IMPORTANT TOPICS OF CHEMISTRY

In chemistry, heterolysis or heterolytic fission (heteros, "different," , lysis, "loosening") involves cleavage of
a chemical bond in a process where both of the electrons involved in the original bond remain with only one of the
fragment species.[1] During heterolytic bond cleavage in a neutral molecule, a cation and an anionwill be generated.
Typically, the more electronegative fragment will retain the pair of electrons.

The energy involved in this process is called heterolytic bond dissociation energy. Bond cleavage is also possible by a
process called homolysis. In the gas-phase, heterolysis of a neutral molecule will require additional energy to separate
the ion contact pair.

n chemistry, homolysis (from Greek , homoios, "equal," and , lusis, "loosening") or homolytic
fission is chemical bond dissociation of a molecule by a process where each of the fragments retains one of the
originally-bonded electrons. During homolytic fission of a neutral molecule with an even number of electrons,
two free radicals will be generated.[1] That is, the two electrons involved in the original bond are distributed between
the two fragment species.

Such reactions can be induced by irradiation in the UV region, diffused sunlight, or peroxide. High temperatures in the
absence of oxygen (pyrolysis) can also induce homolytic elimination of carbon compounds.[2]
The energy involved in this process is called bond dissociation energy.
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures in the absence
of oxygen (or any halogen). It involves the simultaneous change of chemical composition and physical phase, and is
irreversible. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyro "fire" and lysis "separating".
Physical properties of covalent compounds (polar and non-polar)[edit]
Physical properties

Covalent compounds

States (at room temperature)

Solid, liquid, gas

Electrical conductivity

Usually none

Boiling point and Melting point

Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds

Solubility in water

Varies, but usually lower than ionic compounds

Thermal conductivity

Usually low

Polarity of covalent bonds[edit]

Covalent bonds are affected by the electronegativity of the connected atoms. Two atoms with equal electronegativity
will make nonpolar covalent bonds such as HH. An unequal relationship creates a polar covalent bond such as with
HCl.
Subdivision of covalent bonds[edit]
There are three types of covalent substances: individual molecules, molecular structures,
and macromolecular structures. Individual molecules have strong bonds that hold the atoms together, but there are
negligible forces of attraction between molecules. Such covalent substances are usually gases, for example, HCl, SO2,
CO2, and CH4. In molecular structures, there are weak forces of attraction. Such covalent substances are low-boilingtemperature liquids (such as ethanol), and low-melting-temperature solids (such as iodineand solid CO2).
Macromolecular structures have large numbers of atoms linked in chains or sheets (such as graphite), or in 3dimensional structures (such as diamond andquartz). These substances have high melting and boiling points, are
frequently brittle, and tend to have high electrical resistivity. Elements that have high electronegativity, and the ability
to form three or four electron pair bonds, often form such large macromolecular structures.[9]

A dipolar bond,[1] more commonly known as a dative covalent bond[2] or coordinate bond[3] is a kind of 2-center, 2electron covalent bond in which the two electrons derive from the same atom.

pOH

Relation between p[OH] and p[H] (red = acid region, blue = basic region)
pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions, OH, or alkalinity. pOH values are
derived from pH measurements. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is related to the concentration of
hydrogen ions by

where KW is the self-ionization constant of water. Taking logarithms

So, at room temperature pOH 14 pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances,
such as in measurements of soil alkalinity.

Types of intramolecular force[edit]

An intramolecular force is any force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound.[1] They
contain all types of chemical bond. They are stronger than intermolecular, which are present between atoms or
molecules that are not actually bonded.
There are several types of intramolecular forces, distinguished by the types of constituent atoms and the behavior
of electrons:

Hydrogen bond, form between electropositive hydrogen atoms and electron lone pairs and commonly are a
factor in determining tertiary structures of biomolecules and other organic macromolecules in organic or aqueous
solution. In a classic example the specificity of DNA hybridization is dictated by the pattern of hydrogen bonds
between complementary anti-parallel strands.

Hydrophobic interactions, form between non-polar organic atom combinations and for example drive protein
folding pathways in aqueous environments as hydrophobic groups become buried and thereby influence tertiary
structures of e.g. proteins.

Ionic, which generally form between a metal and nonmetal, such as sodium and chlorine in NaCl. Electrons in
an ionic bond tend to mostly be found around one of the two constituent atoms due to the

large electronegativity difference between the two atoms; this is often described as one atom giving electrons
to the other. In the case of NaCl, sodium would give an electron to chlorine.

Covalent, which generally form between two nonmetals. Examples include nitrogen dioxide. Electrons in a
covalent bond are essentially shared between the constituent atoms. There are several types of covalent bond:
in polar covalent bonds, electrons are more likely to be found around one of the two atoms, whereas in
nonpolar covalent bonds, electrons are evenly shared. Diatomic molecules are pure covalent. The polarity of a
covalent bond is determined by the electronegativities of each atom, and a polar covalent bond usually creates
a dipole moment.

Metallic, which generally forms within a pure metal or metal alloy. Metallic electrons are
generally delocalized; the result is a large number of free electrons around positive nuclei, sometimes called an
electron sea.

A conjugate acid, within the BrnstedLowry theory, is a species formed by the reception of a proton (H+), by
a base - in other words, the base with a hydrogen ion added to it - while a conjugate base is formed by the removal of
a proton from an acid: the conjugate base of an acid is that acid with a hydrogen ion removed.[1]
Visually, this can be represented as:
A conjugate acid of the base Base + H+
A conjugate base of the acid Acid H+
The Brnsted-Lowry model is based on the idea that acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors;
the conjugate base or conjugate acid is merely what is left after an acid has lost a proton or a base has gained a
proton, respectively.
Acid-base reactions[edit]
In an acid-base reaction, an acid plus a base reacts to form a conjugate base plus a conjugate acid:
acid + base

conjugate base + conjugate acid

The conjugate acid of a base is formed when the base gains a proton. Refer to the following equation:
NH3(g) + H2O(l)

NH+4(aq) + OH(aq)

We say that ammonium (NH+4) is the conjugate acid to the base ammonia (NH3), because NH3 gained a
hydrogen ion to form NH+4, the conjugate acid. The conjugate base of an acid is formed when the acid
donates a proton. In the equation, we say that hydroxide (OH) is the conjugate base to theacid water (H2O),
because H2O donates a hydrogen ion to form OH, the conjugate base.
Strength of conjugates[edit]
The stronger the acid or base, the weaker the conjugate. The weaker the acid or base, the stronger the
conjugate. However, a weak acid or base will not necessarily have a strong conjugate base or acid; there are a

number of pairs of weak conjugates. For example, acetic acid (CH3COOH) and the acetate ion (CH3COO-) are
both weak.
This principle is discussed in detail in the article on acid-base reaction theories. The position of the
equilibrium is measured as an acid dissociation constant (Ka)
Identifying conjugate acid-base pairs[edit]

Example of a Bronsted-Lowry Reaction

The acid and conjugate base as well as the base and conjugate acid are
conjugate pairs. When finding a conjugate acid or base, it is important
to

look at the reactants. The reactants are the acids and bases, and the
acid corresponds to the conjugate base on the product side of
the chemical equation. This goes for the base too; the base corresponds

to the conjugate acid on the product side of the equation.

To identify the conjugate acid, look for the pair of compounds that are related. The acid-base reaction can be
viewed in a before and after sense. The before is the reactant side of the equation, the after is the product side
of the equation. The conjugate acid in the after side of an equation gains a hydrogen ion, so in the before side
of the equation the compound that has one less hydrogen ion of the conjugate acid is the base. The conjugate
base in the after side of the equation lost a hydrogen ion, so in the before side of the equation the compound
that has one more hydrogen ion of the conjugate base is the acid.
Consider the following acid-base reaction:
HNO3 + H2O H3O++ NO3
Nitric acid (HNO
3) is an acid because it donates a proton to water and its conjugate base is nitrate (NO
3). An easy way to identify the conjugate base is that it differs from the acid by one proton. Water (H
2O) is a base because it accepts a proton from HNO3 and its conjugate acid is hydronium (H3O+). Again to
identify the conjugate acid (or any conjugate pair) is that it differs from the base by one proton.

Buffer solution
A buffer (more precisely, pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer) is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak
acid and its conjugate, or vice versa. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to

it and thus it is used to prevent changes in the pH of a solution. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at
a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. Many life forms thrive only in a relatively small pH
range so they utilize a buffer solution to maintain a constant pH. One example of a buffer solution found in nature
is blood.

pH
In chemistry, pH (/pi et/ or /pi het/) is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions with a
pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure water has a pH
very close to 7.
Electropositivity[edit]

Electro positivity is a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons, and therefore form positive ions;
thus, it is opposed to electronegativity. Mainly, this is an attribute ofmetals, meaning that, in general, the greater
the metallic character of an element the greater the electropositivity. Therefore the alkali metals are most
electropositive of all. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell and, as this is relatively far
from the nucleus of the atom, it is easily lost; in other words, these metals have low ionization energies.[24]
While electronegativity increases along periods in the periodic table, and decreases down groups,
electropositivity decreases along periods (from left to right) and increases down groups.

Electronegativity
Electronegativity, symbol , is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional
group to attractelectrons (or electron density) towards itself.[1] An atom's electronegativity is affected by both
its atomic number and the distance at which its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher
the associated electronegativity number, the more an element or compound attracts electrons towards it.

Fajans' rules
In inorganic chemistry, Fajans' Rules, formulated by Kazimierz Fajans in 1923,[1][2][3] are used to predict whether
a chemical bond will be covalent or ionic, and depend on the charge on the cation and the relative sizes of the
cation and anion. They can be summarized in the following table:

Ionic

Covalent

Low positive High positive

charge
charge

Large cation Small cation

Small anion Large anion

Electron affinity
In chemistry and atomic physics, the electron affinity of an atom or molecule is defined as the amount of
energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule in the gaseous state to form a
negative ion.[1]
X + e X + energy

Screening effect
It is described as a decrease in shielding effort between the nucleus and last orbital due to electrons present
between them i.e., greater the screening effect, easier the removal of electron. In solids, especially in metals
and semiconductors, the electrostatic screening or screening effect reduces the electrostatic
field and Coulomb potential of an ion inside the solid.