Proceedings of International and INCCOM-6 Conference

Future Trends in Composite Materials and Processing

December 12-14, 2007
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

ADVANCES IN NANOMATERIALS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

Rajesh Purohit
Department of Manufacturing Process and Automation Engineering,
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology, Sector-3, Dwarka, New Delhi.
Abstract
The term "nanotechnology" has evolved over the years via the concept "anything smaller than micro
technology," such as nano powders, and other things that are nanoscale in size, but not referring to
mechanisms that have been purposefully built from nanoscale components. This evolved version of the
term is called "nanoscale bulk technology," while the original meaning is now more precisely termed
as "molecular nanotechnology" (MNT), or "nanoscale engineering," or "molecular mechanics," or
"molecular machine systems," or "molecular manufacturing." Recently, the Foresight Institute has
suggested an alternate term to represent the original meaning of nanotechnology: Zettatechnology.
In the future, Nanotechnology will let us snap together the fundamental building blocks of nature easily,
inexpensively and in most of the ways permitted by the laws of physics. This will be essential if we are
to continue the revolution in computer hardware beyond about the next decade, and will also let us
fabricate an entire new generation of products that are cleaner, stronger, lighter, and more precise.
In a nutshell, by taking advantage of quantum-level properties, molecular nanotechnology allows for
unprecedented control of the material world, at the nanoscale, providing the means by which systems
and materials can be built with exact specifications and characteristics. MNT represents the state of
the art in advances in biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, computer science and mathematics.
The major research objectives in MNT are the design, modeling, and fabrication of molecular
machines and molecular devices. The emergence of MNT - both infant and mature - has numerous
social, legal, cultural, ethical, religious, philosophical and political implications. At the most basic
social level, MNT is going to be responsible for massive changes in the way we live, the way we
interact with one another and our environment, and the things we are capable of doing. It's worth
pointing out that the word "nanotechnology" has become very popular and is used to describe many
types of research where the characteristic dimensions are less than about 1,000 nanometers. For
example, continued improvements in lithography have resulted in line widths that are less than one
micron.
The development principles of nanotechnology and specific design guidelines have been discussed. The
impact of nanotechnology on society has been described. The research in the area of nanocomposites,
nanocrystals, nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanoclays, nanotubes, nanofilter etc. have been reported. The selfreplication objective of nanotechnology has been analyzed.
Keywords: Nanomaterials, Molecular Nanotechnology, Nano-factories, Nanocomposites, Self-replication
systems.

1. Introduction
Manufactured products are made from atoms. The properties of those products depend on how those atoms
are arranged. If we rearrange the atoms in coal we can make diamond. If we rearrange the atoms in sand (and
add a few other trace elements) we can make computer chips. If we rearrange the atoms in dirt, water and air
we can make potatoes. Todays manufacturing methods are very crude at the molecular level. Casting,
grinding, milling and even lithography move atoms at macroscopic scale. In the future, Nanotechnology will
let us snap together the fundamental building blocks of nature easily, inexpensively and in most of the ways
permitted by the laws of physics. This will be essential if we are to continue the revolution in computer
hardware beyond about the next decade, and will also let us fabricate an entire new generation of products
that are cleaner, stronger, lighter, and more precise.
It's worth pointing out that the word "nanotechnology" has become very popular and is used to describe
many types of research where the characteristic dimensions are less than about 1,000 nanometers. For
example, continued improvements in lithography have resulted in line widths that are less than one micron:
this work is often called "nanotechnology." Sub-micron lithography is clearly very valuable but it is equally
clear that conventional lithography will not let us build semiconductor devices in which individual dopant
atoms are located at specific lattice sites. Many of the exponentially improving trends in computer hardware
capability have remained steady for the last 50 years. There is fairly widespread belief that these trends are
likely to continue for at least another several years, but then conventional lithography starts to reach its limits.
Nanotechnology and the tendency to miniaturization in the manufacturing industry are familiar terms for
the most people in microelectronics and computer industry. Nevertheless, nanotechnology has already been
introduced into other areas like robotics, biology and medicine, fiber optic systems, aerospace industry,
advanced materials technology, chemical engineering and precision manufacturing [1]. Material science and
engineering has experienced tremendous growth in the area of nanocomposites. The consolidation of these
systems from loose particles to bulk free form entities has always been a challenge. Viswanathan et. al. have
reviewed the various methods of manufacturing nanocomposites with improved properties and retained
nanostructures [2].
The nanotechnology has led to an unprecedented research and development effort in both public and
private sectors. World wide and increasing number of laboratories, fabrication and manufacturing plants are
developing or applying nanometer-sized materials for electronics, medical, health care and other industrial
applications [3]. Unconventional machining processes at micro and nano level like nano-EDM have been
developed for watch industry, micro-optics, medicine, medical implants and even for chemical industry [4]. If
we are to continue these trends we will have to develop a new manufacturing technology, which will let us
inexpensively build computer systems with mole quantities of logic elements that are molecular in both size
and precision and are interconnected in complex and highly idiosyncratic patterns. Nanotechnology will
enable us to do this.
When it is unclear from the context whether we are using the specific definition of "nanotechnology" or the
broader and more inclusive definition (often used in the literature), we use the terms "molecular
nanotechnology" or "molecular manufacturing" [6]. The MNT should allow to:

Get essentially every atom in the right place.

Make almost any structure consistent with the laws of physics that we can specify in molecular detail.

Have manufacturing costs not greatly exceeding the cost of the required raw materials and energy.

There are two more concepts commonly associated with nanotechnology:

Positional assembly

Massive parallelism

Any method that simultaneously achieved the first three objectives is highly desirable. However, this seems
difficult without using some form of positional assembly (to get the right molecular parts in the right places)
and some form of massive parallelism (to keep the costs down).
The need for positional assembly implies an interest in molecular robotics, e.g., robotic devices that are
molecular both in their size and precision. These molecular scale positional devices are likely to resemble
very small versions of their everyday macroscopic counterparts. Positional assembly is frequently used in
normal macroscopic manufacturing today, and provides tremendous advantages. The idea of manipulating
and positioning individual atoms and molecules is still new and will takes some time in getting used to [6].
The term "nanotechnology" has evolved over the years via terminology drift to mean "anything smaller than
micro technology," such as nano powders, and other things that are nanoscale in size, but not referring
to mechanisms that have been purposefully built from nanoscale components. This evolved version of
the term is more properly labeled "nanoscale bulk technology," while the original meaning is now more
properly labeled "molecular nanotechnology" (MNT), or "nanoscale engineering," or "molecular
mechanics," or "molecular machine systems," or "molecular manufacturing." Recently, the Foresight
Institute has suggested an alternate term to represent the original meaning of nanotechnology:
Zettatechnology. At the most basic technical level, MNT is building, with intent and design, and
molecule by molecule, these two things:
1) Incredibly advanced and extremely capable nano-scale and micro-scale machines and computers, and
2) Ordinary size objects, using other incredibly small machines called assemblers or fabricators (found inside
nano-factories).
In a nutshell, by taking advantage of quantum-level properties, MNT allows for unprecedented control of
the material world, at the nanoscale, providing the means by which systems and materials can be built with
exacting specifications and characteristics. MNT represents the state of the art in advances in biology,
chemistry, physics, engineering, computer science and mathematics. The major research objectives in MNT
are the design, modeling, and fabrication of molecular machines and molecular devices. The emergence of
MNT -both infant and mature- has numerous social, legal, cultural, ethical, religious, philosophical and
political implications.
At the most basic social level, MNT is going to be responsible for massive changes in the way we live, the
way we interact with one another and our environment, and the things we are capable of doing. A key
ingredient in understanding nanotechnology is realizing precisely what it is and what it isn't. We are talking
about research and development in the length scale of .1 nanometers to 100 nanometers to create unique
structures, devices, and systems. In many instances the actual structures, devices, and systems will be much
larger, but they will be classified as nanotechnology due to the fact that they will either be created at the
nanoscale or nanotechnology will enable them to perform new and/or improved functions. Many materials,
once they are individually reduced below 100 nanometers, begin displaying a set of unique characteristics
based on quantum mechanical forces that are exhibited at the level. Due to these quantum mechanical effects,
materials may become more conducting, be able to transfer heat better, or have modified mechanical

properties. Once MNT develops to the stage where we've built the two most essential machines - called the
Universal Assembler and the Nanocomputer -everything has a near-term possibility of significant change.
1.1 Fundamental concept of Nanotechnology
Broadly speaking however, nanotechnology is the act of purposefully manipulating matter at the atomic scale,
otherwise known as the nanoscale. Coined in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi at the University of Tokyo,
nanotechnology is actually a multitude of rapidly emerging technologies, based upon the scaling down
of existing technologies to the next level of precision and miniaturization. In the future, it will likely
include the building machines and mechanisms with nanoscale dimensions, referred to as Molecular
Nanotechnology (MNT).
One aspect of nanotechnology is all about building working mechanisms using components with nanoscale
dimensions (MNT), such as super small computers (think bacteria-sized) with todays MIPS capacity, or
supercomputers the size of a sugar cube, possessing the power of a billion laptops, or a regular sized desktop
model with the power of trillions of todays PCs. The other aspect deals with scaling down existing
technologies to the nanoscale. Some of the most promising potential of nanotechnology exists due to the laws
of quantum physics. Quantum physics laws take over at this scale, enabling novel applications in optics,
electronics, magnetic storage, computing, catalysts, and other areas.
A nanometer is about the width of six bonded carbon atoms. Derived from the Greek word for midget,
nano is a metric prefix and indicates a billionth part (10 -9). One nanometer is about 40,000 times smaller
than the width of an average human hair. Another way to visualize a nanometer: Red blood cells are ~7,000
nm in diameter, and ~2000 nm in height, White blood cells are ~10,000 nm in diameter, A virus is about100
nm, A hydrogen atom is .1 nm, Nanoparticles range from 1 to 100 nm, DNA (width) is 2 nm, Bacteria range
from 1,000 to 10,000 nm.2. Scope of nanotechnology
1.2 Potential of Nanotechnology:

Nearly free consumer products

PC's billions of times faster then today

Safe and affordable space travel

Virtual end to illness, aging, death

No more pollution and automatic cleanup of existing pollution

End of famine and starvation

Superior education for every child on Earth

Reintroduction of many extinct plants and animals

1.3 The following devices and capabilities may realized:

Programmable positioning of reactive molecules with ~0.1 nm precision

Mechanosynthesis at >106operations/device second

Mechanosynthetic assembly of 1 kg objects in <104 s

Nanomechanical systems operating at ~109 Hz

Logic gates that occupy ~1026 m3 (~10 8 m3)

Logic gates that switch in ~0.1 ns and dissipate <10 21 J

Computers that perform 1016 instructions per second per watt

Cooling of cubic-centimeter, ~105 W systems at 300 K

Compact 1015 MIPS parallel computing systems

Mechanochemical power conversion at >109 W/m3

Electromechanical power conversion at >1015 W/m3

Macroscopic components with tensile strengths >51010 Pa

Production systems that can double capital stocks in <104 s

2 Development Principles of nanotechnology

1. Artificial replicators must not be capable of replication in a natural, uncontrolled environment.
2. Any replicated information should be error free.
3. MNT device designs should specifically limit proliferation and provide traceability of any replicating
systems.
4. Environmental effects of nanotechnology should be considered systematically and to limit these
consequences to intended effects. This requires significant research on environmental models, risk
management, as well as the theory, mechanisms, and experimental designs for built-in safeguard
systems.
5. Industry self-regulation should be designed whenever possible. Economic incentives could be
provided through discounts on insurance policies for MNT development organizations that certify
Guidelines compliance.
6. Distribution of molecular manufacturing development capability should be restricted, whenever
possible, to responsible agencies that agree to use the Guidelines. No such restriction need apply to
end products of the development process that satisfy the Guidelines.
3. Specific Design Guidelines
1. Any self-replicating device, which has sufficient on board information to describe its own
manufacture, should encrypt it such that any replication error will randomize its blueprint.
2. Encrypted MNT device instruction sets should be utilized to discourage irresponsible proliferation
and piracy.
3. Mutation (autonomous and otherwise) outside of sealed laboratory conditions should be discouraged.

4. Replication systems should generate audit trails.

5. MNT device designs should incorporate provisions for built-in safety mechanisms, such as: 1)
absolute dependence on a single artificial fuel source or artificial "vitamins" that don't exist in any
natural environment; 2) making devices that are dependent on broadcast transmissions for replication
or in some cases operation; 3) routing control signal paths throughout a device, so that subassemblies
do not function independently; 4) programming termination dates into devices, and 5) other
innovations in laboratory or device safety technology developed specifically to address the potential
dangers of MNT.
6. MNT developers should adopt systematic security measures to avoid unplanned distribution of their
designs and technical capabilities.
4. Developments in Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology and their Impacts on Society:
4.1 Nanocomposites
Researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory have developed a coating process to make sponge-like
silica latch onto toxic metals in water. Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports easily
captures such metals as lead and mercury, which are then recovered for reuse or contained in-place
forever. One example of a SAMMS nanocomposite (Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous
Supports) is shown in Fig.1. A hexagonally close-packed cluster of tubular pores (end view) is shown
in the foreground. A single pore, in this case coated with a mercaptopropylsiloxy monolayer, is shown
in the background. A model of one surfactant molecule is also shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. SAMMS nanocomposite (Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports) PNNL [7]

A plastic nanocomposite is being used for "step assists" in the GM Safari and Astro Vans. It is scratchresistant, lightweight, and rust-proof, and generates improvements in strength and reductions in weight, which
lead to fuel savings and increased longevity. And in 2001, Toyota started using nanocomposites in a bumper
that makes it 60% lighter and twice as resistant to denting and scratching. It is likely be used on other GM and
Toyota models soon, and in other areas of their vehicles, as well as the other auto manufactures, lowering
weight, increasing mileage, and creating longer-lasting autos. Likely to impact repair shops (fewer repairs
needed) and auto insurance companies (fewer claims). Will also likely soon be seen everywhere weight,

weatherproofing, durability, and strength are important factors. Expect NASA, the ESA, and other spacefaring organizations to take a serious look, soon, which will eventually result in lower lift costs, which will
result in more material being lifted into space [7].
4.2 Nanocrystals
Nanocrystals absorb then re-emit the light in a different color - the size of the nanocrystal (in the Angstrom
scale) determines the color as shown in Fig.2. Six different quantum dot solutions are shown in Fig. 2
excited with a long-wave UV lamp. Quantum dots are molecular-scale optical beacons. Qdot
nanocrystals behave like molecular LEDs (light emitting diodes) by lighting up biological binding
events with a broad palette of applied colors. Metal nanocrystals might be incorporated into car
bumpers, making the parts stronger, or into aluminum, making it more wear resistant. Metal
nanocrystals might be used to produce bearings that last longer than their conventional counterparts,
new types of sensors and components for computers and electronic hardware. Nanocrystals of various
metals have been shown to be 100 to 300 percent harder than the same materials in bulk form.
Because wear resistance often is dictated by the hardness of a metal, parts made from nanocrystals
might last significantly longer than conventional parts.
Nanocrystals are an ideal light harvester in photovoltaic devices. They absorb sunlight more strongly than
dye molecules or bulk semiconductor material; therefore high optical densities can be achieved while
maintaining the requirement of thin films. Perfectly crystalline CdSe nanocrystals are also an artificial
reaction center, separating the electron hole pair on a femtosecond timescale. Fluorescent nanocrystals have
several advantages over organic dye molecules as fluorescent markers in biology. They are incredibly bright
and do not photo degrade. Drug-conjugated nanocrystals attach to the protein in an extra cellular fashion,
enabling movies of protein trafficking. They also form the basis of a high-throughput fluorescence assay for
drug discovery [6].

Figure 2. Nanocrystals [7]

4.3 Nano-particles
Stain-repellent Eddie Bauer Nano-CareTM khakis, with surface fibers of 10 to 100 nanometers, uses a process
that coats each fiber of fabric with "nano-whiskers." Developed by Nano-Tex, a Burlington Industries
subsidiary. Dockers also make khakis, a dress shirt and even a tie treated with what they call "Stain

Defender", another example of the same nanoscale cloth treatment. Nanoparticles have high potential in dry
cleaners, detergent and stain-removal makers, carpet and furniture makers, window covering industries.
BASF's annual sales of aqueous polymer dispersion products amount to around $1.65 billion. All of them
contain polymer particles ranging from ten to several hundred nanometers in size. Polymer dispersions are
found in exterior paints, coatings and adhesives, or are used in the finishing of paper, textiles and leather.
Nanotechnology also has applications in the food sector. Many vitamins and their precursors, such as
carotinoids, are insoluble in water. However, when skillfully produced and formulated as nano-particles, these
substances can easily be mixed with cold water, and their bio-availability in the human body also increases.
Many lemonades and fruit juices contain these specially formulated additives, which often also provide an
attractive color. In the cosmetics sector, BASF has for several years been among the leading suppliers of UV
absorbers based on nano-particulate zinc oxide. Incorporated in sun creams, the small particles filter the highenergy radiation out of sunlight. Because of their tiny size, they remain invisible to the naked eye and so the
cream is transparent on the skin.
Sunscreens are utilizing nanoparticles that are extremely effective at absorbing light, especially in the
ultra-violet (UV) range. Due to the particle size, they spread more easily, cover better, and save money since
you use less. And they are transparent, unlike traditional screens, which are white. These sunscreens are so
successful that by 2001 they had captured 60% of the Australian sunscreen market. Makers of sunscreen may
use nanoparticles. Other product manufactures, like packaging makers, will find ways to incorporate them
into packages to reduce UV exposure and subsequent spoilage.
Argonide has created rocket propellants that burn at double the rate. They also produce copper nanoparticles that are incorporated into automotive lubricant to reduce engine wear. AngstroMedica has produced
a nano-particulate-based synthetic bone. "Human bone is made of a calcium and phosphate composite called
Hydroxyapatite. By manipulation calcium and phosphate at the molecular level, we have created a patented
material that is identical in structure and composition to natural bone. This novel synthetic bone can be used
in areas where natural bone is damaged or removed, such as in the in the treatment of fractures and soft tissue
injuries.
Tungsten-carbide-cobalt composite powder (grain size less than 15nm) was made by Nanodyne that is
used to make a sintered alloy as hard as diamond, which is in turn used to make cutting tools, drill bits, armor
plate, and jet engine parts. It has a high potential in industries that makes parts or components whose
properties must include hardness and durability.
Kodak is producing OLED color screens (made of nanostructured polymer films) for use in car stereos and
cell phones. OLEDs (organic light emitting diodes) may enable thinner, lighter, more flexible, less power
consuming displays, and other consumer products such as cameras, PDAs, laptops, televisions, and other as
yet undreamt of applications. It will impact all current makers of CRTs, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and
other display types [7].
4.4 Nano-clays and Nanocomposites
Used in packaging, like beer bottles, as a barrier, allowing for thinner material, with a subsequently lighter
weight, and greater shelf-life. Reduced weight means transportation costs decline. Changing from glass and
aluminum - think beer and soda bottles - to plastic reduces production costs. Nanoclays help to hold the
pressure and carbonation inside the bottle, increasing shelf life. It is estimated that beer in these containers
will gain an extra 60 days (from 120 to 180) of shelf life, reducing spoilage, and decreasing overall costs to

the end user. Nanocor is one company producing nanoclays and nanocomposites, for a variety of uses,
including flame retardants, barrier film (as in juice containers), and bottle barrier (as shown above). "They are
not only used to improve existing products, but also are extending their reach into areas formerly dominated
by metal, glass and wood.
4.5 Nanocomposite Coatings
Wilson Double Core tennis balls have a nanocomposite coating that keeps it bouncing twice as long as an oldstyle ball. Made by In Mat LLC, this nanocomposite is a mix of butyl rubber, intermingled with nanoclay
particles, giving the ball substantially longer shelf life. Tires are the next logical extension of this technology:
it would make them lighter (better mileage) and last longer (better cost performance).
4.6 Nanotubes
Nanoledge makes carbon nanotubes for commercial uses, of which one mundane (marketing tactic) use is in
a tennis racket, made by Babolat. The yoke of the racket bends less during ball impact, improving the player's
performance. Once companies like Nanoledge can scale-up their production from grams, to pounds, to tons,
and can do so while controlling the type of nanotube they produce, the world becomes their oyster:
everywhere strength and weight are a factor - such as in the aerospace, automobile, and airplane industries they will make a major (disruptive) impact. See French firm hopes to get PR bounce out of nanotubes in
tennis rackets. Applied Nanotech recently demonstrated a 35 cm monochrome display based on electron
emission from carbon nanotubes.
Once the process is perfected, costs will go down, and the high-end market will start being filled. Shortly
thereafter, and hand-in-hand with the predictable drop in price of CNTs, production economies-of-scale will
enable the costs to drop further still, at which time we will see nanotube-based screens in use everywhere
CRTs and view screens are used today [7].
4.7 Nanocatalysts
China's largest coal company (Shenhua Group) has licensed technology from Hydrocarbon Technologies that
will enable it to liquefy coal and turn it into gas. The process uses a gel-based nanoscale catalyst, which
improves the efficiency and reduces the cost. If the technology lives up to its promise and can economically
transform coal into diesel fuel and gasoline, coal-rich countries such as the U.S., China and Germany could
depend far less on imported oil. At the same time, acid-rain pollution would be reduced because the
liquefaction strips coal of harmful sulfur.
One of the characteristic properties of all nanoparticles has been used from the outset in the manufacture
of automotive catalytic converters: The surface area of the particles increases dramatically as the particle size
decreases and the weight remains the same. A variety of chemical reactions take place on the surface of the
catalyst, and the larger the surface area, the more active the catalyst. Nanoscale catalysts thus open the way
for numerous process innovations to make many chemical processes more efficient and resource-saving in
other words more competitive.
4.8 Nanofilters
Argonide Nanomaterials, an Orlando based manufacturer of nanoparticles and nanofiltration products, has
developed a filter that is capable of filtering the smallest of particles. The performance is due to its nano size
alumina fiber, which attracts and retains sub-micron and nanosize particles. This disposable filter retains
99.9999+% of viruses at water flow rates several hundred times greater than virus-rated ultra porous
membranes. It is useful for sterilization of biological, pharmaceutical and medical serums, protein separation,
collector/concentrator for biological warfare detectors, and several other applications. In the future, for one
application, sterilizing drinking water, this product may have an impact on so-called Third World peoples,
who only have access to dubious sources of water.

These are just a few of the many ways in which nanotechnology is working itself into our everyday lives.
At present, there are no nanobots, no molecular-scale machines, and no assemblers - these are still in the basic
research stages, and may not be seen for decades (although many would argue that a concerted effort would
bring them to fruition in just a few years) [7].
5. Self Replication and Nanotechnology
A crucial objective of nanotechnology is to make products inexpensively. While the ability to make a few
very small, very precise molecular machines very expensively would clearly be a major scientific
achievement, it would not fundamentally change how we make most products.
If we are to use positional assembly of molecular parts to efficiently build large structures (kilograms or
more) then we will have to use some form of massive parallelism. One robotic arm would take forever to
build a kilogram-sized object one molecular part at a time, so we'll need huge numbers of robotic arms
working together. One general approach is to follow nature's example and design and build self replicating
systems. A different approach is to seek our inspiration from today's factories. This latter approach leads to
various forms of convergent assembly. In convergent assembly, parts are assembled using robotic
manufacturing systems, and then those (now larger) parts are passed along to other robotic manufacturing
systems. Progressively larger parts are handled by progressively larger robotic arms, letting convergent
assembly rapidly manufacture large objects (meters in size) starting from small components (nanometers or
molecular in size). It seems most likely that some form of convergent assembly will be the dominant
approach used in future molecular manufacturing systems. Among other advantages, convergent assembly
offers a convenient way to flexibly build large components from small parts. We simply place the parts where
we want them to go. Biologically inspired systems use much more indirect methods to form large complex
structures, making them less efficient and more difficult to program. On the downside, explaining convergent
assembly takes more time. We cannot point to an existing biological example to clarify what we are talking
about, but must instead explain a new (and less familiar) manufacturing paradigm. This has slowed
understanding of convergent assembly, despite its inherent technical advantages as a manufacturing
technology.
Just as the early pioneers of flight took inspiration by watching birds soar effortlessly through the air, so
we can take inspiration from nature as we develop molecular manufacturing systems. Of course, "inspired by"
does not mean "copied from." Airplanes are very different from birds: a 747 bears only the smallest
resemblance to a duck even though both fly. The artificial self replicating systems that have been envisioned
for molecular manufacturing bear about the same degree of similarity to their biological counterparts. In the
same way, the artificial self replicating systems that are being proposed for molecular manufacturing are
inflexible and brittle. It's difficult enough to design a system able to self replicate in a controlled environment,
let alone designing one that can approach the marvelous adaptability that hundreds of millions of years of
evolution have given to living systems. Designing a system that uses a single source of energy is both much
easier to do and produces a much more efficient system: the horse pays for its ability to eat potatoes when
grass isn't available by being less efficient at both. For artificial systems where we wish to decrease design
complexity and increase efficiency, we'll design the system so that it can handle one source of energy, and
handle that one source very well.
The mechanical designs proposed for nanotechnology are more reminiscent of a factory than of a living
system. Molecular scale robotic arms able to move and position molecular parts would assemble rather rigid
molecular products using methods more familiar to a machine shop than the complex brew of chemicals
found in a cell. Although we are inspired by living systems, the actual designs are likely to owe more to
design constraints and our human objectives than to living systems. Self replication is but one of many

abilities that living systems exhibit. Copying that one ability in an artificial system will be challenge enough
without attempting to emulate their many other remarkable abilities.
Systems that function in a complex environment
If artificial self replicating systems will only function in carefully controlled artificial environments, how can
we develop applications of nanotechnology that function in complex environments, such as the inside of the
human body or a (rather messy) factory floor? While self replicating systems are the key to low cost, there is
no need (and little desire) to have such systems function in the outside world. Instead, in an artificial and
controlled environment they can manufacture simpler and more rugged systems that can then be transferred to
their final destination. Medical devices designed to operate in the human body don't have to self replicate: we
can manufacture them in a controlled environment and then inject them into the patient as needed. The
resulting medical device will be simpler, smaller, more efficient and more precisely designed for the task at
hand than a device designed to perform the same function and self replicate. This conclusion should hold
generally: optimize device design for the desired function, manufacture the device in an environment
optimized for manufacturing, then transport the device from the manufacturing environment to the
environment for which it was designed. A single device able to do everything would be harder to design and
less efficient.
6. Conclusions
Self-replication is an effective route to truly low cost manufacturing. Our intuitions about self replicating
systems, learned from the biological systems that surround us, are likely to seriously mislead us about the
properties and characteristics of artificial self replicating systems designed for manufacturing purposes.
Artificial systems able to make a wide range of non-biological products (like diamond) under programmatic
control are likely to be more brittle and less adaptable in their response to changes in their environment than
biological systems. At the same time, they should be simpler and easier to design. The complexity of such
systems need not be excessive by present engineering standards.
Appendix
NASA and Self-Replicating Systems: Implications for Nanotechnology [8]
NASA and the American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE) in 1980 sponsored a study to investigate
advanced automation for space missions. The resulting work included replicating systems concepts: SelfReplicating Lunar Factory and Demonstration which proposed a 20-year program to develop a selfreplicating general purpose lunar manufacturing facility (a Self Replicating System, or SRS) that would be
placed on the lunar surface. The design was based entirely on conventional technology. The "seed" for the
facility, to be landed on the lunar surface from Earth to start the process, was 100 tons (approximately four
Apollo missions). Once this 100-ton seed was in place, all further raw materials would be mined from the
lunar surface and processed into the parts required to extend the SRS. A significant advantage of this
approach for space exploration would be to reduce or eliminate the need to transport mass from the Earthwhich is relatively expensive.
The report remarks that "The difficulty of surmounting the Earth's gravitational potential makes it more
efficient to consider sending information in preference to matter into space whenever possible. Once a small
number of self-replicating facilities have been established in space, each able to feed upon nonterrestrial
materials, further exports of mass from Earth will dwindle and eventually cease. The replicative feature is
unique in its ability to grow, in situ, a vastly larger production facility than could reasonably be transported
from Earth. Thus the time required to organize extraordinarily large amounts of mass in space and to set up
and perform various ambitious future missions can be greatly shortened by using a self-replicating factory

that expands to the desired manufacturing capacity." The useful applications of replicating factories with
facilities for manufacturing products other than their own components are virtually limitless.
Von Neumann designed a self-replicating device that existed in a two-dimensional "cellular automata"
world. The device had an "arm" capable of creating arbitrary structures, and a computer capable of executing
arbitrary programs. Despite the relative simplicity that could theoretically be achieved by the simplest selfreproducing systems, the proposed lunar facility would be highly complex: perhaps 100 billion to a trillion
bits to describe. This would make it almost 10 thousand to 100 thousand times more complex than a
bacterium, and a million times more complex than von Neumann's theoretical proposal. This level of
complexity puts the project near the limits of current capabilities.
The SRS has to exist in a complex lunar environment without any human support. The complexity
estimate for the orbital site map alone is 100 billion bits, and the facilities for mining and refining the lunar
soil have to deal with the entire range of circumstances that arise in such operations. This includes moving
around the lunar surface (the proposal included the manufacture and placement of flat cast basalt slabs laid
down by a team of five paving robots); mining operations such as strip mining, hauling, landfilling, grading,
cellar-digging and towing; chemical processing operations including electrophoretic separation and HF
(hydrofluoric) acid-leach separation, the recovery of volatiles, refractories, metals, and nonmetallic elements
and the disposal of residue and wastes; the production of wire stock, cast basalt, iron or steel parts; casting,
mold-making, mixing and alloying in furnaces and laser machining and finishing; inspection and storage of
finished parts, parts retrieval and assembly and subassembly testing; and computer control of the entire SRS.
Parts assembly is done primarily with "self-assembly" methods, which involve no further parts-handling. The
report says that from the human standpoint, self-replicating systems may provide a means for organizing
potentially infinite quantities of matter. This mass could be so organized as to produce an ever-widening
habitat for man throughout the Solar System like Self-replicating homes, great domed cities on the surfaces of
other worlds.
The report concludes that the theoretical concept of machine duplication is well developed. There are
several alternative strategies by which machine self-replication can be carried out in a practical engineering
setting. There is also available a body of theoretical automation concepts in the realm of machine construction
by machine, in machine inspection of machines, and machine repair of machines, which can be drawn upon to
engineer practical machine systems capable of replication. An engineering demonstration project can be
initiated immediately, to begin with simple replication of robot assembler by robot assembler from supplied
parts, and proceeding in phased steps to full reproduction of a complete machine processing or factory system
by another machine processing system, supplied, ultimately, only with raw materials.
Implications of NASA work on nanotechnology [8]
The broad implications of self-replicating systems, regardless of scale, are often similar. The economic impact
of such systems is clear and dramatic. Things become cheap, and projects of sweeping scale can be
considered and carried out in a reasonable time frame without undue expense. The concepts involved in
analyzing self-replicating systems--including closure, parts counts, parts manufacturing, parts assembly,
system complexity, and the like--are also quite similar. The general approach of using a computer (whether
nano or macro) to control a general purpose assembly capability is also clearly supported. Whether the
general-purpose manufacturing capability is a miniature cross-section of current manufacturing techniques (as
proposed for the SRS), or simply a single assembler arm, which controls individual molecules during the
assembly process, the basic concepts involved are the same.

Finally, by considering the design of an artificial SRS in such detail, the NASA team showed clearly that
such things are feasible. Their analysis also provides good support for the idea that a nanotechnological
"assembler" can be substantially less complex than a trillion bits in design complexity. There are several
methods of simplifying the design of the "Mark I Assembler," as compared with the NASA SRS. First, it
could exist in a highly controlled environment, rather than the uncontrolled lunar surface. Second, it could
expect to find many of its molecular parts, including exotic parts that it might find difficult or impossible to
manufacture itself, pre-fabricated and provided in a convenient and simple format (e.g., floating in solution).
Conceptually, the only major improvements provided by the Mark I Assembler over a simple bacterium
would be the general purpose positional control it will exert over the reactive compounds that it uses to
manufacture "parts," and the wider range of chemical reactions it will use to assemble those "parts" into
bigger "parts." Bacteria are able to synthesize any protein. The Mark I Assembler would be able to synthesize
a very much wider range of structures. Because it would have to manufacture its own control computer as a
simple prerequisite to its own self-replication, it would revolutionize the computer industry almost
automatically. By providing precise atomic control even the Mark I Assembler will revolutionize the
manufacturing process.

REFERENCES:
1.

A. G. Mamalis, Recent advances in nanotechnology, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,

Vol. 181, 2007, pp. 52-58.

2.

V. Viswanathan, T. Laha, K. Balani, A. Agarwal and S. Seal, Challenges and advances in

nanocomposite processing techniques, Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, Volume 54,
Issues 5-6, 2006, pp. 121-285.

3.

Steffi Friedrichs and Jurgen Schulte, Environmental, health and safety aspects of nanotechnology
implications for the R&D in (small) companies, Science and Technology of Advanced
Materials, Volume 8, Issues 1-2, 2007, pp.12-18.

4.

Ivano Beltrami, Cdric Joseph, Reymond Clavel, Jean-Philippe Bacher and Stefano Bottinelli,
Micro- and nanoelectric-discharge machining, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume
149, Issues 1-3, 10 June 2004, pp. 263-265.

5.

Hocken, Robert J., Miller, Jimmie A., Nanotechnology and its impact on manufacturing, Japan USA Symposium on Flexible Automation Part 1, 1992 July, New York, NY: ASME; 1992, pp. 716,
Precision Engineering, Volume 15, Issue 3, 1993, pp. 207.

6.

www.zyvex.com

7.

www.nanotech-now.com/current-uses

8.

Ralph C. Merkle, NASA and self Replicating Systems, Foresight Update, No. 9, June 1990, pp. 4.