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Introduction
1.1
1.1.1
Basic Considerations
Human Activities and the Geologic Interface
1
Copyright 2005 by Taylor & Francis Group
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capability to identify and describe rock and soil types, rock mass and soil formation characteristics, groundwater conditions, and to recognize and describe the potential for phenomena such as flooding, erosion, slope failures, ground subsidence and collapse, ground
heave, and earthquakes. The basis for adequate assessment is thorough investigation.
For many years the services required for investigation of the geologic environment for
new construction were performed by soil and foundation engineers practicing the discipline of soil mechanics. The discipline of geotechnical engineering has evolved to include
rock mechanics and geologic engineering as well as soil mechanics to provide a broader
intelligence base for resolving modern problems.
1.1.2
Investigation
Importance
The engineering works interfacing with the geologic environment can be constructed economically, can perform safely, and can have a nondetrimental impact on other works only
if all geologic elements are accurately identified and their properties properly measured
and evaluated. Reliable evaluations, however, are possible only when complete and representative data are available. Investigation, therefore, is the most important phase of any
construction or development program.
Limitations
It must be recognized that geologic conditions can be extremely complex and variable as
well as subject to changes with time; in addition there are many limitations to state of the
art of geotechnical investigation. There will be occasions when it is not possible to identify
all of the critical aspects of the geologic conditions, regardless of the comprehensiveness
of the investigation. The geotechnical engineers familiarity with those aspects of the geologic environment that are unusually complex and variable with a low degree of predictability, as well as with the limitations of investigational methodology, should lead to
incorporation of conservative measures into design and construction to avoid unsatisfactory results. The consequences of an inadequate investigation may be construction delays
and extra costs, or even structural collapse or other forms of failure.
1.1.3
Objectives
General
This book was written with the objectives of providing a guide to (1) the investigation and
assessment of the geologic environment for practitioners involved with engineering works
for new construction or development, and (2) general solutions of problems that may be
based primarily on intuitive reasoning and experience rather than rigorous mathematical
analysis. Investigation as used herein signifies field exploration, field and laboratory
measurement of properties, and field instrumentation to monitor deformations and
stresses in situ. Effective planning and execution of investigations and interpretation and
evaluation of data require a thorough comprehension of the characteristics of geologic
materials and geologic hazards.
Assessment and Problem-Solving
Assessment and problem-solving may be based on intuitive reasoning and judgment in
cases pertaining to groundwater control, slope stabilization, and the control of ground
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heave, collapse, and subsidence. Although some elements of mathematical analysis for
evaluating foundation settlements, groundwater flow, slope stability, and earthquake
engineering are presented in this work, the main objective is to provide the basis for
understanding the physical phenomena involved as background for comprehending the
need for the various elements of investigation. This book does not aim to provide a basis
for the analysis and design of slopes, retaining structures, closed excavations, foundations,
and ground improvement systems.
1.2
Scope
1.2.1
General
1.2.2
Part I: Investigation Methods and Procedures covers field exploration, field and
laboratory measurements of properties, and field instrumentation.
Part II: Characteristics of Geologic Materials and Formations covers rock masses,
soil formations, and surface and subsurface water. The emphasis is on origin,
mode of occurrence, or deposition as related to their significance in terrain analysis and the prediction of geologic conditions, including characteristic properties
and their impact on engineered construction.
Part III: Geologic Hazards covers landslides and other forms of slope failure;
ground subsidence, collapse, and heave; and earthquakes (flooding and erosion
are covered in Part II under Water). The causes, effects, modes of occurrence,
and methods of investigation and treatment are described for each phenomenon.
Exploration (Chapter 2)
Test boring has long been the standard investigation procedure in many countries, but
there are various other tools and methods available that can be used to provide comprehensive information on geologic conditions.
Data collection and landform (or terrain) analysis are particularly important in cases where
large land areas are involved, or where the project area is unfamiliar to the investigator.
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Many types of geologic materials have characteristic engineering properties, and values
are included throughout the chapter as well as elsewhere in the book. The values are useful for preliminary assessments and for the evaluation of the reasonableness of data
obtained from field and laboratory testing. Very often, such values are obtained from backanalysis of a failure condition in the field.
1.2.3
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mass, resulting in folding and fracturing, which create systems of faults, joints, and other
discontinuities. Differential weathering and erosion attack the mass, resulting in terrain
features indicative of various conditions, and provide the basis for their prediction.
Faults are closely associated with shallow-focus earthquakes. Their recognition and positive identification, as well as the determination of their activity, are critical elements in
earthquake engineering studies. Faults also create a major weakness zone in rock masses.
Joints, the most common form of discontinuity, control rock-mass behavior in most situations. A description of their spatial orientations and characteristics is necessary for the
solution of rock-mechanics problems, particularly in closed and open excavations, and in
the construction of concrete dam foundations and abutments.
Residual stresses result in strains and rock bursts in excavations and are an important
element of rock-mass conditions. Unless specifically sought by means of in situ instrumentation, their prediction is difficult, although their incidence is often associated with a
particular set of conditions.
Weathering causes rock masses to undergo disintegration and decomposition, completely changing their characteristics and producing new materials ranging from altered
minerals along joints, to soft and decomposed rock, and finally to residual soil. Various
rock types develop characteristic profiles under given climatic conditions, thus providing
the basis for the prediction of soil types and their general properties when climate and
rock type are known.
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deposited reflect currents and water depths. Emergence can cause the formation of coastal
plains or exposed lake beds.
Aeolian deposits of dunes, sand sheets, and loess all have characteristic terrain features
of landforms and drainage patterns, and very typical engineering properties.
Glacial deposits have many characteristic landforms that reflect their mode of deposition
as being directly from the glacier (till) or from meltwaters (stratified drift or outwash). Till,
normally strong and relatively incompressible, is typically associated with a very irregular
ground surface containing numerous lakes and poorly developed drainage systems. Two
important glacial deposits are lacustrine (varved clays) and marine (often sensitive clays),
both of which have identifiable patterns of occurrence and characteristic properties.
Secondary deposits are considered in this work to include duricrusts (laterites, ironstone, caliche, and silcrete), permafrost, and seasonal frost. The duricrusts, surficial formations within soil deposits and limited in extent, often have rocklike characteristics.
They form in certain environments under a limited set of conditions.
1.2.4
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1.2.5
Appendices
The Earth and Geologic History (Appendix A): The Earths crust and surface are
undergoing constant change, usually scarcely perceptible, as a result of global
tectonics. The nomenclature of geological history is useful for indexing formations and for making correlations between widely separated geographic locations. Ages are determined by radiometric dating, for which there are a number
of procedures.
USGS Quads, Aerial Photographs, Satellite and SLAR Imagery (Appendix B):
USGS Quad Sheets and stereo-pairs of aerial photographs in this book.
English to Metric to the International System (Appendix C): Conversions from
English to metric to SI units and metric to English to SI units are given.
Symbols (Appendix D): Symbols used in the text are summarized and identified.
Engineering Properties of Geologic Materials: Data and Correlations (Appendix E):
A synopsis of the tables and figures from the text providing data and correlations
for rock, soil, and groundwater is presented. Rock and soil properties are keyed
to index or basic properties, compression, expansion, and strength.
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1.3
1.3.1
Basic Objectives
1.3.2
Stages of Investigation
Investigations are performed in a number of stages, each with a different objective, and
each requiring interpretation, analysis, and evaluation.
1.3.3
Stage 1: General geologic conditions are identified through the retrieval of existing data, the interpretation of remote-sensing imagery (landform analysis), and
field reconnaissance. Engineering geology maps are prepared.
Stage 2: Subsurface sections are prepared from exploration data obtained by test
borings and pits, geophysical methods, etc.
Stage 3: Samples of the soils and rocks are recovered for identification and laboratory testing.
Stage 4: Measurements of engineering properties are made in the laboratory and
in situ.
Stage 5: Instrumentation is installed to monitor ground and structural response
to changing field conditions.
Phases of Investigation
Investigations can be divided into a number of phases based on their purpose, with various investigation stages in each phase. In general, phases range from feasibility to preliminary design, final design, construction, and postconstruction.
Feasibility
A feasibility phase is imperative when the investigator has no prior experience in the project area, when the site is located in virgin or rural country, or for large important projects.
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Postconstruction Phase
Instrumentation (stage 5) is good practice for heavy foundation loading or other conditions in which settlements are anticipated for retaining structures in critical locations, and
for slopes, dams, and tunnels. The purpose is to provide an early warning system for
potentially troublesome conditions, and to provide data to advance the state of the art and
reduce the degree of conservatism in future projects.
1.3.4
Study Planning
The basic considerations in study planning are the lateral and vertical extent to which the
proposed construction or development will significantly influence the geologic environment (or be influenced by the environment).