Bridge Hydrology

Unit-VI
Prof Nitesh P. Tantarpale
Assistant Professor
PRMCEAM, BADNERA

Contents

Estimation of flood discharge,

water way, scour depth, depth of foundation, Afflux, clearance and free
board.

Loads, forces, stresses acting on bridges.

IRC Specification and code practices

Critical combination.

Rating and Maintenance Methods and techniques of rating of existing

bridges, repairs, maintenance

Corrosion causes and prevention

Strengthning of bridge superstructure.

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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

Estimation of flood discharge

One of the essential data for the bridge design is fair assessment of the

maximum flow which could be expected to occur at the bridge site during the
design period of the bridge.

Following are the methods for determining Design

Discharge

By an empirical formula method.

By a rational method.

By the area velocity method.

By unit hydrograph method.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

Empirical Method

This is an indirect method of determining the maximum flood discharge, in

this method maximum flood discharge is determined by an empirical formula
in which the area catchment or basin is mainly considered.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

Rational Method

Indirect method: This method is applicable for

determination of flood discharge for small culverts only.

The runoff, Q = 0.028 P.F.A.Ic

Q = Discharge or runoff in m3/sec
F = Co-efficient
A = Catchment area in hectares
Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall in cm/hour
P = % coefficient of run-off

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

Waterway

The area through which water flows under a bridge structure is known as
waterway.

While fixing the waterway of a bridge, the following guiding principles must
be kept in mind to ensure safety of the bridge structures:

The increased velocity due to obstructed waterway should not exceed the
permissible velocity under the bridge.

The free board for high level bridges should not be less than 600 mm.

Sufficient clearance should be allowed according to the navigation requirements.

If Q is maximum flood discharge (design discharge) and 'V' is the permissible

velocity of under the bridge, then

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

The maximum permissible velocity of flow (V) depends upon the nature of the
river bed as in Table

The velocity of flow of stream or river water should not be more than the
values mentioned in this table.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Afflux

The phenomenon of heading up of water on the upstream site of the bridge is called afflux

When a bridge is constructed, its components like abutments and piers, cause the reduction of the
natural waterway.

Due to this reduction in natural waterway, the velocity under bridge increases so as to carry the
maximum flood discharge.

This increased velocity gives to a sudden heading up of water on the upstream side of the stream or
river. The phenomenon of this heading up water is known as afflux.

Thus, greater the afflux greater will be velocity under down stream side of the bridge and greater will
be the depth of scour consequently greater will be the depth of foundation required.

Hence, determination afflux is necessary for the safe design of the bridge.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Determination of Afflux

Afflux is determined by using any one of the following two equations:

Marriman's equations.

Molesworth's equations

Marriman's equation: This equation is generally used for determining the

values of afflux. According to this equations

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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

Molesworth's equations: According to this equation

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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CLEARANCES

To avoid any possibility of traffic striking any structural part clearance are
specified.

The horizontal clearance should be the clear width and the vertical clearance
the clear height, available for the passage of vehicular traffic as shown in the
clearance diagram

For a bridge constructed on a horizontal curve with superelevated road surface,

the horizontal clearance should be increased on the side of the inner kerb by an

amount equal to 5 m multiplied by the superelevation.

The minimum vertical clearance should be measured from the superelevated

level of the roadway.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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FREEBOARD

Free board is the vertical distance between the designed high flood level,
allowing for afflux, if any, and the level of the crown of the bridge at its
lowest point.

It is essential to provide the free board in all types of bridges for the
following reasons:

Free board is required to allow floating debris, fallen tree trunks and approach

waves to pass under the bridge.

Free board is also required to allow for the afflux during the maximum flood
discharge due to contraction of waterway.

Free board is required to allow the vessels to cross the bridge in case of navigable
rivers. The value of the free-board depends upon the type of the bridge.
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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

S. No.

Type of bridge

Free board

High level bridges

600 mm

Arch bridges

300 mm

Girder bridges

600 to 900 mm

Navigational streams

2400 to 3000 mm

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Determination of Length of Bridge:

After determining waterway and economic span the length of bridge can be
determined by following relation
L = Nl + (N - 1) b

where

L = Length of the bridge

N = Number of economic span

l = Length of each economic span

b = Thickness of each pier

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Scour Depth

The process of cutting or deeping of river bed due to action of water is called
scouring.

When the velocity of stream water exceeds the limiting velocity it causes
vertical cutting of the river bed, which is known as scouring.

It differs from erosions which causes horizontal widening of the river bed.

Determination of Normal Scour Depth:

The normal scour depth is the depth of water in the middle of stream when it
is carrying the maximum flood discharge.

Scour depth of alluvial streams:

Case -1: When linear waterway of the bridge is equal to the regime width: In
this case, the normal scour depth is equal to the regime depth given by the
following Lacey regime equation.

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Case -2: When linear waterway of the bridge is less than regime width

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Determination of Maximum Scour Depth :

Maximum scour depth is the depth of water at the round obstruction to the
flow of water when the river carries maximum flood discharge.

It usually occurs at bends, pier noses and on the under stream noses of guide
banks provided for a bridge.

Therefore, for the safety of the bridge foundations it becomes essential to

estimate the maximum scour depth correctly and design the bridge
foundations accordingly.

As per recommendations, the maximum depth of scour may be taken as

follows:

In case of a bridge on a straight reach of the stream having single span, the
maximum depth of scour should be taken as 1.5 times the normal scour depth of
water.

For bridge sites on curves or where cross current exists or when the bridge is a
multi-span structure, the maximum depth of scour should be taken as 2 times the
normal depth of scour.

In case of bridge causing construction, the maximum scour depth should not be less
than the value obtained by the following equations
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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Prevention of Scouring

The site of the bridge should have stream line flow.

At the site of bridge, the river bed soil should be such as to resist the
maximum velocity of water.

Sufficient waterway should be provided under the bridge so that velocity of

water may not exceed the limit after which scouring occurs.

The shape of the piers should be designed in such a way that it may not cause
eddies and currents in water.

The river bed on upstream side, downstream side and the portion under the
bridge should be properly pitched with beams and long stones.

In the case of sandy beds, sheet piling may be done on under stream and
downstream sides of the bridge to prevent scouring.

Piles may also be driven in river bed, where scouring is likely to occur.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Types of Loading in Road Bridges

For bridges and culverts, the following loads, forces and stresses should be
considered where applicable. The loads and forces to be considered in
designing road bridge and culverts are listed below:
1.

Dead loads

2.

Live loads

3.

Impact effect of live loads

4.

Wind loads

5.

Lateral loads

6.

Longitudinal forces

7.

Centrifugal forces due to curvature

8.

Earthquake forces Additional loads for substructure design:

9.

Forces due to water structures/currents

10.

Earth pressure

11.

Buoyancy

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In addition to the stress caused by the above loads and

forces the following stresses should be taken into account:

Temperature stresses

Deformation stresses

Secondary stresses

Erection stresses

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Dead loads: The dead load carried by a bridge member consists of its own
weight and the portions of the weight of the superstructure and any fixed
loads supported by the member.

Live loads: Live loads are those caused by vehicles which pass over the bridge
and are transient in nature. These loads cannot be estimated precisely, and
the designer has very little control over them once the bridge is opened to
traffic. Classifications of load are:

IRC class AA loading,

IRC class A loading,

IRC class B loading.

Impact effect of live load: The impact is caused due to fact that moving
heavy vehicles over rough or uneven surfaces. The provision for impact effect
should be made by an increment of live load. The magnitude of the impact
depends not only on the span but also on the type of smoothness of the road
surface, the speed of the vehicle and the type of its tyres.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Wind load: Bridge structures are designed for the lateral wind forces, forces
should be considered to act horizontally and in such a direction that the
resultant stresses in the member under consideration are the maximum. The
wind force on a structure should be assumed as a horizontal force of the
intensity specified below and acting on an area calculated.

Lateral loading/loads:

(a) Force on railings and parapets : the railings and parapet should be
designed to resist a lateral force and vertical force each of 150 kg/m applied
simultaneously at the top of the railing or parapet.

(b) Force on kerbs: Kerbs should be designed for lateral loading of 750 kg/m
run of kerb applied horizontally at top of the kerb.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Longitudinal forces: In all road bridges, provision should be made for

Iongidudinal forces arising from any one or more of the following causes:

Tractive efforts caused through acceleration of the driving wheels.

Braking effects resulting from the application of the brakes to braked wheels.
Braking force is invariably greater than tractive efforts.

Frictional resistance offered to the movement of free bearing due to change in

temperature or any other cause.

Centrifugal force: When a road bridge is situated on a curve, all portions of

the structure affected by centrifugal action of moving vehicles are designed
to carry safely the stress induced by this action in addition to all other
stresses to which they may be subjected to:

The centrifugal force should be determined from the following formula:

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Seismic force: If a bridge is situated in a region subjected to earthquakes

allowance should be made in the design for the seismic force.

As per IS 1893-1970 the seismic force to be used in the design of a structure is

dependent on may variable factors and therefore it is extremely difficult to
determine its correct value.

To give broad indications of reasonable values of seismic coefficient for

different regions of Indian Standards (IS) has divided the country into five
zones designated as zones I to V.

Force due to water currents: Any part of a bridge which may be submerged
in running water should be designed to sustain safely the horizontal pressure
due to the force of the current.

In case of piers parallel to the direction of water current, the intensity of

pressure should be calculated from the following formula

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Earth pressure: I.R.C. recommends coulomb's theory of earth pressure with

the modification that the height of the centre of pressure above bottom as
0.42 of the height of the height of wall above the base instead of 0.33 of that
height.

Temperature stresses: All structures tend to change in length with variations

in temperature. Temperature stresses are likely to develop if this change in
length is fully or partly restrained by fixing the ends.

IRC has recommended the following range of temperature in the design of

bridge structures.

(a) Steel structures: Moderate climate from minus 18C to 50C.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Maintenance of Bridges

The maintenance details vary with the materials of construction.

Steel must be painted at regular intervals.

R.C.C. works must be inspected for the cracks and if any cracks are found,
they should be sealed as soon as possible.

Masonry works must be kept well-plastered or pointed.

The regular inspection of bridges is a matter of great importance, since the

early detection of trouble and the prompt attention may well prevent costly
repairs which may be needed, if defects are allowed to develop too far.

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The matters required regular attention are as follows :

The proper functioning of weep holes and other drainage devices.

The free action of expansion joints and drainage.

Examination of bridge superstructures and sub-structures.

Clearing of obstructions in channels tending to cause scour.

Detection and tracing of water leakage through decks.

Maintenance of water-proofing coats.

Signs of movement of foundations, especially on clay, as evidenced by

cracks in the structure or the road surface over it.

The careful examination of steel structures for corrosion, especially in

parts where moist or polluted air may be partially trapped.

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Strengthening of Bridges

In the past, live load carried by a bridge was very light as compared to the
dead load. There has been a tremendous increase in the carrying capacities of
our transport vehicles. The road system however, has not sufficiently
developed to cater for such increase in payloads. There is a terrible need for
improvement of the old and out of service bridges on our roads.

Strengthening of Bridge Substructure:

The substructure is strengthened in following different ways:

Masonry substructure: In case of old masonry substructure showing signs of

disintegrations, all the loose material all around the structure is removed to
find out the defect. If it is found that masonry has large cavities, then they
should be filled with cement concrete. Later a wire netting should be
stretched around the entire masonry and fastened there to with spikes.
Finally a coat of cement mortar is forced by a gun.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Strengthening of bridge pier:

In order to strengthen an old pier a cofferdam is constructed around the

piers. A thick concrete casing is provided all around the pier after pumping
out the water.

In case of foundation showing unequal settlements it is necessary to underpin

the base of pier in deep and running water. This is done by sinking a
pneumatic caisson near the pier.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Strengthening of Bridge Superstructure

Method of strengthening a bridge superstructure depends upon the type of

the bridge.

The following methods for different types of bridge are in vogue:

To fill large voids in honey combed concrete by cement grouting so that quality of
concrete is improved and cover to reinforcement is obtained.

Sealing of cracks and voids by epoxy grouting.

To impact extra shear strength to girders when shear cracks appear on the girder,
by providing shear plates.

Providing I-beams on sides.

Grouting: High pressure grouts are not useful for strengthening of R.C.C.
bridges. Therefore grouting should be done by hand operated pump with low
pressure operations for cracks more than 0.25 mm in any bad concrete, we
may employ solid suspension grout such as cement water or cement sand
water with water cement ratio 0.47 to 0.52. For finer cracks, we may employ
chemical grout as epoxy grout.

For thin cracks and pressure, epoxy should be used under pressure.
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PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

I-Beams: R.C.C. beam and slab bridge - In this type, the beams are
strengthened by providing steel I-beam on each side of the existing beams. In
case of longer spans the load from the existing beams are directly taken away
by steel cross girders supported on steel built-up girders.

If an existing bridge in sound condition is proposed to be widened by adding

additional beams. It is preferable to do the entire widening on one side, from
considerations of lateral stability provided the geometries of the road
alignments permits it.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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Masonry Arch Bridges: They are usually strengthened by first removing the
filling above the arch and then casting R.C.C. arch slab on the top of the
roughened extrudes, the slab is securely keyed into the abutments.

When the arch is too weak to hear loud more than its own weight, then a new
R.C.C. arch must be built several centimeters above existing extrudes with
the help of removable shuttering.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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(d) Continuous Bridge: They are strengthened by methods similar to that of

single span care should be taken that when a span is being strengthened the
adjacent span is not weakened.

(e) Steel Bridge: They are strengthened by providing extra steel plates or
angles or concrete encasements.
(f) Suspension Bridge: They are usually strengthened by providing additional

cables with fasteners.

PROF NITESH TANTARPALE, PRMCEAM BADNERA

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