedPeirce'sentirecorrespondence(19031912)withVictoria,LadyWelby.Peirce's
otherpublishedcorrespondenceislargelylimitedtothe14lettersincludedinvolume8oftheCollected
Papers,andthe20oddpre1890itemsincludedsofarintheWritings.EditedbyCharlesS.Hardwickwith
JamesCook,outofprint.
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1982now:WritingsofCharlesS.Peirce,AChronologicalEdition(W),Volumes16&8,ofaprojected
30.Thelimitedcoverage,anddefectiveeditingandorganization,oftheCollectedPapersledMaxFisch
andothersinthe1970stofoundthePeirceEditionProject(PEP),whosemissionistoprepareamore
completecriticalchronologicaledition.Onlysevenvolumeshaveappearedtodate,buttheycoverthe
periodfrom18591892,whenPeircecarriedoutmuchofhisbestknownwork.W8waspublishedin
November2010andworkcontinuesonW7,9,and11.Inprintandonline.
1985:HistoricalPerspectivesonPeirce'sLogicofScience:AHistoryofScience,2volumes.Auspitzhas
said,[77]"TheextentofPeirce'simmersioninthescienceofhisdayisevidentinhisreviewsintheNation
[...]andinhispapers,grantapplications,andpublishers'prospectusesinthehistoryandpracticeof
science",referringlatterlytoHistoricalPerspectives.EditedbyCarolynEisele,backinprint.
1992:ReasoningandtheLogicofThingscollectsinoneplacePeirce's1898seriesoflecturesinvitedby
WilliamJames.EditedbyKennethLaineKetner,withcommentarybyHilaryPutnam,inprint.
199298:TheEssentialPeirce(EP),2volumes,isanimportantrecentsamplerofPeirce'sphilosophical
writings.Edited(1)byNathanHauserandChristianKloeseland(2)byPEPeditors,inprint.
1997:PragmatismasaPrincipleandMethodofRightThinkingcollectsPeirce's1903Harvard"Lectures
onPragmatism"inastudyedition,includingdrafts,ofPeirce'slecturemanuscripts,whichhadbeen
previouslypublishedinabridgedformthelecturesnowalsoappearinEP2.EditedbyPatriciaAnnTurisi,
inprint.
2010:PhilosophyofMathematics:SelectedWritingscollectsimportantwritingsbyPeirceonthesubject,
manynotpreviouslyinprint.EditedbyMatthewE.Moore,inprint.
Mathematics
Peirce'smostimportantworkinpuremathematicswasinlogical
andfoundationalareas.Healsoworkedonlinearalgebra,matrices,
variousgeometries,topologyandListingnumbers,Bellnumbers,
graphs,thefourcolorproblem,andthenatureofcontinuity.
Heworkedonappliedmathematicsineconomics,engineering,and
mapprojections(suchasthePeircequincuncialprojection),and
wasespeciallyactiveinprobabilityandstatistics.[78]
Discoveries
Peircemadeanumberofstrikingdiscoveriesinformallogicand
foundationalmathematics,nearlyallofwhichcametobe
appreciatedonlylongafterhedied:
In1860[79]hesuggestedacardinalarithmeticforinfinitenumbers,
yearsbeforeanyworkbyGeorgCantor(whocompletedhis
dissertationin1867)andwithoutaccesstoBernardBolzano's1851
(posthumous)ParadoxiendesUnendlichen.
ThePeircequincuncialprojectionof
aspherekeepsanglestrueexceptat
severalisolatedpointsandresultsin
lessdistortionofareathaninother
projections.
In188081[80]heshowedhowBooleanalgebracouldbedoneviaarepeated
sufficientsinglebinaryoperation(logicalNOR),anticipatingHenryM.Shefferby
33years.(SeealsoDeMorgan'sLaws).
ThePeircearrow,
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symbolfor"(neither)...nor...",
In1881[81]hesetouttheaxiomatizationofnaturalnumberarithmetic,afewyears
beforeRichardDedekindandGiuseppePeano.InthesamepaperPeircegave,
yearsbeforeDedekind,thefirstpurelycardinaldefinitionofafinitesetinthesensenowknownas
"Dedekindfinite",andimpliedbythesamestrokeanimportantformaldefinitionofaninfiniteset
(Dedekindinfinite),asasetthatcanbeputintoaonetoonecorrespondencewithoneofitsproper
subsets.
alsocalledtheQuinedagger.
In1885[82]hedistinguishedbetweenfirstorderandsecondorderquantification.[83][84]Inthesamepaper
hesetoutwhatcanbereadasthefirst(primitive)axiomaticsettheory,anticipatingZermelobyabouttwo
decades(Brady2000,[85]pp.1323).
In1886hesawthatBooleancalculationscouldbecarriedoutviaelectricalswitches,[10]anticipating
ClaudeShannonbymorethan50years.
Bythelater1890s[86]hewasdevisingexistential
graphs,adiagrammaticnotationforthepredicate
calculus.BasedonthemareJohnF.Sowa'sconceptual
graphsandSunJooShin'sdiagrammaticreasoning.
TheNewElementsofMathematics
Peircewrotedraftsforanintroductorytextbook,with
theworkingtitleTheNewElementsofMathematics,
thatpresentedmathematicsfromanoriginal
standpoint.Thosedraftsandmanyotherofhis
previouslyunpublishedmathematicalmanuscripts
finallyappeared[78]inTheNewElementsof
MathematicsbyCharlesS.Peirce(1976),editedby
mathematicianCarolynEisele.
Natureofmathematics
Existentialgraphs:Alphagraphs
PeirceagreedwithAugusteComteinregardingmathematicsasmorebasicthanphilosophyandthespecial
sciences(ofnatureandmind).Peirceclassifiedmathematicsintothreesubareas:(1)mathematicsoflogic,
(2)discreteseries,and(3)pseudocontinua(ashecalledthem,includingtherealnumbers)andcontinua.
InfluencedbyhisfatherBenjamin,Peircearguedthatmathematicsstudiespurelyhypotheticalobjectsand
isnotjustthescienceofquantitybutismorebroadlythesciencewhichdrawsnecessaryconclusionsthat
mathematicsaidslogic,notviceversaandthatlogicitselfispartofphilosophyandisthescienceabout
drawingconclusionsnecessaryandotherwise.[87]
Mathematicsoflogic
Beginningwithhisfirstpaperonthe
"LogicofRelatives"(1870),Peirce
extendedthetheoryofrelationsthat
AugustusDeMorganhadjustrecently
awakenedfromitsCinderella
slumbers.Muchofthemathematicsof
relationsnowtakenforgrantedwas
"borrowed"fromPeirce,notalways
withallduecreditonthatandonhow
theyoungBertrandRussell,especially
Mathematicallogicandfoundations,somenotedarticles
OnanImprovementinBoole'sCalculusofLogic(1867)
DescriptionofaNotationfortheLogicofRelatives(1870)
OntheAlgebraofLogic(1880)
ABooleanAlgebrawithOneConstant(1880MS)
OntheLogicofNumber(1881)
NoteB:TheLogicofRelatives(1883)
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hisPrinciplesofMathematicsand
OntheAlgebraofLogic:AContributiontothe
PrincipiaMathematica,didnotdo
PhilosophyofNotation(1884/1885)
[62]
Peircejustice,seeAnellis(1995).
TheLogicofRelatives(1897)
In1918thelogicianC.I.Lewiswrote,
TheSimplestMathematics(1902MS)
"ThecontributionsofC.S.Peirceto
ProlegomenaToanApologyForPragmaticism(1906,
symboliclogicaremorenumerousand
onexistentialgraphs)
variedthanthoseofanyotherwriter
atleastinthenineteenth
century."[88]Beginningin1940,Alfred
TarskiandhisstudentsrediscoveredaspectsofPeirce'slargervisionofrelationallogic,developingthe
perspectiveofrelationalgebra.
Relationallogicgainedapplications.Inmathematics,itinfluencedtheabstractanalysisofE.H.Mooreand
thelatticetheoryofGarrettBirkhoff.Incomputerscience,therelationalmodelfordatabaseswas
developedwithPeirceanideasinworkofEdgarF.Codd,whowasadoctoralstudent[89]ofArthurW.
Burks,aPeircescholar.Ineconomics,relationallogicwasusedbyFrankP.Ramsey,JohnvonNeumann,
andPaulSamuelsontostudypreferencesandutilityandbyKennethJ.ArrowinSocialChoiceand
IndividualValues,followingArrow'sassociationwithTarskiatCityCollegeofNewYork.
OnPeirceandhiscontemporariesErnstSchrderandGottlobFrege,HilaryPutnam(1982)[83]documented
thatFrege'sworkonthelogicofquantifiershadlittleinfluenceonhiscontemporaries,althoughitwas
publishedfouryearsbeforetheworkofPeirceandhisstudentOscarHowardMitchell.Putnamfoundthat
mathematiciansandlogicianslearnedaboutthelogicofquantifiersthroughtheindependentworkofPeirce
andMitchell,particularlythroughPeirce's"OntheAlgebraofLogic:AContributiontothePhilosophyof
Notation"[82](1885),publishedinthepremierAmericanmathematicaljournaloftheday,andcitedby
PeanoandSchrder,amongothers,whoignoredFrege.TheyalsoadoptedandmodifiedPeirce'snotations,
typographicalvariantsofthosenowused.PeirceapparentlywasignorantofFrege'swork,despitetheir
overlappingachievementsinlogic,philosophyoflanguage,andthefoundationsofmathematics.
Peirce'sworkonformallogichadadmirersbesidesErnstSchrder:
PhilosophicalalgebraistWilliamKingdonClifford[90]andlogicianWilliamErnestJohnson,both
British
ThePolishschooloflogicandfoundationalmathematics,includingAlfredTarski
ArthurPrior,whopraisedandstudiedPeirce'slogicalworkina1964paper[26]andinFormalLogic
(sayingonpage4thatPeirce"perhapshadakeenereyeforessentialsthananyotherlogicianbefore
orsince.").
Aphilosophyoflogic,groundedinhiscategoriesandsemiotic,canbeextractedfromPeirce'swritings
and,alongwithPeirce'slogicalworkmoregenerally,isexpositedanddefendedinHilaryPutnam
(1982)[83]theIntroductioninNathanHouseretal.(1997)[91]andRandallDipert'schapterinCheryl
Misak(2004).[92]
Continua
ContinuityandsynechismarecentralinPeirce'sphilosophy:"Ididnotatfirstsupposethatitwas,asI
graduallycametofindit,themasterKeyofphilosophy".[93]
Fromamathematicalpointofview,heembracedinfinitesimalsandworkedlongonthemathematicsof
continua.Helongheldthattherealnumbersconstituteapseudocontinuum[94]thatatruecontinuumis
therealsubjectmatterofanalysissitus(topology)andthatatruecontinuumofinstantsexceedsand
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withinanylapseoftimehasroomforanyAlephnumber(anyinfinitemultitudeashecalledit)of
instants.[95]
In1908Peircewrotethathefoundthatatruecontinuummighthaveorlacksuchroom.JrmeHavenel
(2008):"ItisonMay26,1908,thatPeircefinallygaveuphisideathatineverycontinuumthereisroom
forwhatevercollectionofanymultitude.Fromnowon,therearedifferentkindsofcontinua,whichhave
differentproperties."[96]
Probabilityandstatistics
Peirceheldthatscienceachievesstatisticalprobabilities,notcertainties,andthatspontaneity(absolute
chance)isreal(seeTychismonhisview).Mostofhisstatisticalwritingspromotethefrequency
interpretationofprobability(objectiveratiosofcases),andmanyofhiswritingsexpressskepticismabout
(andcriticizetheuseof)probabilitywhensuchmodelsarenotbasedonobjectiverandomization.[97]
ThoughPeircewaslargelyafrequentist,hispossibleworldsemanticsintroducedthe"propensity"theory
ofprobabilitybeforeKarlPopper.[98][99]Peirce(sometimeswithJosephJastrow)investigatedthe
probabilityjudgmentsofexperimentalsubjects,"perhapstheveryfirst"elicitationandestimationof
subjectiveprobabilitiesinexperimentalpsychologyand(whatcametobecalled)Bayesianstatistics.[2]
Peircewasoneofthefoundersofstatistics.Heformulatedmodernstatisticsin"IllustrationsoftheLogic
ofScience"(18778)and"ATheoryofProbableInference"(1883).Witharepeatedmeasuresdesign,
CharlesSandersPeirceandJosephJastrowintroducedblinded,controlledrandomizedexperimentsin
1884[100](Hacking1990:205)[1](beforeRonaldA.Fisher).[2]Heinventedoptimaldesignforexperiments
ongravity,inwhichhe"correctedthemeans".Heusedcorrelationandsmoothing.Peirceextendedthe
workonoutliersbyBenjaminPeirce,hisfather.[2]Heintroducedterms"confidence"and"likelihood"
(beforeJerzyNeymanandFisher).(SeeStephenStigler'shistoricalbooksandIanHacking1990[1]).
Philosophy
ItisnotsufficientlyrecognizedthatPeirce'scareerwasthatofascientist,notaphilosopher
andthatduringhislifetimehewasknownandvaluedchieflyasascientist,onlysecondarily
asalogician,andscarcelyatallasaphilosopher.Evenhisworkinphilosophyandlogicwill
notbeunderstooduntilthisfactbecomesastandingpremiseofPeirceanstudies.
MaxFisch1964,p.486.[26]
Peircewasaworkingscientistfor30years,andarguablywasaprofessionalphilosopheronlyduringthe
fiveyearshelecturedatJohnsHopkins.Helearnedphilosophymainlybyreading,eachday,afewpages
ofKant'sCritiqueofPureReason,intheoriginalGerman,whileaHarvardundergraduate.Hiswritings
bearonawidearrayofdisciplines,includingmathematics,logic,philosophy,statistics,astronomy,[26]
metrology,[3]geodesy,experimentalpsychology,[4]economics,[5]linguistics,[6]andthehistoryand
philosophyofscience.Thisworkhasenjoyedrenewedinterestandapproval,arevivalinspirednotonlyby
hisanticipationsofrecentscientificdevelopmentsbutalsobyhisdemonstrationofhowphilosophycanbe
appliedeffectivelytohumanproblems.
Peirce'sphilosophyincludes(seebelowinrelatedsections)apervasivethreecategorysystem,beliefthat
truthisimmutableandisbothindependentfromactualopinion(fallibilism)anddiscoverable(noradical
skepticism),logicasformalsemioticonsigns,onarguments,andoninquiry'swaysincluding
philosophicalpragmatism(whichhefounded),criticalcommonsensism,andscientificmethodand,in
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metaphysics:Scholasticrealism,e.g.JohnDunsScotus,beliefinGod,freedom,andatleastanattenuated
immortality,objectiveidealism,andbeliefintherealityofcontinuityandofabsolutechance,mechanical
necessity,andcreativelove.Inhiswork,fallibilismandpragmatismmayseemtoworksomewhatlike
skepticismandpositivism,respectively,inothers'work.However,forPeirce,fallibilismisbalancedbyan
antiskepticismandisabasisforbeliefintherealityofabsolutechanceandofcontinuity,[101]and
pragmatismcommitsonetoantinominalistbeliefintherealityofthegeneral(CP5.4537).
ForPeirce,FirstPhilosophy,whichhealsocalledcenoscopy,islessbasicthanmathematicsandmore
basicthanthespecialsciences(ofnatureandmind).Itstudiespositivephenomenaingeneral,phenomena
availabletoanypersonatanywakingmoment,anddoesnotsettlequestionsbyresortingtospecial
experiences.[102]Hedividedsuchphilosophyinto(1)phenomenology(whichhealsocalledphaneroscopy
orcategorics),(2)normativesciences(esthetics,ethics,andlogic),and(3)metaphysicshisviewsonthem
arediscussedinorderbelow.
Theoryofcategories
OnMay14,1867,the27yearoldPeircepresentedapaperentitled"OnaNewListofCategories
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/newlist/nlframe.htm)"totheAmericanAcademyofArts
andSciences,whichpublisheditthefollowingyear.Thepaperoutlinedatheoryofpredication,involving
threeuniversalcategoriesthatPeircedevelopedinresponsetoreadingAristotle,Kant,andHegel,
categoriesthatPeirceappliedthroughouthisworkfortherestofhislife.[20]Peircescholarsgenerally
regardthe"NewList"asfoundationalorbreakingthegroundforPeirce's"architectonic",hisblueprintfor
apragmaticphilosophy.Inthecategoriesonewilldiscern,concentrated,thepatternthatonefindsformed
bythethreegradesofclearnessin"HowToMakeOurIdeasClear"(1878paperfoundationalto
pragmatism),andinnumerousothertrichotomiesinhiswork.
"OnaNewListofCategories"iscastasaKantiandeductionitisshortbutdenseanddifficultto
summarize.Thefollowingtableiscompiledfromthatandlaterworks.[103]In1893,Peircerestatedmostof
itforalessadvancedaudience.[104]
Name:
Peirce'scategories(technicalname:thecenopythagoreancategories)[105]
As
Typical
As
Technical
universeof
Valence,"adicity":
characterizaton:
quantity:
definition:
experience:
Referencetoa
ground(aground
Ideas,
Vagueness,
isapure
chance,
"some".
abstractionofa
possibility.
quality).[107]
Firstness.[106]
Qualityof
feeling.
Secondness.[109]
Reaction,
Singularity, Referencetoa
Brutefacts,
resistance,
discreteness, correlate(byits
actuality.
(dyadic)relation.
this.
relate).
Thirdness.[110]
Representation,
mediation.
Habits,
laws,
necessity.
Generality,
continuity,
"all".
Referencetoan
interpretant*.
Essentiallymonadic
(thequale,inthe
senseofthesuch,[108]
whichhasthe
quality).
Essentiallydyadic
(therelateandthe
correlate).
Essentiallytriadic
(sign,object,
interpretant*).
*Note:Aninterpretantisaninterpretation(humanorotherwise)inthesenseoftheproductofan
interpretiveprocess.
Aestheticsandethics
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Peircedidnotwriteextensivelyinaestheticsandethics,[111]butcameby1902toholdthataesthetics,
ethics,andlogic,inthatorder,comprisethenormativesciences.[112]Hecharacterizedaestheticsasthe
studyofthegood(graspedastheadmirable),andthusoftheendsgoverningallconductandthought.[113]
Philosophy:logic,orsemiotic
Logicasphilosophical
Peirceregardedlogicperseasadivisionofphilosophy,asanormativesciencebasedonestheticsand
ethics,asmorebasicthanmetaphysics,[114]andas"theartofdevisingmethodsofresearch".[115]More
generally,asinference,"logicisrootedinthesocialprinciple",sinceinferencedependsonastandpoint
that,inasense,isunlimited.[116]Peircecalled(withnosenseofdeprecation)"mathematicsoflogic"much
ofthekindofthingwhich,incurrentresearchandapplications,iscalledsimply"logic".Hewas
productiveinboth(philosophical)logicandlogic'smathematics,whichwereconnecteddeeplyinhiswork
andthought.
Peircearguedthatlogicisformalsemiotic,theformalstudyofsignsinthebroadestsense,notonlysigns
thatareartificial,linguistic,orsymbolic,butalsosignsthataresemblancesorareindexicalsuchas
reactions.Peirceheldthat"allthisuniverseisperfusedwithsigns,ifitisnotcomposedexclusivelyof
signs",[117]alongwiththeirrepresentationalandinferentialrelations.Hearguedthat,sinceallthought
takestime,allthoughtisinsigns[118]andsignprocesses("semiosis")suchastheinquiryprocess.He
dividedlogicinto:(1)speculativegrammar,orstechiology,onhowsignscanbemeaningfuland,in
relationtothat,whatkindsofsignsthereare,howtheycombine,andhowsomeembodyorincorporate
others(2)logicalcritic,orlogicproper,onthemodesofinferenceand(3)speculativeoruniversal
rhetoric,ormethodeutic,[119]thephilosophicaltheoryofinquiry,includingpragmatism.
Presuppositionsoflogic
Inhis"F.R.L."[FirstRuleofLogic](1899),Peircestatesthatthefirst,and"inonesense,thesole",ruleof
reasonisthat,tolearn,oneneedstodesiretolearnanddesireitwithoutrestingsatisfiedwiththatwhich
oneisinclinedtothink.[114]So,thefirstruleis,towonder.Peirceproceedstoacriticalthemeinresearch
practicesandtheshapingoftheories:
...therefollowsonecorollarywhichitselfdeservestobeinscribeduponeverywallofthecityof
philosophy:
Donotblockthewayofinquiry.
Peirceadds,thatmethodandeconomyarebestinresearchbutnooutrightsininheresintryinganytheory
inthesensethattheinvestigationviaitstrialadoptioncanproceedunimpededandundiscouraged,andthat
"theoneunpardonableoffence"isaphilosophicalbarricadeagainsttruth'sadvance,anoffensetowhich
"metaphysiciansinallageshaveshownthemselvesthemostaddicted".Peirceinmanywritingsholdsthat
logicprecedesmetaphysics(ontological,religious,andphysical).
Peircegoesontolistfourcommonbarrierstoinquiry:(1)Assertionofabsolutecertainty(2)maintaining
thatsomethingisabsolutelyunknowable(3)maintainingthatsomethingisabsolutelyinexplicable
becauseabsolutelybasicorultimate(4)holdingthatperfectexactitudeispossible,especiallysuchasto
quiteprecludeunusualandanomalousphenomena.Torefuseabsolutetheoreticalcertaintyistheheartof
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fallibilism,whichPeirceunfoldsintorefusalstosetupanyofthelistedbarriers.Peirceelsewhereargues
(1897)thatlogic'spresuppositionoffallibilismleadsatlengthtotheviewthatchanceandcontinuityare
veryreal(tychismandsynechism).[101]
TheFirstRuleofLogicpertainstothemind'spresuppositionsinundertakingreasonandlogic,
presuppositions,forinstance,thattruthandtherealdonotdependonyoursormyopinionofthembutdo
dependonrepresentationalrelationandconsistinthedestinedendininvestigationtakenfarenough(see
below).Hedescribessuchideasas,collectively,hopeswhich,inparticularcases,oneisunableseriously
todoubt.[120]
Fourincapacities
Inthreearticlesin1868
69,[118][121][122]Peircerejected
mereverbalorhyperbolicdoubt
andfirstorultimateprinciples,and
arguedthatwehave(ashe
numberedthem[121]):
TheJournalofSpeculativePhilosophyseries(186869),including
QuestionsconcerningcertainFacultiesclaimedforMan(1868)
SomeConsequencesofFourIncapacities(1868)
GroundsofValidityoftheLawsofLogic:
FurtherConsequencesofFourIncapacities(1869)
1.NopowerofIntrospection.
Allknowledgeofthe
internalworldcomesbyhypotheticalreasoningfromknownexternalfacts.
2.NopowerofIntuition(cognitionwithoutlogicaldeterminationbypreviouscognitions).No
cognitivestageisabsolutelyfirstinaprocess.Allmentalactionhastheformofinference.
3.Nopowerofthinkingwithoutsigns.Acognitionmustbeinterpretedinasubsequentcognitionin
ordertobeacognitionatall.
4.Noconceptionoftheabsolutelyincognizable.
(Theabovesenseoftheterm"intuition"isalmostKant's,saidPeirce.Itdiffersfromthecurrentlooser
sensethatencompassesinstinctiveoranywayhalfconsciousinference.)
Peircearguedthatthoseincapacitiesimplytherealityofthegeneralandofthecontinuous,thevalidityof
themodesofreasoning,[122]andthefalsityofphilosophicalCartesianism(seebelow).
Peircerejectedtheconception(usuallyascribedtoKant)oftheunknowablethinginitself[121]andlater
saidthatto"dismissmakebelieves"isaprerequisiteforpragmatism.[123]
Logicasformalsemiotic
Peircesought,throughhiswiderangingstudiesthroughthedecades,formalphilosophicalwaysto
articulatethought'sprocesses,andalsotoexplaintheworkingsofscience.Theseinextricablyentangled
questionsofadynamicsofinquiryrootedinnatureandnurtureledhimtodevelophissemioticwithvery
broadenedconceptionsofsignsandinference,and,asitsculmination,atheoryofinquiryforthetaskof
saying'howscienceworks'anddevisingresearchmethods.Thiswouldbelogicbythemedievaldefinition
taughtforcenturies:artofarts,scienceofsciences,havingthewaytotheprinciplesofallmethods.[115]
InfluencesradiatefrompointsonparallellinesofinquiryinAristotle'swork,insuchlocias:thebasic
terminologyofpsychologyinOntheSoulthefoundingdescriptionofsignrelationsinOnInterpretation
andthedifferentiationofinferenceintothreemodesthatarecommonlytranslatedintoEnglishas
abduction,deduction,andinduction,inthePriorAnalytics,aswellasinferencebyanalogy(called
paradeigmabyAristotle),whichPeirceregardedasinvolvingtheotherthreemodes.
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Peircebeganwritingonsemioticinthe1860s,aroundthetimewhenhedevisedhissystemofthree
categories.Hecalleditbothsemioticandsemeiotic.Botharecurrentinsingularandplural.Hebasediton
theconceptionofatriadicsignrelation,anddefinedsemiosisas"action,orinfluence,whichis,or
involves,acooperationofthreesubjects,suchasasign,itsobject,anditsinterpretant,thistrirelative
influencenotbeinginanywayresolvableintoactionsbetweenpairs".[124]Astosignsinthought,Peirce
emphasizedthereverse:
Tosay,therefore,thatthoughtcannothappeninaninstant,butrequiresatime,isbutanother
wayofsayingthateverythoughtmustbeinterpretedinanother,orthatallthoughtisinsigns.
Peirce1868.[118]
Peirceheldthatallthoughtisinsigns,issuinginandfrominterpretation,where'sign'isthewordforthe
broadestvarietyofconceivablesemblances,diagrams,metaphors,symptoms,signals,designations,
symbols,texts,evenmentalconceptsandideas,allasdeterminationsofamindorquasimind,thatwhich
atleastfunctionslikeamind,asintheworkofcrystalsorbees[125]thefocusisonsignactioningeneral
ratherthanonpsychology,linguistics,orsocialstudies(fieldswhichhealsopursued).
Inquiryisakindofinferenceprocess,amannerofthinkingandsemiosis.Globaldivisionsofwaysfor
phenomenatostandassigns,andthesubsumptionofinquiryandthinkingwithininferenceasasign
process,enablethestudyofinquiryonsemiotics'threelevels:
1.Conditionsformeaningfulness.Studyofsignificatoryelementsandcombinations,theirgrammar.
2.Validity,conditionsfortruerepresentation.Critiqueofargumentsintheirvariousseparatemodes.
3.Conditionsfordetermininginterpretations.Methodologyofinquiryinitsmutuallyinteracting
modes.
Peirceusesexamplesoftenfromcommonexperience,butdefinesanddiscussessuchthingsasassertion
andinterpretationintermsofphilosophicallogic.Inaformalvein,Peircesaid:
OntheDefinitionofLogic.Logicisformalsemiotic.Asignissomething,A,whichbrings
something,B,itsinterpretantsign,determinedorcreatedbyit,intothesamesortof
correspondence(oralowerimpliedsort)withsomething,C,itsobject,asthatinwhichitself
standstoC.Thisdefinitionnomoreinvolvesanyreferencetohumanthoughtthandoesthe
definitionofalineastheplacewithinwhichaparticleliesduringalapseoftime.Itisfrom
thisdefinitionthatIdeducetheprinciplesoflogicbymathematicalreasoning,andby
mathematicalreasoningthat,Iaver,willsupportcriticismofWeierstrassianseverity,andthat
isperfectlyevident.Theword"formal"inthedefinitionisalsodefined.
Peirce,"CarnegieApplication",TheNewElementsofMathematicsv.4,p.54.
Signs
AlistofnotedwritingsbyPeirceonsignsandsignrelationsisatSemioticelementsandclassesofsigns
(Peirce)#Referencesandfurtherreading.
Signrelation
Peirce'stheoryofsignsisknowntobeoneofthemostcomplexsemiotictheoriesduetoitsgeneralistic
claim.Anythingisasignnotabsolutelyasitself,butinsteadinsomerelationorother.Thesignrelation
isthekey.Itdefinesthreerolesencompassing(1)thesign,(2)thesign'ssubjectmatter,calleditsobject,
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and(3)thesign'smeaningorramificationasformedintoakindofeffectcalleditsinterpretant(afurther
sign,forexampleatranslation).Itisanirreducibletriadicrelation,accordingtoPeirce.Therolesare
distinctevenwhenthethingsthatfillthoserolesarenot.Therolesarebutthreeasignofanobjectleads
tooneormoreinterpretants,and,assigns,theyleadtofurtherinterpretants.
Extensionintension=information.Twotraditionalapproachestosignrelation,necessarythough
insufficient,arethewayofextension(asign'sobjects,alsocalledbreadth,denotation,orapplication)and
thewayofintension(theobjects'characteristics,qualities,attributesreferencedbythesign,alsocalled
depth,comprehension,significance,orconnotation).Peirceaddsathird,thewayofinformation,including
changeofinformation,tointegratetheothertwoapproachesintoaunifiedwhole.[126]Forexample,
becauseoftheequationabove,ifaterm'stotalamountofinformationstaysthesame,thenthemorethat
theterm'intends'orsignifiesaboutobjects,thefeweraretheobjectstowhichtheterm'extends'orapplies.
Determination.Asigndependsonitsobjectinsuchawayastorepresentitsobjecttheobjectenables
and,inasense,determinesthesign.Aphysicallycausalsenseofthisstandsoutwhenasignconsistsinan
indicativereaction.Theinterpretantdependslikewiseonboththesignandtheobjectanobject
determinesasigntodetermineaninterpretant.Butthisdeterminationisnotasuccessionofdyadicevents,
likearowoftopplingdominoessigndeterminationistriadic.Forexample,aninterpretantdoesnot
merelyrepresentsomethingwhichrepresentedanobjectinsteadaninterpretantrepresentssomethingasa
signrepresentingtheobject.Theobject(beitaqualityorfactorlaworevenfictional)determinesthesign
toaninterpretantthroughone'scollateralexperience[127]withtheobject,inwhichtheobjectisfoundor
fromwhichitisrecalled,aswhenasignconsistsinachancesemblanceofanabsentobject.Peirceused
theword"determine"notinastrictlydeterministicsense,butinasenseof"specializes,"bestimmt,[128]
involvingvariableamount,likeaninfluence.[129]Peircecametodefinerepresentationandinterpretationin
termsof(triadic)determination.[130]Theobjectdeterminesthesigntodetermineanothersignthe
interpretanttoberelatedtotheobjectasthesignisrelatedtotheobject,hencetheinterpretant,
fulfillingitsfunctionassignoftheobject,determinesafurtherinterpretantsign.Theprocessislogically
structuredtoperpetuateitself,andisdefinitiveofsign,object,andinterpretantingeneral.[129]
Semioticelements
Peirceheldthereareexactlythreebasicelementsinsemiosis(signaction):
1.Asign(orrepresentamen)[131]represents,inthebroadestpossiblesenseof"represents".Itis
somethinginterpretableassayingsomethingaboutsomething.Itisnotnecessarilysymbolic,
linguistic,orartificialacloudmightbeasignofrainforinstance,orruinsthesignofancient
civilization.[132]AsPeircesometimesputit(hedefinedsignatleast76times[129]),thesignstands
fortheobjecttotheinterpretant.Asignrepresentsitsobjectinsomerespect,whichrespectisthe
sign'sground.[107]
2.Anobject(orsemioticobject)isasubjectmatterofasignandaninterpretant.Itcanbeanything
thinkable,aquality,anoccurrence,arule,etc.,evenfictional,suchasPrinceHamlet.[133]Allof
thosearespecialorpartialobjects.Theobjectmostaccuratelyistheuniverseofdiscoursetowhich
thepartialorspecialobjectbelongs.[133]Forinstance,aperturbationofPluto'sorbitisasignabout
PlutobutultimatelynotonlyaboutPluto.Anobjecteither(i)isimmediatetoasignandistheobject
asrepresentedinthesignor(ii)isadynamicobject,theobjectasitreallyis,onwhichthe
immediateobjectisfounded"asonbedrock".[134]
3.Aninterpretant(orinterpretantsign)isasign'smeaningorramificationasformedintoakindof
ideaoreffect,aninterpretation,humanorotherwise.Aninterpretantisasign(a)oftheobjectand
(b)oftheinterpretant's"predecessor"(theinterpretedsign)asasignofthesameobject.An
interpretanteither(i)isimmediatetoasignandisakindofqualityorpossibilitysuchasaword's
usualmeaning,or(ii)isadynamicinterpretant,suchasastateofagitation,or(iii)isafinalor
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normalinterpretant,asumofthelessonswhichasufficientlyconsideredsignwouldhaveaseffects
onpractice,andwithwhichanactualinterpretantmayatmostcoincide.
Someoftheunderstandingneededbytheminddependsonfamiliaritywiththeobject.Toknowwhata
givensigndenotes,themindneedssomeexperienceofthatsign'sobject,experienceoutsideof,and
collateralto,thatsignorsignsystem.InthatcontextPeircespeaksofcollateralexperience,collateral
observation,collateralacquaintance,allinmuchthesameterms.[127]
Classesofsigns
AmongPeirce'smanysigntypologies,threestandout,interlocked.Thefirsttypologydependsonthesign
itself,thesecondonhowthesignstandsforitsdenotedobject,andthethirdonhowthesignstandsforits
objecttoitsinterpretant.Also,eachofthethreetypologiesisathreewaydivision,atrichotomy,via
Peirce'sthreephenomenologicalcategories:(1)qualityoffeeling,(2)reaction,resistance,and(3)
representation,mediation.[135]
I.Qualisign,sinsign,legisign(alsocalledtone,token,type,andalsocalledpotisign,actisign,
famisign):[136]Thistypologyclassifieseverysignaccordingtothesign'sownphenomenologicalcategory
thequalisignisaquality,apossibility,a"First"thesinsignisareactionorresistance,asingularobject,
anactualeventorfact,a"Second"andthelegisignisahabit,arule,arepresentationalrelation,a"Third".
II.Icon,index,symbol:Thistypology,thebestknownone,classifieseverysignaccordingtothecategory
ofthesign'swayofdenotingitsobjecttheicon(alsocalledsemblanceorlikeness)byaqualityofits
own,theindexbyfactualconnectiontoitsobject,andthesymbolbyahabitorruleforitsinterpretant.
III.Rheme,dicisign,argument(alsocalledsumisign,dicisign,suadisign,alsoseme,pheme,delome,[136]
andregardedasverybroadenedversionsofthetraditionalterm,proposition,argument):Thistypology
classifieseverysignaccordingtothecategorywhichtheinterpretantattributestothesign'swayof
denotingitsobjecttherheme,forexampleaterm,isasigninterpretedtorepresentitsobjectinrespectof
qualitythedicisign,forexampleaproposition,isasigninterpretedtorepresentitsobjectinrespectof
factandtheargumentisasigninterpretedtorepresentitsobjectinrespectofhabitorlaw.Thisisthe
culminatingtypologyofthethree,wherethesignisunderstoodasastructuralelementofinference.
Linesofjointclassificationofsigns.
Everysignbelongstooneclassoranotherwithin(I)andwithin
(II)andwithin(III).Thuseachofthethreetypologiesisa
Everysignis:[135]
threevaluedparameterforeverysign.Thethreeparametersare
1.
2.
3.
notindependentofeachothermanycoclassificationsare
I. Qualisign or Sinsign or Legisign
absent,forreasonspertainingtothelackofeitherhabittaking
and
orsingularreactioninaquality,andthelackofhabittakingina
II.
Icon or Index or Symbol
singularreaction.Theresultisnot27butinsteadtenclassesof
and
signsfullyspecifiedatthislevelofanalysis.
III. Rheme or Dicisign or Argument
Modesofinference
BorrowingabraceofconceptsfromAristotle,Peirceexaminedthreebasicmodesofinference
abduction,deduction,andinductioninhis"critiqueofarguments"or"logicproper".Peircealsocalled
abduction"retroduction","presumption",and,earliestofall,"hypothesis".Hecharacterizeditasguessing
andasinferencetoanexplanatoryhypothesis.Hesometimesexpoundedthemodesofinferenceby
transformationsofthecategoricalsyllogismBarbara(AAA),forexamplein"Deduction,Induction,and
Hypothesis"(1878).[137]Hedoesthisbyrearrangingtherule(Barbara'smajorpremise),thecase
(Barbara'sminorpremise),andtheresult(Barbara'sconclusion):
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Deduction.
Induction.
Hypothesis(Abduction).
Rule:Allthebeansfromthis
bagarewhite.
Case:Thesebeansarefrom
thisbag.
Result:Thesebeansare
white.
Case:Thesebeansare[randomly
selected]fromthisbag.
Result:Thesebeansarewhite.
Rule:Allthebeansfromthisbagare
white.
Rule:Allthebeansfromthis
bagarewhite.
Result:Thesebeans[oddly]
arewhite.
Case:Thesebeansarefrom
thisbag.
Peirce1883in"ATheoryofProbableInference"(StudiesinLogic)equatedhypotheticalinferencewith
theinductionofcharactersofobjects(ashehaddoneineffectbefore[121]).Eventuallydissatisfied,by
1900hedistinguishedthemonceandforallandalsowrotethathenowtookthesyllogisticformsandthe
doctrineoflogicalextensionandcomprehensionasbeinglessbasicthanhehadthought.In1903he
presentedthefollowinglogicalformforabductiveinference:[138]
Thesurprisingfact,C,isobserved
ButifAweretrue,Cwouldbeamatterofcourse,
Hence,thereisreasontosuspectthatAistrue.
Thelogicalformdoesnotalsocoverinduction,sinceinductionneitherdependsonsurprisenorproposesa
newideaforitsconclusion.Inductionseeksfactstotestahypothesisabductionseeksahypothesisto
accountforfacts."DeductionprovesthatsomethingmustbeInductionshowsthatsomethingactuallyis
operativeAbductionmerelysuggeststhatsomethingmaybe."[139]Peircedidnotremainquiteconvinced
thatonelogicalformcoversallabduction.[140]Inhismethodeuticortheoryofinquiry(seebelow),he
portrayedabductionasaneconomicinitiativetofurtherinferenceandstudy,andportrayedallthreemodes
asclarifiedbytheircoordinationinessentialrolesininquiry:hypotheticalexplanation,deductive
prediction,inductivetesting.
Pragmatism
Peirce'srecipeforpragmaticthinking,whichhe
calledpragmatismand,later,pragmaticism,is
recapitulatedinseveralversionsofthesocalled
pragmaticmaxim.Hereisoneofhismore
emphaticreiterationsofit:
Considerwhateffectsthatmight
conceivablyhavepracticalbearings
youconceivetheobjectsofyour
conceptiontohave.Then,your
conceptionofthoseeffectsisthe
wholeofyourconceptionofthe
object.
Asamovement,pragmatismbeganintheearly
1870sindiscussionsamongPeirce,William
James,andothersintheMetaphysicalClub.
Somenotedarticlesandlectures
IllustrationsoftheLogicofScience(187778):
inquiry,pragmatism,statistics,inference
1.TheFixationofBelief(1877)
2.HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear(1878)
3.TheDoctrineofChances(1878)
4.TheProbabilityofInduction(1878)
5.TheOrderofNature(1878)
6.Deduction,Induction,andHypothesis(1878)
TheHarvardlecturesonpragmatism(1903)
WhatPragmatismIs(1905)
IssuesofPragmaticism(1905)
Pragmatism(1907MSinEP2)
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Jamesamongothersregardedsomearticlesby
Peircesuchas"TheFixationofBelief"(1877)andespecially"HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear"(1878)as
foundationaltopragmatism.[141]Peirce(CP5.1112),likeJames(Pragmatism:ANewNameforSomeOld
WaysofThinking,1907),sawpragmatismasembodyingfamiliarattitudes,inphilosophyandelsewhere,
elaboratedintoanewdeliberatemethodforfruitfulthinkingaboutproblems.PeircedifferedfromJames
andtheearlyJohnDewey,insomeoftheirtangentialenthusiasms,inbeingdecidedlymorerationalistic
andrealistic,inseveralsensesofthoseterms,throughoutthepreponderanceofhisownphilosophical
moods.
In1905Peircecoinedthenewnamepragmaticism"fortheprecisepurposeofexpressingtheoriginal
definition",sayingthat"allwenthappily"withJames'sandF.C.S.Schiller'svariantusesoftheoldname
"pragmatism"andthathecoinedthenewnamebecauseoftheoldname'sgrowingusein"literaryjournals,
whereitgetsabused".Yethecitedascauses,ina1906manuscript,hisdifferenceswithJamesandSchiller
and,ina1908publication,hisdifferenceswithJamesaswellasliteraryauthorGiovanniPapini's
declarationofpragmatism'sindefinability.Peirceinanycaseregardedhisviewsthattruthisimmutable
andinfinityisreal,asbeingopposedbytheotherpragmatists,butheremainedalliedwiththemonother
issues.[142]
Pragmatismbeginswiththeideathatbeliefisthatonwhichoneispreparedtoact.Peirce'spragmatismisa
methodofclarificationofconceptionsofobjects.Itequatesanyconceptionofanobjecttoaconceptionof
thatobject'seffectstoageneralextentoftheeffects'conceivableimplicationsforinformedpractice.Itisa
methodofsortingoutconceptualconfusionsoccasioned,forexample,bydistinctionsthatmake
(sometimesneeded)formalyetnotpracticaldifferences.Heformulatedbothpragmatismandstatistical
principlesasaspectsofscientificlogic,inhis"IllustrationsoftheLogicofScience"seriesofarticles.In
thesecondone,"HowtoMakeOurIdeasClear",Peircediscussedthreegradesofclearnessofconception:
1.Clearnessofaconceptionfamiliarandreadilyused,evenifunanalyzedandundeveloped.
2.Clearnessofaconceptioninvirtueofclearnessofitsparts,invirtueofwhichlogicianscalledan
idea"distinct",thatis,clarifiedbyanalysisofjustwhatmakesitapplicable.Elsewhere,echoing
Kant,Peircecalledalikewisedistinctdefinition"nominal"(CP5.553).
3.Clearnessinvirtueofclearnessofconceivablepracticalimplicationsoftheobject'sconceived
effects,suchasfostersfruitfulreasoning,especiallyondifficultproblems.Hereheintroducedthat
whichhelatercalledthepragmaticmaxim.
Bywayofexampleofhowtoclarifyconceptions,headdressedconceptionsabouttruthandtherealas
questionsofthepresuppositionsofreasoningingeneral.Inclearness'ssecondgrade(the"nominal"grade),
hedefinedtruthasasign'scorrespondencetoitsobject,andtherealastheobjectofsuchcorrespondence,
suchthattruthandtherealareindependentofthatwhichyouorIoranyactual,definitecommunityof
inquirersthink.Afterthatneedfulbutconfinedstep,nextinclearness'sthirdgrade(thepragmatic,
practiceorientedgrade)hedefinedtruthasthatopinionwhichwouldbereached,soonerorlaterbutstill
inevitably,byresearchtakenfarenough,suchthattherealdoesdependonthatidealfinalopiniona
dependencetowhichheappealsintheoreticalargumentselsewhere,forinstanceforthelongrunvalidity
oftheruleofinduction.[143]Peircearguedthateventoargueagainsttheindependenceanddiscoverability
oftruthandtherealistopresupposethatthereis,aboutthatveryquestionunderargument,atruthwith
justsuchindependenceanddiscoverability.
Peircesaidthataconception'smeaningconsistsin"allgeneralmodesofrationalconduct"impliedby
"acceptance"oftheconceptionthatis,ifoneweretoaccept,firstofall,theconceptionastrue,thenwhat
couldoneconceivetobeconsequentgeneralmodesofrationalconductbyallwhoaccepttheconception
astrue?thewholeofsuchconsequentgeneralmodesisthewholemeaning.Hispragmatismdoesnot
equateaconception'smeaning,itsintellectualpurport,withtheconceivedbenefitorcostoftheconception
itself,likeameme(or,say,propaganda),outsidetheperspectiveofitsbeingtrue,nor,sinceaconception
isgeneral,isitsmeaningequatedwithanydefinitesetofactualconsequencesorupshotscorroboratingor
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underminingtheconceptionoritsworth.Hispragmatismalsobearsnoresemblanceto"vulgar"
pragmatism,whichmisleadinglyconnotesaruthlessandMachiavelliansearchformercenaryorpolitical
advantage.Insteadthepragmaticmaximistheheartofhispragmatismasamethodofexperimentational
mentalreflection[144]arrivingatconceptionsintermsofconceivableconfirmatoryanddisconfirmatory
circumstancesamethodhospitabletotheformationofexplanatoryhypotheses,andconducivetotheuse
andimprovementofverification.[145]
Peirce'spragmatism,asmethodandtheoryofdefinitionsandconceptualclearness,ispartofhistheoryof
inquiry,[146]whichhevariouslycalledspeculative,general,formaloruniversalrhetoricorsimply
methodeutic.[119]Heappliedhispragmatismasamethodthroughouthiswork.
Theoryofinquiry
Criticalcommonsensism
Criticalcommonsensism,[147]treatedbyPeirceasaconsequenceofhispragmatism,ishiscombinationof
ThomasReid'scommonsensephilosophywithafallibilismthatrecognizesthatpropositionsofourmore
orlessvaguecommonsensenowindubitablemaylatercomeintoquestion,forexamplebecauseof
transformationsofourworldthroughscience.Itincludeseffortstoworkupintestsgenuinedoubtsfora
coregroupofcommonindubitablesthatvaryslowlyifatall.
Rivalmethodsofinquiry
InTheFixationofBelief(1877),Peircedescribedinquiryingeneralnotasthepursuitoftruthpersebut
asthestruggletomovefromirritating,inhibitorydoubtbornofsurprise,disagreement,andthelike,andto
reachasecurebelief,beliefbeingthatonwhichoneispreparedtoact.ThatletPeirceframescientific
inquiryaspartofabroaderspectrumandasspurred,likeinquirygenerally,byactualdoubt,notmere
verbal,quarrelsome,orhyperbolicdoubt,whichheheldtobefruitless.Peircesketchedfourmethodsof
settlingopinion,orderedfromleasttomostsuccessful:
1.Themethodoftenacity(policyofstickingtoinitialbelief)whichbringscomfortsand
decisivenessbutleadstotryingtoignorecontraryinformationandothers'viewsasiftruthwere
intrinsicallyprivate,notpublic.Themethodgoesagainstthesocialimpulseandeasilyfalterssince
onemaywellnoticewhenanother'sopinionseemsasgoodasone'sowninitialopinion.Itssuccesses
canbebrilliantbuttendtobetransitory.
2.Themethodofauthoritywhichovercomesdisagreementsbutsometimesbrutally.Itssuccesses
canbemajesticandlonglasting,butitcannotregulatepeoplethoroughlyenoughtowithstand
doubtsindefinitely,especiallywhenpeoplelearnaboutothersocietiespresentandpast.
3.Themethodoftheaprioriwhichpromotesconformitylessbrutallybutfostersopinionsas
somethingliketastes,arisinginconversationandcomparisonsofperspectivesintermsof"whatis
agreeabletoreason."Therebyitdependsonfashioninparadigmsandgoesincirclesovertime.Itis
moreintellectualandrespectablebut,likethefirsttwomethods,sustainsaccidentalandcapricious
beliefs,destiningsomemindstodoubtit.
4.Themethodofsciencewhereininquirysupposesthattherealisdiscoverablebutindependentof
particularopinion,suchthat,unlikeintheothermethods,inquirycan,byitsownaccount,gowrong
(fallibilism),notonlyright,andthuspurposelytestsitselfandcriticizes,corrects,andimproves
itself.
Peirceheldthat,inpracticalaffairs,slowandstumblingratiocinationisoftendangerouslyinferiorto
instinctandtraditionalsentiment,andthatthescientificmethodisbestsuitedtotheoreticalresearch,[148]
whichinturnshouldnotbetrammeledbytheothermethodsandpracticalendsreason's"firstrule"[114]is
that,inordertolearn,onemustdesiretolearnand,asacorollary,mustnotblockthewayofinquiry.
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Scientificmethodexcelstheothersfinallybybeingdeliberatelydesignedtoarriveeventuallyatthe
mostsecurebeliefs,uponwhichthemostsuccessfulpracticescanbebased.Startingfromtheideathat
peopleseeknottruthpersebutinsteadtosubdueirritating,inhibitorydoubt,Peirceshowedhow,through
thestruggle,somecancometosubmittotruthforthesakeofbelief'sintegrity,seekastruththeguidance
ofpotentialconductcorrectlytoitsgivengoal,andwedthemselvestothescientificmethod.
Scientificmethod
Insofarasclarificationbypragmaticreflectionsuitsexplanatoryhypothesesandfosterspredictionsand
testing,pragmatismpointsbeyondtheusualduooffoundationalalternatives:deductionfromselfevident
truths,orrationalismandinductionfromexperientialphenomena,orempiricism.
Basedonhiscritiqueofthreemodesofargumentanddifferentfromeitherfoundationalismor
coherentism,Peirce'sapproachseekstojustifyclaimsbyathreephasedynamicofinquiry:
1.Active,abductivegenesisoftheory,withnopriorassuranceoftruth
2.Deductiveapplicationofthecontingenttheorysoastoclarifyitspracticalimplications
3.Inductivetestingandevaluationoftheutilityoftheprovisionaltheoryinanticipationoffuture
experience,inbothsenses:predictionandcontrol.
Thereby,Peircedevisedanapproachtoinquiryfarmoresolidthantheflatterimageofinductive
generalizationsimpliciter,whichisamererelabelingofphenomenologicalpatterns.Peirce'spragmatism
wasthefirsttimethescientificmethodwasproposedasanepistemologyforphilosophicalquestions.
Atheorythatsucceedsbetterthanitsrivalsinpredictingandcontrollingourworldissaidtobenearerthe
truth.Thisisanoperationalnotionoftruthusedbyscientists.
Peirceextractedthepragmaticmodelortheoryofinquiryfromitsrawmaterialsinclassicallogicand
refineditinparallelwiththeearlydevelopmentofsymboliclogictoaddressproblemsaboutthenatureof
scientificreasoning.
Abduction,deduction,andinductionmakeincompletesenseinisolationfromoneanotherbutcomprisea
cycleunderstandableasawholeinsofarastheycollaboratetowardthecommonendofinquiry.Inthe
pragmaticwayofthinkingaboutconceivablepracticalimplications,everythinghasapurpose,and,as
possible,itspurposeshouldfirstbedenoted.Abductionhypothesizesanexplanationfordeductionto
clarifyintoimplicationstobetestedsothatinductioncanevaluatethehypothesis,inthestruggletomove
fromtroublesomeuncertaintytomoresecurebelief.Nomatterhowtraditionalandneedfulitistostudy
themodesofinferenceinabstractionfromoneanother,theintegrityofinquirystronglylimitstheeffective
modularityofitsprincipalcomponents.
Peirce'soutlineofthescientificmethodinIIIIVof"ANeglectedArgument"[149]issummarizedbelow
(exceptasotherwisenoted).Therehealsoreviewedplausibilityandinductiveprecision(issuesofcritique
ofarguments).
1.Abductive(orretroductive)phase.Guessing,inferencetoexplanatoryhypothesesforselectionofthose
bestworthtrying.Fromabduction,Peircedistinguishesinductionasinferring,onthebasisoftests,the
proportionoftruthinthehypothesis.Everyinquiry,whetherintoideas,brutefacts,ornormsandlaws,
arisesfromsurprisingobservationsinoneormoreofthoserealms(andforexampleatanystageofan
inquiryalreadyunderway).Allexplanatorycontentoftheoriescomesfromabduction,whichguessesa
neworoutsideideasoastoaccountinasimple,economicalwayforasurprisingorcomplicated
phenomenon.Themodicumofsuccessinourguessesfarexceedsthatofrandomluck,andseemsbornof
attunementtonaturebydevelopedorinherentinstincts,especiallyinsofarasbestguessesareoptimally
plausibleandsimpleinthesenseofthe"facileandnatural",asbyGalileo'snaturallightofreasonandas
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distinctfrom"logicalsimplicity".[150]Abductionisthemostfertilebutleastsecuremodeofinference.Its
generalrationaleisinductive:itsucceedsoftenenoughandithasnosubstituteinexpeditingustoward
newtruths.[151]In1903,Peircecalledpragmatism"thelogicofabduction".[152]Coordinativemethodleads
fromabductingaplausiblehypothesistojudgingitforitstestability[153]andforhowitstrialwould
economizeinquiryitself.[154]Thehypothesis,beinginsecure,needstohavepracticalimplicationsleading
atleasttomentaltestsand,inscience,lendingthemselvestoscientifictests.Asimplebutunlikelyguess,if
notcostlytotestforfalsity,maybelongfirstinlinefortesting.Aguessisintrinsicallyworthtestingifit
hasplausibilityorreasonablyobjectiveprobability,whilesubjectivelikelihood,thoughreasoned,canbe
misleadinglyseductive.Guessescanbeselectedfortrialstrategically,fortheircaution(forwhichPeirce
gaveasexamplethegameofTwentyQuestions),breadth,orincomplexity.[155]Onecandiscoveronlythat
whichwouldberevealedthroughtheirsufficientexperienceanyway,andsothepointistoexpediteit
economyofresearchdemandstheleap,sotospeak,ofabductionandgovernsitsart.[154]
2.Deductivephase.Twostages:
i.Explication.Notclearlypremised,butadeductiveanalysisofthehypothesissoastorenderits
partsasclearaspossible.
ii.Demonstration:DeductiveArgumentation,Euclideaninprocedure.Explicitdeductionof
consequencesofthehypothesisaspredictionsaboutevidencetobefound.Corollarialor,ifneeded,
Theorematic.
3.Inductivephase.Evaluationofthehypothesis,inferringfromobservationalorexperimentaltestsofits
deducedconsequences.Thelongrunvalidityoftheruleofinductionisdeduciblefromtheprinciple
(presuppositionaltoreasoningingeneral)thatthereal"isonlytheobjectofthefinalopiniontowhich
sufficientinvestigationwouldlead"[143]inotherwords,anythingexcludingsuchaprocesswouldneverbe
real.Inductioninvolvingtheongoingaccumulationofevidencefollows"amethodwhich,sufficiently
persistedin,"will"diminishtheerrorbelowanypredesignatedegree."Threestages:
i.Classification.Notclearlypremised,butaninductiveclassingofobjectsofexperienceunder
generalideas.
ii.Probation:directInductiveArgumentation.CrudeorGradualinprocedure.CrudeInduction,
foundedonexperienceinonemass(CP2.759),presumesthatfutureexperienceonaquestionwill
notdifferutterlyfromallpastexperience(CP2.756).GradualInductionmakesanewestimateof
theproportionoftruthinthehypothesisaftereachtest,andisQualitativeorQuantitative.
QualitativeGradualInductiondependsonestimatingtherelativeevidentweightsofthevarious
qualitiesofthesubjectclassunderinvestigation(CP2.759seealsoCP7.11420).Quantitative
GradualInductiondependsonhowoften,inafairsampleofinstancesofS,Sisfoundactually
accompaniedbyPthatwaspredictedforS(CP2.758).Itdependsonmeasurements,orstatistics,or
counting.
iii.SententialInduction."...which,byInductivereasonings,appraisesthedifferentProbationssingly,
thentheircombinations,thenmakesselfappraisaloftheseveryappraisalsthemselves,andpasses
finaljudgmentonthewholeresult".
AgainstCartesianism
Peircedrewonthemethodologicalimplicationsofthefourincapacitiesnogenuineintrospection,no
intuitioninthesenseofnoninferentialcognition,nothoughtbutinsigns,andnoconceptionofthe
absolutelyincognizabletoattackphilosophicalCartesianism,ofwhichhesaidthat:[121]
1."Itteachesthatphilosophymustbegininuniversaldoubt"when,instead,westartwith
preconceptions,"prejudices[...]whichitdoesnotoccurtouscanbequestioned",thoughwemayfind
reasontoquestionthemlater."Letusnotpretendtodoubtinphilosophywhatwedonotdoubtinour
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hearts."
2."Itteachesthattheultimatetestofcertaintyis...intheindividualconsciousness"when,instead,in
scienceatheorystaysonprobationtillagreementisreached,thenithasnoactualdoubtersleft.Nolone
individualcanreasonablyhopetofulfillphilosophy'smultigenerationaldream.When"candidand
disciplinedminds"continuetodisagreeonatheoreticalissue,eventhetheory'sauthorshouldfeeldoubts
aboutit.
3.Ittruststo"asinglethreadofinferencedependingoftenuponinconspicuouspremisses"when,
instead,philosophyshould,"likethesuccessfulsciences",proceedonlyfromtangible,scrutinizable
premissesandtrustnottoanyoneargumentbutinsteadto"themultitudeandvarietyofitsarguments"as
forming,notachainatleastasweakasitsweakestlink,but"acablewhosefibers",soever"slender,are
sufficientlynumerousandintimatelyconnected".
4.Itrendersmanyfacts"absolutelyinexplicable,unlesstosaythat'Godmakesthemso'istoberegarded
asanexplanation"[156]when,instead,philosophyshouldavoidbeing"unidealistic",[157]misbelieving
thatsomethingrealcandefyorevadeallpossibleideas,andsupposing,inevitably,"someabsolutely
inexplicable,unanalyzableultimate",whichexplanatorysurmiseexplainsnothingandsoisinadmissible.
Philosophy:metaphysics
Peircedividedmetaphysicsinto(1)ontology
orgeneralmetaphysics,(2)psychicalor
religiousmetaphysics,and(3)physical
metaphysics.
Ontology.PeircewasaScholasticRealist,
declaringfortherealityofgeneralsasearlyas
1868.[158]Regardingmodalities(possibility,
necessity,etc.),hecameinlateryearsto
regardhimselfashavingwaveredearlierasto
justhowpositivelyrealthemodalitiesare.In
his1897"TheLogicofRelatives"hewrote:
Somenotedarticles
TheMonistMetaphysicalSeries(189193)
TheArchitectureofTheories(1891)
TheDoctrineofNecessityExamined(1892)
TheLawofMind(1892)
Man'sGlassyEssence(1892)
EvolutionaryLove(1893)
ImmortalityintheLightofSynechism(1893MS)
Iformerlydefinedthepossibleasthatwhichinagivenstateofinformation(realorfeigned)
wedonotknownottobetrue.Butthisdefinitiontodayseemstomeonlyatwistedphrase
which,bymeansoftwonegatives,concealsananacoluthon.Weknowinadvanceof
experiencethatcertainthingsarenottrue,becauseweseetheyareimpossible.
Peirceretained,asusefulforsomepurposes,thedefinitionsintermsofinformationstates,butinsistedthat
thepragmaticistiscommittedtoastrongmodalrealismbyconceivingofobjectsintermsofpredictive
generalconditionalpropositionsabouthowtheywouldbehaveundercertaincircumstances.[159]
Psychicalorreligiousmetaphysics.PeircebelievedinGod,andcharacterizedsuchbeliefasfoundedin
aninstinctexplorableinmusingovertheworldsofideas,brutefacts,andevolvinghabitsanditisa
beliefinGodnotasanactualorexistentbeing(inPeirce'ssenseofthosewords),butallthesameasareal
being.[160]In"ANeglectedArgumentfortheRealityofGod"(1908),[149]Peircesketches,forGod's
reality,anargumenttoahypothesisofGodastheNecessaryBeing,ahypothesiswhichhedescribesin
termsofhowitwouldtendtodevelopandbecomecompellinginmusementandinquirybyanormal
personwhoisled,bythehypothesis,toconsiderasbeingpurposedthefeaturesoftheworldsofideas,
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brutefacts,andevolvinghabits(forexamplescientificprogress),suchthatthethoughtofsuch
purposefulnesswill"standorfallwiththehypothesis"meanwhile,accordingtoPeirce,thehypothesis,in
supposingan"infinitelyincomprehensible"being,startsoffatoddswithitsownnatureasapurportively
trueconception,andso,nomatterhowmuchthehypothesisgrows,itboth(A)inevitablyregardsitselfas
partlytrue,partlyvague,andascontinuingtodefineitselfwithoutlimit,and(B)inevitablyhasGod
appearinglikewisevaguebutgrowing,thoughGodastheNecessaryBeingisnotvagueorgrowingbut
thehypothesiswillholdittobemorefalsetosaytheopposite,thatGodispurposeless.Peircealsoargued
thatthewillisfree[161]and(seeSynechism)thatthereisatleastanattenuatedkindofimmortality.
Physicalmetaphysics.Peirceheldtheview,whichhecalledobjectiveidealism,that"matteriseffete
mind,inveteratehabitsbecomingphysicallaws".[162]Peirceassertedtherealityof(1)absolutechance(his
tychistview),(2)mechanicalnecessity(anancistview),and(3)thatwhichhecalledthelawoflove
(agapistview),echoinghiscategoriesFirstness,Secondness,andThirdness,respectively.Heheldthat
fortuitousvariation(whichhealsocalled"sporting"),mechanicalnecessity,andcreativelovearethethree
modesofevolution(modescalled"tychasm","anancasm",and"agapasm")[163]ofthecosmosanditsparts.
HefoundhisconceptionofagapasmembodiedinLamarckianevolutiontheoverallideainanycaseis
thatofevolutiontendingtowardanendorgoal,anditcouldalsobetheevolutionofamindorasocietyit
isthekindofevolutionwhichmanifestsworkingsofmindinsomegeneralsense.Hesaidthatoverallhe
wasasynechist,holdingwithrealityofcontinuity,[164]especiallyofspace,time,andlaw.[165]
Scienceofreview
Peirceoutlinedtwofields,"Cenoscopy"and"ScienceofReview",bothofwhichhecalledphilosophy.
Bothincludedphilosophyaboutscience.In1903hearrangedthem,frommoretolesstheoreticallybasic,
thus:[102]
1.ScienceofDiscovery.
1.Mathematics.
2.Cenoscopy(philosophyasdiscussedearlierinthisarticlecategorial,normative,
metaphysical),asFirstPhilosophy,concernspositivephenomenaingeneral,doesnotrelyon
findingsfromspecialsciences,andincludesthegeneralstudyofinquiryandscientific
method.
3.Idioscopy,ortheSpecialSciences(ofnatureandmind).
2.ScienceofReview,asUltimatePhilosophy,arranges"...theresultsofdiscovery,beginningwith
digests,andgoingontoendeavortoformaphilosophyofscience".Hisexamplesincluded
Humboldt'sCosmos,Comte'sPhilosophiepositive,andSpencer'sSyntheticPhilosophy.
3.PracticalScience,ortheArts.
Peirceplaced,withinScienceofReview,theworkandtheoryofclassifyingthesciences(including
mathematicsandphilosophy).Hisclassifications,onwhichheworkedformanyyears,drawonargument
andwideknowledge,andareofinterestbothasamapfornavigatinghisphilosophyandasan
accomplishedpolymath'ssurveyofresearchinhistime.
Seealso
CharlesSandersPeirce's
typetokendistinction
Continuouspredicate
Entitativegraph
Hypostaticabstraction
Idea#CharlesSanders
LawsofForm
Listof
American
philosophers
Logicof
information
Mathematical
psychology
Normal
distribution#Naming
Peircetriangle
Peirce'slaw
Pragmatics
Problemof
universals#Peirce
Quantification
(science)#History
Relationalgebra
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Logical
machine
Logicalmatrix
Peirce
Phaneron
Truthtable
ContemporariesassociatedwithPeirce
Oliver
Wendell
Holmes,
Jr.
Howland
will
forgery
trial
GeorgeHerbertMead
VenturadelosReyesPrsper
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/nubiola/reyes.htm)
Thorstein
Veblen
Notes
1.Hacking,Ian(1990),"AUniverseofChance",TheTamingofChance,pp.200215,CambridgeU.Pr.
2.Stigler,StephenM.(1978)."MathematicalstatisticsintheearlyStates".AnnalsofStatistics6:239265[248].
doi:10.1214/aos/1176344123.JSTOR2958876.MR483118.
3.Crease,RobertP(2009)."CharlesSandersPeirceandthefirstabsolutemeasurementstandard:Inhisbrilliant
buttroubledlife,Peircewasapioneerinbothmetrologyandphilosophy".PhysicsToday62(12):3944.
doi:10.1063/1.3273015.
4.Cadwallader,ThomasC.(1974)."CharlesS.Peirce(18391914):ThefirstAmericanexperimental
psychologist".JournaloftheHistoryoftheBehavioralSciences10(3):291.doi:10.1002/1520
6696(197407)10:3<291::AIDJHBS2300100304>3.0.CO2N.
5.Wible,JamesR.(2008),"TheEconomicMindofCharlesSandersPeirce
(http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/rodopi/cpm/2008/00000005/00000002/art00003)",Contemporary
Pragmatism,v.5,n.2,December,pp.3967
6.Nth,Winfried(2000),"CharlesSandersPeirce,PathfinderinLinguistics
(http://www.digitalpeirce.fee.unicamp.br/ling.htm)",DigitalEncyclopediaofCharlesS.Peirce
(http://www.digitalpeirce.fee.unicamp.br/).
7.JosephBrent(1998).CharlesSandersPeirce:ALife(2ed.).IndianaUniversityPress.p.18.
ISBN9780253211613."Peircehadstrong,thoughunorthodox,religiousconvictions.Althoughhewasa
communicantintheEpiscopalchurchformostofhislife,heexpressedcontemptforthetheologies,
metaphysics,andpracticesofestablishedreligions."
8.Brent,Joseph(1998),CharlesSandersPeirce:ALife,2ndedition,BloomingtonandIndianapolis:Indiana
UniversityPress(catalogpage(http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/product_info.php?isbn=0253211611))
alsoNetLibrary.
9."Peirce",inthecaseofC.S.Peirce,alwaysrhymeswiththeEnglishlanguageword"terse"andso,inmost
dialects,ispronouncedexactlyliketheEnglishlanguageword" purse".See"NoteonthePronunciationof
'Peirce'(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/news/1_3/13_4x.htm#pronunciation)",PeirceProjectNewsletter,v.1,
nos.3/4,Dec.1994.
10.Peirce,C.S.,"Letter,PeircetoA.Marquand",dated1886,W5:5413,GooglePreview
(https://books.google.com/books?id=DnvLHp919_wC&q=Marquand).SeeBurks,ArthurW.,"Review:Charles
S.Peirce,Thenewelementsofmathematics",BulletinoftheAmericanMathematicalSocietyv.84,n.5(1978),
pp.91318,see917.PDFEprint(http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?
view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145).Alsop.xlivinHouser,Nathan,Introduction,W5.
11.Weiss,Paul(1934),"Peirce,CharlesSanders"intheDictionaryofAmericanBiography.ArisbeEprint
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/weissbio.htm).
12."Peirce,Benjamin",subheading"CharlesSanders",inWebster'sBiographicalDictionary(1943/1960),
Springfield,MA:MerriamWebster.
13.KeithDevlin(2000)TheMathGene.BasicBooks.
14.Fisch,Max,"Introduction(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v1/v1intro.htm)",W1:xvii,findphrase"One
25/34
11/03/2016
episode".
15."Peirce,CharlesSanders"(1898),TheNationalCyclopediaofAmericanBiography,v.8,p.409
(https://books.google.com/books?id=1uIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA409&dq=%22Peirce%2C%20Charles%22).
16.B:546
17.B:3634
18.B:1920,53,75,245
19.B:40
20.Burch,Robert(2001,2010),"CharlesSandersPeirce(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/)",Stanford
EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.
21.B:139
22.B:612
23.B:69
24.B:368
25.B:7981
26.Moore,EdwardC.,andRobin,RichardS.,eds.,(1964),StudiesinthePhilosophyofCharlesSandersPeirce,
SecondSeries,Amherst:U.ofMassachusettsPress.OnPeircetheastronomer,seeLenzen'schapter.
27.B:367
28.Fisch,Max(1983),"PeirceasScientist,Mathematician,Historian,Logician,andPhilosopher",StudiesinLogic
(newedition),seep.x.
29.See"PeirceEditionProject(UQM)inshort(http://www.pep.uqam.ca/short.pep)"fromPEPUQM.
30.Houser,Nathan,"Introduction(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v5/v5intro.htm)",W5:xxviiixxix,find
"Allison".
31.B:202
32.Houser,Nathan(1989),"Introduction(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v4/v4intro.htm)",W4:xxxviii,
find"Eightynine".
33.B:1504,195,27980,289
34.B:xv
35.B:98101
36.B:141
37.B:148
38.Houser,Nathan,"Introduction(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v6/v6intro.htm)",W6,firstparagraph.
39.B:123,368
40.B:1501,368
41.In1885(B:369)in1890and1900(B:215,273)in1891(B:21516)andin1892(B:1512,222).
42.B:77
43.B:1912,217,270,318,321,337.
44.B:13
45.B:36974
46.B:191
47.B:246
48.B:242
49.B:271
50.B:24955
51.B:371
52.B:189
53.B:370
54.B:2056
55.B:3746
56.B:27989
57.B:2614,2902,324
58.B:3067&3156
59.Brent,Joseph(1998).CharlesSandersPeirce,alife.Bloomington,Indiana:IndianaUniversityPress.p.34.
ISBN0253211611.
60.Menand,Louis(2001).TheMetaphysicalClub.London:Flamingo.pp.161162.ISBN0007126905.
61.Russell,Bertrand(1959),WisdomoftheWest,p.276.
62.Anellis,IrvingH.(1995),"PeirceRustled,RussellPierced:HowCharlesPeirceandBertrandRussellViewed
EachOther'sWorkinLogic,andanAssessmentofRussell'sAccuracyandRoleintheHistoriographyof
Logic",ModernLogic5,270328.ArisbeEprint
26/34
11/03/2016
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/anellis/csp&br.htm).
63.Popper,Karl(1972),ObjectiveKnowledge:AnEvolutionaryApproach,p.212.
64.SeeRoyce,Josiah,andKernan,W.Fergus(1916),"CharlesSandersPeirce",TheJournalofPhilosophy,
Psychology,andScientificMethodv.13,pp.7019.ArisbeEprint
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/royce/cspobit.htm).
65.Ketneretal.(1986),ComprehensiveBibliography,seep.iii.
66.Hookway,Christopher(2008),"Pragmatism(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/)",Stanford
EncyclopediaofPhilosophy.
67.B:8
68.Fisch,Max(1986),Peirce,Semeiotic,andPragmatism,KennethLaineKetnerandChristianJ.W.Kloesel,
eds.,Bloomington,Indiana:IndianaU.Pr.
69.TheologicalResearchGroupinC.S.Peirce'sPhilosophy(HermannDeuser,JustusLiebigUniversittGieen
WilfredHrle,PhilippsUniversittMarburg,Germany).
70.Burks,Arthur,Introduction,CP7,p.xi.
71.Robin,RichardS.(1967),AnnotatedCatalogueofthePapersofCharlesS.Peirce
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/robin/robin.htm).AmherstMA:UniversityofMassachusettsPress.
72."Themanuscriptmaterialnow(1997)comestomorethanahundredthousandpages.Thesecontainmanypages
ofnophilosophicalinterest,butthenumberofpagesonphilosophycertainlynumbermuchmorethanhalfof
that.Also,asignificantbutunknownnumberofmanuscriptshavebeenlost."JosephRansdell(1997),"Some
LeadingIdeasofPeirce'sSemiotic",endnote2
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/ransdell/leading.htm#note2),1997lightrevisionof1977
versioninSemiotica19:15778.
73.Houser,Nathan,"TheFortunesandMisfortunesofthePeircePapers",FourthCongressoftheIASS,Perpignan,
France,1989.SignsofHumanity,v.3,1992,pp.125968.Eprint
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/houser/fortunes.htm)
74.MemorandumtothePresidentofCharlesS.PeirceSocietybyAhtiVeikkoPietarinen,U.ofHelsinki,March
29,2012.Eprint(http://www.helsinki.fi/~pietarin/MemorandumPeirce%20SocietyPietarinen2012.pdf).
75.Seeforexample"CollectionsofPeirce'sWritings(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/collections.html)"at
Commens,U.ofHelsinki.
76.See1987reviewbyB.Kuklick(ofPeircebyChristopherHookway),inBritishJournalforthePhilosophyof
Sciencev.38,n.1,pp.11719.Firstpage(http://bjps.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/38/1/117).
77.Auspitz,JosiahLee(1994),"TheWaspLeavestheBottle:CharlesSandersPeirce",TheAmericanScholar,v.
63,n.4,autumn,60218.ArisbeEprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/aboutcsp/auspitz/escape.htm).
78.Burks,ArthurW.,"Review:CharlesS.Peirce,Thenewelementsofmathematics",BulletinoftheAmerican
MathematicalSocietyv.84,n.5(1978),pp.91318(PDF)
(http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?
view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145).
79.Peirce(1860MS),"OrdersofInfinity",NewsfromthePeirceEditionProject,September2010
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/PEP_news_Sept2010.pdf)(PDF),p.6,withthemanuscript'stext.Alsoseelogic
historianIrvingAnellis'sNovember11,2010comment
(http://thread.gmane.org/gmane.science.philosophy.peirce/6621/focus=6626)atpeircel.
80.Peirce(MS,winterof188081),"ABooleanAlgebrawithOneConstant",CP4.1220,W4:21821.Google
Preview(https://books.google.com/books?id=E7ZUnx3FqrcC&q=378+Winter).SeeRoberts,DonD.(1973),
TheExistentialGraphsofCharlesS.Peirce,p.131.
81.Peirce(1881),"OntheLogicofNumber",AmericanJournalofMathematicsv.4,pp.85
(https://books.google.com/books?id=LQgPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85)95.Reprinted(CP3.25288),(W4:299
309).SeeSeeShields,Paul(1997),"Peirce'sAxiomatizationofArithmetic",inHouseretal.,eds.,Studiesin
theLogicofCharlesS.Peirce.
82.Peirce(1885),"OntheAlgebraofLogic:AContributiontothePhilosophyofNotation",AmericanJournalof
Mathematics7,twoparts,firstpartpublished1885,pp.180(https://books.google.com/books?
id=lwYPAAAAIAAJ&&pg=PA180)202(seeHouserinlinkedparagraph
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v4/v4introx.htm#21note)in"Introduction"inW4).Presented,National
AcademyofSciences,Newport,RI,1417October1884(seeEP1,Headnote16
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep1/heads/ep1heads.htm#16)).1885istheyearusuallygivenforthiswork.
ReprintedCP3.359403,W5:16290,EP1:2258,inpart.
83.Putnam,Hilary(1982),"PeircetheLogician",HistoriaMathematica9,290301.Reprinted,pp.25260in
Putnam(1990),RealismwithaHumanFace,Harvard.Excerptwitharticle'slastfivepages
(http://www.jfsowa.com/peirce/putnam.htm).
27/34
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84.ItwasinPeirce's1885"OntheAlgebraofLogic".SeeByrnes,John(1998),"Peirce'sFirstOrderLogicof
1885",TransactionsoftheCharlesS.PeirceSocietyv.34,n.4,pp.94976.
85.Brady,Geraldine(2000),FromPeircetoSkolem:ANeglectedChapterintheHistoryofLogic,North
Holland/ElsevierScienceBV,Amsterdam,Netherlands.
86.SeePeirce(1898),Lecture3,"TheLogicofRelatives"(notthe1897Monistarticle),ReasoningandtheLogic
ofThings,pp.14664,see151.
87.Peirce(1898),"TheLogicofMathematicsinRelationtoEducation"inEducationalReviewv.15,pp.20916
(https://archive.org/stream/educationalrevie15newyuoft#page/209/mode/1up)(viaInternetArchive).Reprinted
CP3.55362.Seealsohis"TheSimplestMathematics"(1902MS),CP4.227323.
88.Lewis,ClarenceIrving(1918),ASurveyofSymbolicLogic,seech.1,7"Peirce",pp.79106,seep.79
(https://archive.org/stream/surveyofsymbolic00lewiiala#page/79/mode/1up)(InternetArchive).NotethatLewis's
bibliographylistsworksbyFrege,taggedwithasterisksasimportant.
89.Avery,John(2003)Informationtheoryandevolution,p.167alsoMitchell,Melanie,"MyScientificAncestry
(http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~mm/MMScientificAncestry.html)".
90.Beil,RalphG.andKetner,Kenneth(2003),"Peirce,Clifford,andQuantumTheory",InternationalJournalof
TheoreticalPhysicsv.42,n.9,pp.19571972.
91.Houser,Roberts,andVanEvra,eds.(1997),StudiesintheLogicofCharlesSandersPeirce,IndianaU.,
Bloomington,IN.
92.Misak,ed.(2004),TheCambridgeCompaniontoPeirce,CambridgeU.,UK.
93.Peirce(18931894,MS949,p.1)
94.Peirce(1903MS),CP6.176:"ButInowdefineapseudocontinuumasthatwhichmodernwritersonthetheory
offunctionscallacontinuum.Butthisisfullyrepresentedby[...]thetotalityofrealvalues,rationaland
irrational[...]."
95.Peirce(1902MS)andRansdell,Joseph,ed.(1998),"AnalysisoftheMethodsofMathematicalDemonstration",
Memoir4(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v102.htm#m4),DraftC,MSL75.90102,
see99100.(Oncethere,scrolldown).
96.See:
Peirce(1908),"SomeAmazingMazes(Conclusion),ExplanationofCuriositytheFirst",TheMonist,v.
18,n.3,pp.41664,see463(https://books.google.com/books?id=CqsLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA463)4.
ReprintedCP4.594642,see642.
Havenel,Jrme(2008),"Peirce'sClarificationsonContinuity",TransactionsWinter2008pp.68133,
see119.Abstract(http://www.jstor.org/pss/40321237).
97.Peircecondemnedtheuseof"certainlikelihoods"(EP2:1089)evenmorestronglythanhecriticizedBayesian
methods.IndeedPeirceusedabitofBayesianinferenceincriticizingparapsychology(W6:76).
98.Miller,RichardW.(1975),"Propensity:PopperorPeirce?",BritishJournalforthePhilosophyofScience(site
(http://bjps.oxfordjournals.org)),v.26,n.2,pp.12332.doi:10.1093/bjps/26.2.123
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1093%2Fbjps%2F26.2.123).Eprint
(http://bjps.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/26/2/123.pdf).
99.Haack,SusanandKolenda,Konstantin(1977),"TwoFallibilistsinSearchoftheTruth",Proceedingsofthe
AristotelianSociety,SupplementaryVolumes,v.51,pp.63104.JSTOR4106816
(http://www.jstor.org/stable/4106816)
100.PeirceCS,JastrowJ.OnSmallDifferencesinSensation(http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/smalldiffs.htm).
MemoirsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences18853:7383.
101.Peirce(1897)"Fallibilism,Continuity,andEvolution",CP1.14175(Eprint
(http://www.textlog.de/4248.html)),placedbytheCPeditorsdirectlyafter"F.R.L."(1899,CP1.13540).
102.Peirce(1903),CP1.180202Eprint(https://web.archive.org/web/20111105121054/)and(1906)"TheBasisof
Pragmaticism",EP2:3723,see"Philosophy(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/philosophy.html)"
atCDPT.
103.Seein"Firstness","Secondness",and"Thirdness"inCDPT
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html).
104.Peirce(1893),"TheCategories"MS403.ArisbeEprint
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/bycsp.htm#NLOCR),editedbyJosephRansdell,with
informationontherewrite,andinterleavedwiththe1867"NewList"forcomparison.
105."MinuteLogic",CP2.87,c.1902andALettertoLadyWelby,CP8.329,1904.Seerelevantquotesunder
"Categories,CenopythagoreanCategories(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/categories.html)"in
CommensDictionaryofPeirce'sTerms(CDPT),Bergman&Paalova,eds.,U.ofHelsinki.
106.Seequotesunder"Firstness,First[asacategory]
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/firstness.html)"inCDPT.
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107.Thegroundblacknessisthepureabstractionofthequalityblack.Somethingblackissomethingembodying
blackness,pointingusbacktotheabstraction.Thequalityblackamountstoreferencetoitsownpure
abstraction,thegroundblackness.Thequestionisnotmerelyofnoun(theground)versusadjective(the
quality),butratherofwhetherweareconsideringtheblack(ness)asabstractedawayfromapplicationtoan
object,orinsteadassoapplied(forinstancetoastove).YetnotethatPeirce'sdistinctionhereisnotthat
betweenapropertygeneralandapropertyindividual(atrope).See"OnaNewListofCategories
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/newlist/nlframe.htm)"(1867),inthesectionappearinginCP
1.551.Regardingtheground,cf.theScholasticconceptionofarelation'sfoundation,Googlelimitedpreview
Deely1982,p.61(http://books.google.com/books?id=fSzt6_ce
gC&pg=PA61&dq=%22Introducing+Semiotic%22+foundation+ground&sig=kgh62kOzOoFrCOYyAV04YxJ0S
Oo#PPA61)
108.Aqualeinthissenseisasuch,justasaqualityisasuchness.Cf.under"UseofLetters"in3ofPeirce's
"DescriptionofaNotationfortheLogicofRelatives",MemoirsoftheAmericanAcademy,v.9,pp.31778
(1870),separatelyreprinted(1870),fromwhichseep.6viaGooglebooks(http://books.google.com/books?
id=fFnWmf5oLaoC&pg=PA6),alsoreprintedinCP3.63:
Nowlogicaltermsareofthreegrandclasses.Thefirstembracesthosewhoselogicalform
involvesonlytheconceptionofquality,andwhichthereforerepresentathingsimplyasa.
Thesediscriminateobjectsinthemostrudimentaryway,whichdoesnotinvolveany
consciousnessofdiscrimination.Theyregardanobjectasitisinitselfassuch(quale)for
example,ashorse,tree,orman.Theseareabsoluteterms.(Peirce,1870.Butalsosee"Quale
Consciousness",1898,inCP6.22237.)
109.Seequotesunder"Secondness,Second[asacategory]
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/secondness.html)"inCDPT.
110.Seequotesunder"Thirdness,Third[asacategory]
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/thirdness.html)"inCDPT.
111."CharlesS.PeirceonEstheticsandEthics:ABibliography
(http://agora.phi.gvsu.edu/kap/CSP_Bibliography/CSP_norm_bib.pdf)"(PDF)byKellyA.Parkerin1999.
112.Peirce(1902MS),CarnegieApplication,editedbyJosephRansdell,Memoir2
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v102.htm),seetable.
113.SeeEsthetics(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/esthetics.html)atCDPT.
114.Peirce(1899MS),"F.R.L."[FirstRuleofLogic],CP1.13540,Eprint
(https://web.archive.org/web/20120106071421/http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm)
115.Peirce(1882),"IntroductoryLectureontheStudyofLogic"deliveredSeptember1882,JohnsHopkins
UniversityCirculars,v.2,n.19,pp.11(https://books.google.com/books?
id=E0YFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA11&dq=%22art+of+devising+methods+of+research%22)12(viaGoogle),
November1882.Reprinted(EP1:21014W4:37882CP7.5976).ThedefinitionoflogicquotedbyPeirce
isbyPeterofSpain.
116.Peirce(1878),"TheDoctrineofChances",PopularScienceMonthly,v.12,pp.60415(CP2.64568,W
3:27690,EP1:14254).
...deathmakesthenumberofourrisks,thenumberofourinferences,finite,andsomakestheir
meanresultuncertain.Theveryideaofprobabilityandofreasoningrestsontheassumptionthat
thisnumberisindefinitelygreat........logicalityinexorablyrequiresthatourinterestsshallnotbe
limited.....Logicisrootedinthesocialprinciple.
117.Peirce,CP5.448footnote,from"TheBasisofPragmaticism"in1906.
118.Peirce,(1868),"QuestionsconcerningcertainFacultiesclaimedforMan",JournalofSpeculativePhilosophyv.
2,n.2,pp.103(https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1PA103)14.Onthoughtin
signs,seep.112.ReprintedCP5.21363(onthoughtinsigns,see253),W2:193211,EP2:1127.Arisbe
Eprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/question/quframe.htm).
119.Seerhetoricdefinitions(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/rhetoricspec.html)atCDPT.
120.Peirce(1902),TheCarnegieInstituteApplication,Memoir10,MSL75.3612,ArisbeEprint
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v104.htm#m10).
121.Peirce(1868),"SomeConsequencesofFourIncapacities",JournalofSpeculativePhilosophyv.2,n.3,pp.140
29/34
11/03/2016
(https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1PA140)57.ReprintedCP5.264317,W2:211
42,EP1:2855.ArisbeEprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/conseq/cnframe.htm).
122.Peirce,"GroundsofValidityoftheLawsofLogic:FurtherConsequencesofFourIncapacities",Journalof
SpeculativePhilosophyv.II,n.4,pp.193(https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1
PA193)208.ReprintedCP5.318357,W2:242272(PEPEprint
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v2/w2/w2_23/v2_23.htm)),EP1:5682.
123.Peirce(1905),"WhatPragmatismIs",TheMonist,v.XV,n.2,pp.16181,see167
(https://books.google.com/books?id=j6oLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA167).ReprintedCP5.41137,see416.Arisbe
Eprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/whatis/whatpragis.htm).
124.Peirce1907,CP5.484.Reprinted,EP2:411in"Pragmatism"(398433).
125.See"Quasimind(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/quasimind.html)"inCDPT.
126.Peirce(1867),"UponLogicalComprehensionandExtension"(CP2.391426),(W2:7086
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v2/w2/w2_06/v2_06.htm)).
127.Seepp.4049in"Pragmatism"inEP2.TenquotesoncollateralexperiencefromPeirceprovidedbyJoseph
Ransdellcanbeviewedhere(http://lyris.ttu.edu/read/messages?id=57101)atpeircel'sLyrisarchive.Note:
Ransdell'squotesfromCP8.1789arealsoinEP2:4934,whichgivestheirdateas1909andhisquotefrom
CP8.183isalsoinEP2:4956,whichgivesitsdateas1909.
128.Peirce,lettertoWilliamJames,dated1909,seeEP2:492.
129.See"76definitionsofthesignbyC.S.Peirce
(http://perso.numericable.fr/robert.marty/semiotique/76defeng.htm)",collectedbyRobertMarty(U.of
Perpignan,France).
130.Peirce,ALettertoLadyWelby(1908),SemioticandSignifics,pp.801:
IdefineaSignasanythingwhichissodeterminedbysomethingelse,calleditsObject,andso
determinesaneffectuponaperson,whicheffectIcallitsInterpretant,thatthelatteristhereby
mediatelydeterminedbytheformer.Myinsertionof"uponaperson"isasoptoCerberus,
becauseIdespairofmakingmyownbroaderconceptionunderstood.
131."Representamen",properlywiththe'a'longandstressed(/rprzntemn/reprzenTAYmn),wasadopted
(notcoined)byPeirceashistechnicaltermforthesignascoveredinhistheory,incaseadivergenceshould
cometolightbetweenhistheoreticalversionandthepopularsensesoftheword"sign".Heeventuallystopped
using"representamen".SeeEP2:2723andSemioticandSignificsp.193,quotesin"Representamen
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/representamen.html)"atCDPT.
132.Eco,Umberto(1984).SemioticsandthePhilosophyofLanguage.Bloomington&Indianapolis:Indiana
UniversityPress.p.15.ISBN9780253203984.
133.Peirce(1909),ALettertoWilliamJames,EP2:492502.Fictionalobject,498.Objectasuniverseofdiscourse,
492.See"DynamicalObject(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/dynamicalobject.html)"atCDPT.
134.See"ImmediateObject",etc.,atCDPT(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html).
135.Peirce(1903MS),"NomenclatureandDivisionsofTriadicRelations,asFarasTheyAreDetermined",under
othertitlesinCollectedPapers(CP)v.2,paragraphs23372,andreprintedundertheoriginaltitleinEssential
Peirce(EP)v.2,pp.28999.AlsoseeimageofMS339(http://www.mailarchive.com/peirce
l@lyris.ttu.edu/msg00850.html)(August7,1904)suppliedtopeircelbyBernardMorand
(http://www.iutc3.unicaen.fr/~moranb/)oftheInstitutUniversitairedeTechnologie(France),Dpartement
Informatique.
136.Onthevaryingterminology,lookupinCDPT(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html).
137.PopularScienceMonthly,v.13,pp.47082,see472(https://books.google.com/books?
id=u8sWAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA472)orthebookatWikisource.CP2.61944,see623.
138.See,under"Abduction(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/abduction.html)"atCDPT,thefollowing
quotes:
Oncorrectionof"ATheoryofProbableInference",seequotesfrom"MinuteLogic",CP2.102,c.1902,
andfromtheCarnegieApplication(L75),1902,HistoricalPerspectivesonPeirce'sLogicofSciencev.
2,pp.10311032.
Onnewlogicalformforabduction,seequotefromHarvardLecturesonPragmatism,1903,CP5.188
189.
SeealsoSantaella,Lucia(1997)"TheDevelopmentofPeirce'sThreeTypesofReasoning:Abduction,
Deduction,andInduction",6thCongressoftheIASS.Eprint(http://www.pucsp.br/~lbraga/epap_peir1.htm).
139."LecturesonPragmatism",1903,CP5.171.
30/34
11/03/2016
140.ALettertoJ.H.Kehler(dated1911),TheNewElementsofMathematicsv.3,pp.2034,seein"Retroduction
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/retroduction.html)"atCDPT.
141.James,William(1897),TheWilltoBelieve,seep.124.
142.SeePragmaticism#Pragmaticism'snamefordiscussionandreferences.
143."Thattheruleofinductionwillholdgoodinthelongrunmaybededucedfromtheprinciplethatrealityisonly
theobjectofthefinalopiniontowhichsufficientinvestigationwouldlead",inPeirce(1878April),"The
ProbabilityofInduction",p.718(https://archive.org/stream/popscimonthly12yoummiss#page/728/mode/1up)
(viaInternetArchive)inPopularScienceMonthly,v.12,pp.70518.ReprintedinCP2.66993,W3:290
305,EP1:15569,elsewhere.
144.Peirce(1902),CP5.13note1.
145.SeeCP1.34Eprint(http://www.textlog.de/4220.html)(in"TheSpiritofScholasticism"),wherePeirceascribed
thesuccessofmodernsciencelesstoanovelinterestinverificationthantotheimprovementofverification.
146.SeeJosephRansdell'scommentsandhistabularlistoftitlesofPeirce'sproposedlistofmemoirsin1902forhis
Carnegieapplication,Eprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/intro/l75intro.htm)
147.Peirce(1905),"IssuesofPragmaticism",TheMonist,v.XV,n.4,pp.481(https://books.google.com/books?
id=j6oLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA481IA20)99.ReprintedCP5.43863.Alsoimportant:CP5.497525.
148.Peirce,"PhilosophyandtheConductofLife",Lecture1ofthe1898Cambridge(MA)ConferencesLectures,
CP1.61648inpartandReasoningandtheLogicofThings,10522,reprintedinEP2:2741.
149.Peirce(1908),"ANeglectedArgumentfortheRealityofGod",publishedinlargepart,HibbertJournalv.7,
90112.Reprintedwithanunpublishedpart,CP6.45285,SelectedWritingspp.35879,EP2:43450,Peirce
onSigns26078.
150.SeealsoNubiola,Jaime(2004),"IlLumeNaturale:AbductionandGod
(http://www.unav.es/users/LumeNaturale.html)",SemioticheI/2,91102.
151.Peirce(c.1906),"PAP(ProlegomenatoanApologyforPragmatism)"(MS293),TheNewElementsof
Mathematicsv.4,pp.31920,firstquoteunder"Abduction
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/abduction.html)"atCDPT.
152.Peirce(1903),"PragmatismTheLogicofAbduction",CP5.195205,especially196.Eprint
(http://www.textlog.de/7663.html).
153.Peirce,Carnegieapplication,MSL75.279280:Memoir27
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v108.htm#m27),DraftB.
154.SeeMSL75.329330,fromDraftDofMemoir27
(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/l75/ver1/l75v108.htm#m27)ofPeirce'sapplicationtothe
CarnegieInstitution:
Consequently,todiscoverissimplytoexpediteaneventthatwouldoccursoonerorlater,ifwe
hadnottroubledourselvestomakethediscovery.Consequently,theartofdiscoveryispurelya
questionofeconomics.Theeconomicsofresearchis,sofaraslogicisconcerned,theleading
doctrinewithreferencetotheartofdiscovery.Consequently,theconductofabduction,whichis
chieflyaquestionofheureticandisthefirstquestionofheuretic,istobegovernedbyeconomical
considerations.
155.Peirce,C.S.,"OntheLogicofDrawingAncientHistoryfromDocuments",EP2,see1079.OnTwenty
Questions,see109:
Thus,twentyskillfulhypotheseswillascertainwhat200,000stupidonesmightfailtodo.
156.PeircebelievedinGod.Seesection#Philosophy:metaphysics.
157.However,PeircedisagreedwithHegelianabsoluteidealism.SeeforexampleCP8.131.
158.Peirce(1868),"NominalismversusRealism",JournalofSpeculativePhilosophyv.2,n.1,pp.57
(https://books.google.com/books?id=YHkqP2JHJ_IC&pg=RA1PA57)61.Reprinted(CP6.61924),(W
2:14453(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/v2/w2/w2_14/v2_14.htm)).
159.OndevelopmentsinPeirce'srealism,see:
Peirce(1897),"TheLogicofRelatives",TheMonistv.VII,n.2pp.161217,see206
(https://books.google.com/books?id=pa0LAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA206)(viaGoogle).ReprintedCP3.456
552.
Peirce(1905),"IssuesofPragmaticism",TheMonistv.XV,n.4,pp.48199,see4956
31/34
11/03/2016
(https://books.google.com/books?id=j6oLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA495)(viaGoogle).Reprinted(CP5.438
63,see4537).
Peirce(c.1905),LettertoSignorCalderoni,CP8.20513,see208.
Lane,Robert(2007),"Peirce'sModalShift:FromSetTheorytoPragmaticism",JournaloftheHistoryof
Philosophy,v.45,n.4.
160.Peirceinhis1906"AnswerstoQuestionsconcerningmyBeliefinGod",CP6.495,Eprint
(http://users.xplornet.com/~gnox/CSPgod.htm),reprintedinpartas"TheConceptofGod"inPhilosophical
WritingsofPeirce,J.Buchler,ed.,1940,pp.3758:
Iwillalsotakethelibertyofsubstituting"reality"for"existence."Thisisperhaps
overscrupulositybutImyselfalwaysuseexistinitsstrictphilosophicalsenseof"reactwiththe
otherlikethingsintheenvironment."Ofcourse,inthatsense,itwouldbefetichismtosaythat
God"exists."Theword"reality,"onthecontrary,isusedinordinaryparlanceinitscorrect
philosophicalsense.[....]Idefinetherealasthatwhichholdsitscharactersonsuchatenurethat
itmakesnottheslightestdifferencewhatanymanormenmayhavethoughtthemtobe,orever
willhavethoughtthemtobe,hereusingthoughttoinclude,imagining,opining,andwilling(as
longasforciblemeansarenotused)buttherealthing'scharacterswillremainabsolutely
untouched.
161.Seehis"TheDoctrineofNecessityExamined"(1892)and"ReplytotheNecessitarians"(1893),tobothof
whicheditorPaulCarusresponded.
162.Peirce(1891),"TheArchitectureofTheories",TheMonistv.1,pp.161
(https://archive.org/stream/monistquart01hegeuoft#page/161/mode/1up)76,seep.170
(https://archive.org/stream/monistquart01hegeuoft#page/170/mode/1up),viaInternetArchive.Reprinted(CP
6.734)and(EP1:28597,seep.293).
163.See"tychism","tychasm","tychasticism",andtherest,atCDPT
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html).
164.Peirce(1893),"EvolutionaryLove",TheMonistv.3,pp.176200.ReprintedCP6.278317,EP1:35272.
ArisbeEprint(http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/evolove/evolove.htm)
165.Seep.115inReasoningandtheLogicofThings(Peirce's1898lectures).
Externallinks
CharlesSandersPeircebibliographyhasexternallinksthroughouttosuchmaterialsasbiographicaland
overviewarticlesonPeirceatencyclopedias,studysites,etc.individualworksbyPeirceandcollections,
bibliographies,andPeirce'sdefinitionsintheBaldwindictionary.
Otherusefulsetsoflinks:
Existentialgraphreferencesandexternallinks.
Pragmatismexternallinks.
Semioticsexternallinks.
Peircesites
Arisbe:ThePeirceGateway(http://www.cspeirce.com/),JosephRansdell,ed.Over100onlinewritingsby
Peirceasof11/24/10,withannotations.100sofonlinepapersonPeirce.Thepeirceleforum.Muchelse.
CenterforAppliedSemiotics(CAS)
(http://replay.web.archive.org/20030806032358/http://www.indiana.edu/~sign/)(19982003),Donald
Cunningham&JeanUmikerSebeok,IndianaU.
CentrodeEstudosPeirceanos(http://www.pucsp.br/pos/cos/cepe/)(CeneP)andCentroInternacionaldeEstudos
Peirceanos(http://estudospeirceanos.wordpress.com/)(CIEP),LuciaSantaellaetal.,PontificalCatholicU.of
SoPaulo(PUCSP),Brazil.InPortuguese,someEnglish.
CentroStudiPeirce(http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/peirce/),CarloSini,RossellaFabbrichesi,etal.,U.ofMilan,
Italy.InItalianandEnglish.PartofPragma(http://www.associazionepragma.com/).
CharlesS.PeirceFoundation(http://www.peircefoundation.org/).Cosponsoringthe2014PeirceInternational
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11/03/2016
CentennialCongress(100thanniversaryofPeirce'sdeath).
CharlesS.PeirceSociety(http://www.peircesociety.org/)
TransactionsoftheCharlesS.PeirceSociety(http://www.peircesociety.org/transactions.html).Quarterly
journalofPeircestudiessincespring1965.TableofContents(http://www.peircesociety.org/contents.html)of
allissues.
CharlesS.PeirceStudies(http://www.peirce.org/),BrianKariger,ed.
CharlesSandersPeirce(http://www.genealogy.ams.org/id.php?id=24099)attheMathematicsGenealogyProject
CollegiumfortheAdvancedStudyofPictureActandEmbodiment(http://translate.google.com/translate?
hl=en&sl=de&u=http://bildaktverkoerperung.de/forschungsschwerpunkte/):ThePeirceArchive.HumboldtU,
Berlin,Germany.CataloguingPeirce'sinnumerabledrawings&graphicmaterials.Moreinfo
(http://www.audsisselhoel.com/wordpress/?p=69)(Prof.AudSisselHoel).
DigitalEncyclopediaofCharlesS.Peirce(http://www.digitalpeirce.fee.unicamp.br/),JooQueiroz(nowat
UFJF(http://ufjf.academia.edu/JoaoQueiroz))&RicardoGudwin(atUnicamp
(http://www.dca.fee.unicamp.br/~gudwin/)),eds.,U.ofCampinas,Brazil,inEnglish.84authorslisted,51
papersonline&morelisted,asof1/31/09.
ExistentialGraphs(http://www.existentialgraphs.com/),JayZeman,ed.,U.ofFlorida.Has4Peircetexts.
GrupodeEstudiosPeirceanos(GEP)/PeirceStudiesGroup(http://www.unav.es/gep/indexen.html),Jaime
Nubiola,ed.,U.ofNavarra,Spain.Bigstudysite,Peirce&othersinSpanish&English,bibliography,more.
HelsinkiPeirceResearchCenter(http://www.helsinki.fi/peirce/)(HPRC),AhtiVeikkoPietarinenetal.,U.of
Helsinki,withCommens:VirtualCentreforPeirceStudies(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/),Mats
Bergman&SamiPaavola,eds.23papersby11authorsasof11/24/10.
CommensDictionaryofPeirce'sTerms(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html)(CDPT):
Peirce'sowndefinitions,oftenmanypertermacrossthedecades.
HisGlassyEssence(http://www.wyttynys.net/).AutobiographicalPeirce.KennethLaineKetner.
InstituteforStudiesinPragmaticism(http://www.pragmaticism.net/),KennethLaineKetner,ClydeHendrick,et
al.,TexasTechU.Peirce'slifeandworks.
InternationalResearchGrouponAbductiveInference(http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.rz.uni
frankfurt.de/~wirth),UweWirthetal.,eds.,GoetheU.,Frankfurt,Germany.Usesframes.Clickonlinkat
bottomofitshomepageforEnglish.MovedtoU.ofGieen,Germany,homepage
(http://www.abduktionsforschung.de/)notinEnglishbutseeArtikelsectionthere.
L'I.R.S.C.E.(http://replay.web.archive.org/20070717060233/http://webup.univ
perp.fr/lsh/rch/semiotics/irsce/irsce.html)(19742003)InstitutdeRechercheenSmiotique,Communicationet
ducation,GrardDeledalle,JolleRthor,U.ofPerpignan,France.
MinuteSemeiotic(http://www.minutesemeiotic.org/?lang=en),ViniciusRomanini,U.ofSoPaulo,Brazil.
English,Portuguese.
Peirce(http://www.signosemio.com/peirce/a_peirce.asp)atSigno:TheoreticalSemioticsontheWeb,Louis
Hbert,director,supportedbyU.ofQubec.Theory,application,exercisesofPeirce'sSemiotics
(http://www.signosemio.com/peirce/a_semiotique.asp)andEsthetics
(http://www.signosemio.com/peirce/a_esthetique.asp).English,French.
PeirceEditionProject(PEP)(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/),IndianaU.PurdueU.Indianapolis(IUPUI).
AndrDeTienne,NathanHouser,etal.EditorsoftheWritingsofCharlesS.Peirce(W)andTheEssential
Peirce(EP)v.2.ManystudyaidssuchastheRobinCatalogofPeirce'smanuscripts&lettersand:
BiographicalintroductionstoEP12(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep.htm)andW16
(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/writings/crit.htm)&8(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/houserintro.html)
MostofW2(http://www.iupui.edu/%7Epeirce/writings/v2/toc2.htm)readableonline.
PEP'sbranchatUniversitduQubecMontral(UQM)(http://www.pep.uqam.ca/).WorkingonW7:
Peirce'sworkontheCenturyDictionary.Definitionoftheweek
(http://www.pep.uqam.ca/definitionoftheweek.pep).
Peirce'sExistentialGraphs(http://www.drdau.net/eg_readings.shtml),FrithjofDau,Germany
Peirce'sTheoryofSemiosis:TowardaLogicofMutualAffection
(http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/epc/srb/cyber/espout.html),JosephEsposito.Freeonlinecourse.
PragmatismCybrary(http://www.pragmatism.org/),DavidHildebrand&JohnShook.
ResearchGrouponSemioticEpistemologyandMathematicsEducation
(http://replay.web.archive.org/19970519142208/http://www.unibielefeld.de/idm/eng/arbeit/agsem.htm)(late
1990s),InstitutfrDidaktikderMathematik(MichaelHoffman,MichaelOtte,UniversittBielefeld,Germany).
SeePeirceProjectNewsletterv.3,n.1,p.13(http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/news/3_1/3_1pdf/Page13.pdf).
SemioticsaccordingtoRobertMarty(http://perso.numericable.fr/robert.marty/semiotique/anglais.htm),with76
definitionsofthesignbyC.S.Peirce(http://perso.numericable.fr/robert.marty/semiotique/access.htm).
33/34
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