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solid to liquid and then to vapor. Transitions from solid to liquid, from liquid to vapor, from
vapor to solid and visa versa are called phase transformations or transitions. Since some
substances have several crystal forms, technically there can also be solid to another solid
form phase transformation.
Phase transitions from solid to liquid, and from liquid to vapor absorb heat. The phase
transition temperature where a solid changes to a liquid is called the melting point. The
temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals 1 atm (101.3 kPa) is called the
boiling point. Some materials, such as many polymers, do not go simply from a solid to a
liquid with increasing temperature. Instead, at some temperature below the melting point,
they start to lose their crystalline structure but the molecules remain linked in chains, which
results in a soft and pliable material. The temperature at which a solid, glassy material
begins to soften and flow is called the glass transition temperature.
Cuando se levanta temperatura y la presin se mantiene constante, de una sustancia tpica de
cambios de slido a lquido y luego a vapor. Transicin de slido a lquido, de lquido a vapor, de
vapor a slido y viceversa se llama transformaciones de fase o transiciones. Dado que algunas
sustancias tienen varias formas de cristal, tcnicamente puede tambin haber slida a otra
transformacin de fase de forma slida.
Transiciones de fase de slido a lquido y de lquido a vapor absorben calor. La temperatura de
transicin de fase donde un slido cambia a lquido se llama punto de fusin. La temperatura en la
cual la presin de vapor de un lquido es igual a 1 atm (101,3 kPa) se llama punto de ebullicin.
Algunos materiales, como muchos de los polmeros, no van simplemente de un slido a un lquido
con el aumento de temperatura. En su lugar, a cierta temperatura por debajo del punto de fusin,
comienzan a perder su estructura cristalina, pero las molculas permanecen enlazadas en
cadenas, que se traduce en un material suave y flexible. La temperatura en el cual un material
vidrioso slido comienza a ablandarse y fluir se llama temperatura de transicin vtrea.
Density
Mass can be thinly distributed as in a pillow, or tightly packed as in a block of lead. The
space the mass occupies is its volume, and the mass per unit of volume is its density.
Mass (m) is a fundamental measure of the amount of matter. Weight (w) is a measure of the
force exerted by a mass and this force is force is produced by the acceleration of gravity.
Therefore, on the surface of the earth, the mass of an object is determined by dividing the
weight of an object by 9.8 m/s2 (the acceleration of gravity on the surface of the earth).
Since we are typically comparing things on the surface of the earth, the weight of an object
is commonly used rather than calculating its mass.
The density (r) of a material depends on the phase it is in and the temperature. (The density
of liquids and gases is very temperature dependent.) Water in the liquid state has a density
of 1 g/cm3 = 1000kg/m3 at 4o C. Ice has a density of 0.917 g/cm3 at 0oc, and it should be
noted that this decrease in density for the solid phase is unusual. For almost all other
substances, the density of the solid phase is greater than that of the liquid phase. Water
vapor (vapor saturated air) has a density of 0.051 g/cm3.
Some common units used for expressing density are grams/cubic centimeter,
kilograms/cubic meter, grams/milliliter, grams/liter, pounds for cubic inch and pounds per
cubic foot; but it should be obvious that any unit of mass per any unit of volume can be
used.
Substance
Air
Gasoline
Wood
Water (ice)
Water (liquid)
Aluminum
Steel
Silver
Lead
Mercury
Gold
Density
(g/cm3)
0.0013
0.7
0.85
0.92
1.0
2.7
7.8
10.5
11.3
13.5
19.3
Densidad
Masa puede finamente distribuido como en una almohada, o bien embalado en un bloque
de plomo. El espacio que ocupa la masa es el volumen y la masa por unidad de volumen es
su densidad.
Masa (m) es una medida fundamental de la cantidad de materia. Peso (w) es una medida de
la fuerza ejercida por una masa y esta fuerza es la fuerza que se produce por la aceleracin
de la gravedad. Por lo tanto, en la superficie de la tierra, la masa de un objeto se determina
dividiendo el peso de un objeto por 9.8 m/s2 (la aceleracin de la gravedad en la superficie
de la tierra). Ya que por lo general estamos comparando cosas en la superficie de la tierra,
el peso de un objeto se utiliza comnmente en lugar de calcular su masa.
La densidad de (r) de un material depende de la temperatura y la fase es de. (La densidad
de lquidos y gases es temperatura muy dependiente). Agua en estado lquido tiene una
densidad de 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3 a 4o C. hielo tiene una densidad de 0,917 g/cm3 a 0oc, y
cabe sealar que esta disminucin en la densidad de la fase slida es inusual. Para casi
todas las otras sustancias, la densidad de la fase slida es mayor que la de la fase lquida.
Vapor de agua (vapor saturado aire) tiene una densidad de 0,051 g/cm3.
Algunas unidades comunes que se utiliza para expresar la densidad son el centmetro
cbico gramos, kilogramos/metro cbico, gramos/mililitro, gramos/litro, libras por pulgada
cbica y libras por pie cbico; pero debera ser obvio que se puede utilizar cualquier unidad
de masa por cualquier unidad de volumen.
Sustancia
Densidad
(g/cm3)
Aire
0,0013
Gasolina
0,7
Madera
0.85
Agua (hielo)
0,92
Agua (lquido)
1.0
Aluminio
2.7
Acero
7.8
Plata
10.5
Plomo
11.3
Mercurio
13.5
Oro
19.3
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of density of a substance compared to the density of fresh water
at 4C (39 F). At this temperature the density of water is at its greatest value and equal 1
g/mL. Since specific gravity is a ratio, so it has no units. An object will float in water if its
density is less than the density of water and sink if its density is greater that that of water.
Similarly, an object with specific gravity less than 1 will float and those with a specific
gravity greater than one will sink. Specific gravity values for a few common substances are:
Au, 19.3; mercury, 13.6; alcohol, 0.7893; benzene, 0.8786. Note that since water has a
density of 1 g/cm3, the specific gravity is the same as the density of the material measured
in g/cm3.
The Discovery of Specific Gravity
The discovery of specific gravity makes for an interesting story. Sometime around 250
B.C., the Greek mathematician Archimedes was given the task of determining whether a
craftsman had defrauded King Heiro II of Syracuse. The king had provided a metal smith
with gold to make a crown. The king suspected that the metal smith had added less valuable
silver to crown and kept some of the gold for himself. The crown weighed the same as
other crowns but due to its intricate designs it was impossible to measure the exact volume
of the crown so its density could be determined. The king challenged Archimedes to
determine if the crown was pure gold. Archimedes had no immediate answer and pondered
this question for sometime.
One day while entering a bath, he noticed that water spilled over the sides of the pool, and
realized that the amount of water that spilled out was equal in volume to the space that his
body occupied. He realized that a given mass of silver would occupy more space than an
equivalent mass of gold. Archimedes first weighed the crown and weighed out an equal
mass of pure gold. Then he placed the crown in a full container of water and the pure gold
in a container of water. He found that more water spilled over the sides of the tub when the
craftsmans crown was submerged. It turned out that the craftsman had been defrauding the
King! Legend has it that Archimedes was so excited about his discovery that he ran naked
through the streets of Sicily shouting Eureka! Eureka! (Which is Greek for I have found
it!).
Gravedad especfica
Gravedad especfica es el cociente del densidad de una sustancia en comparacin con la
densidad del agua a 4 C (39 F). A esta temperatura la densidad del agua es en su mayor
valor e igual 1 g/mL. Puesto que la gravedad especfica es un cociente, por lo que no tiene
unidades. Un objeto se flotan en el agua si su densidad es menor que la densidad del agua y
se hunden si su densidad es mayor que la del agua. Del mismo modo, un objeto con
gravedad especfica menor que 1 flotar y sos con una gravedad especfica mayor que uno
se hundirn. Valores de gravedad especfica para algunas sustancias comunes son: Au,
19.3; mercurio, 13,6; alcohol, 0.7893; benceno, 0.8786. Observe que puesto que el agua
tiene una densidad de 1 g/cm3, el peso especfico es igual a la densidad del material medido
en g/cm3.
El descubrimiento de la gravedad especfica
El descubrimiento de la gravedad especfica es una historia interesante. En algn momento
alrededor del ao 250 A.C., el matemtico griego Arqumedes recibi la tarea de
determinar si un artesano haba defraudado rey Heiro II de Siracusa. El rey haba
proporcionado a un forjador de metal con oro para hacer una corona. El rey sospecha que el
metal smith haba agregado plata menos valiosa a corona y guardado parte del oro por s
mismo. La corona pesaba lo mismo que otras coronas, pero debido a sus intrincados
diseos era imposible medir el volumen exacto de la corona, por lo que se pudo determinar
su densidad. El rey desafi a Arqumedes determinar si la corona era de oro puro.
Arqumedes no haba ninguna respuesta inmediata y reflexionado sobre esta cuestin en
algn momento.
Un da al entrar en un bao, not que el agua se derram sobre los lados de la piscina y se
dio cuenta de que la cantidad de agua que se derram hacia fuera era igual en volumen al
espacio que ocupa su cuerpo. Se dio cuenta de que una masa dada de plata ocupara ms
espacio que una masa equivalente de oro. Primero, Arqumedes pesaron la corona y
pesaron una masa igual de oro puro. Entonces l coloc la corona en un recipiente lleno de
agua y el oro puro en un recipiente de agua. Encontr que ms agua se derram sobre los
lados de la tina cuando fue sumergida la corona del artesano. Result que el artesano haba
sido estafar el rey! Cuenta la leyenda que Arqumedes estaba tan entusiasmado por su
descubrimiento que corri desnudo por las calles de Sicilia gritando Eureka! Eureka! (Que
es griego para "Los he encontrado!").
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity () is the intrinsic property of a material which relates its ability to
conduct heat. Heat transfer by conduction involves transfer of energy within a material
without any motion of the material as a whole. Conduction takes place when a temperature
gradient exists in a solid (or stationary fluid) medium. Conductive heat flow occurs in the
direction of decreasing temperature because higher temperature equates to higher molecular
energy or more molecular movement. Energy is transferred from the more energetic to the
less energetic molecules when neighboring molecules collide.
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat (Q) transmitted through a unit
thickness (L) in a direction normal to a surface of unit area (A) due to a unit temperature
gradient (T) under steady state conditions and when the heat transfer is dependent only on
the temperature gradient. In equation form this becomes the following:
Thermal Conductivity = heat distance / (area temperature gradient)
= Q L / (A T)
Approximate values of thermal conductivity for some common materials are presented in
the table below.
Material
Air at 0 C
0.024
0.000057
Aluminum
205.0
0.50
Brass
109.0
0.8
0.002
385.0
0.99
Glass, ordinary
0.8
0.0025
Gold
310
Ice
1.6
0.005
Iron
0.163
Lead
34.7
0.083
Polyethylene HD
0.5
Concrete
Copper
Polystyrene expanded
0.03
Silver
406.0
1.01
Styrofoam
0.01
Steel
50.2
0.0014
0.12-0.04
0.0001
Water at 20 C
Wood
Conductividad trmica
Conductividad trmica () es la propiedad intrnseca de un material que est relacionado
con su capacidad para conducir el calor. Transferencia de calor por conduccin implica a
transferencia de energa dentro de un material sin ningn movimiento del material en su
conjunto. La conduccin tiene lugar cuando existe un gradiente de temperatura en un slido
(o lquido estacionario) medio. Flujo de calor conductiva se produce en la direccin de
disminucin de temperatura debido a una temperatura ms alta equivale a una energa
molecular o movimiento molecular ms. Energa es transferida de chocarn de molculas
energticas cuando los vecinos las molculas ms energticas a las menos.
Conductividad trmica se define como la cantidad de calor (Q) transmitida a travs de un
grueso de la unidad (L) en una direccin normal a una superficie de unidad de rea (A)
debido a un gradiente de temperatura de la unidad (T) bajo condiciones de estado
estacionario y cuando la transferencia de calor depende slo del gradiente de temperatura.
En forma de ecuacin, esto se convierte el siguiente:
Conductividad trmica = calor distancia / (rea x gradiente de temperatura)
= Q L / (A T )
Valores aproximados de la conductividad trmica de algunos materiales comunes se
presentan en la tabla a continuacin.
Conductividad
trmica
W/m, oK
Conductividad trmica
(cal/seg) / (cm2,
o
C/cm)
Aire a 0 C
0.024
0.000057
Aluminio
205.0
0.50
Latn
109.0
0,8
0.002
Material
Hormign
Cobre
385.0
0.99
Vidrio ordinario
0,8
0.0025
Oro
310
Hielo
1.6
0.005
Hierro
0.163
Plomo
34.7
0.083
Polietileno HD
0.5
Poliestireno expandido
0.03
Plata
406.0
1.01
Espuma de
poliestireno
0.01
Acero
50.2
0,0014
0.12 0.04
0.0001
Agua a 20 C
Madera
By rearranging this equation, it can be seen that if the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion is known, the change in components length can be calculated for each degree of
temperature change. This effect also works in reverse. That is to say, if energy is removed
from a material then the object's temperature will decrease causing the object to contract.
Thermal expansion (and contraction) must be taken into account when designing products
with close tolerance fits as these tolerances will change as temperature changes if the
materials used in the design have different coefficients of thermal expansion. It should also
be understood that thermal expansion can cause significant stress in a component if the
design does not allow for expansion and contraction of components. The phenomena of
thermal expansion can be challenging when designing bridges, buildings, aircraft and
spacecraft, but it can be put to beneficial uses. For example, thermostats and other heatsensitive sensors make use of the property of linear expansion.
Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for a Few Common Materials
Material
Aluminum
a
(m/m/oK)
23.8 x 10-6
0.0238
-6
Concrete
12.0 x 10
Copper
17.6 x 10 -6
a (mm/m/oK)
0.011
0.0176
18.5 x 10
-6
0.0185
Steel
12.0 x 10
-6
0.0115
Timber
40.0 x 10 -6
Brass
Quartz Glass
0.5 x 10
0.04
-6
75.0 x 10
-6
0.0005
-6
0.040-0.200
0.075
Por reordenar esta ecuacin, se puede ver que si se conoce el coeficiente lineal de
expansin trmica, se puede calcular el cambio en longitud de los componentes para cada
grado de cambio de temperatura. Este efecto funciona tambin a la inversa. Es decir, si se
extrae energa de un material luego temperatura del objeto disminuir causando que el
objeto a contratar.
Expansin trmica (y contraccin) deben tenerse en cuenta al disear productos con cierran
ajustes de tolerancia como estas tolerancias cambiar como cambios de temperatura si los
materiales usados en el diseo tienen diferentes coeficientes de expansin trmica. Debe
entenderse tambin que expansin trmica puede causar estrs significativo en un
componente si el diseo no permite la expansin y contraccin de componentes. Los
fenmenos de dilatacin trmica pueden ser un desafo en el diseo de puentes, edificios,
aviones y naves espaciales, pero se puede poner a usos beneficiosos. Por ejemplo,
termostatos y otros sensores sensibles al calor hacen uso de la propiedad de dilatacin
lineal.
Coeficiente lineal de expansin trmica de algunos materiales comunes
Material
un
(oK)
un (oK)
Aluminio
23,8 x 10-6
0.0238
Hormign
12.0 x 10 -6
0.011
Cobre
17.6 x 10 6
0.0176
Latn
18.5 x 10 -6
0.0185
Acero
12.0 x 10 -6
0.0115
Madera
40.0 x 10 -6
0.04
Cristal de cuarzo
0.5 x 10 -6
0.0005
Materiales
polimricos
40-200 x 10 -6
0.040 0.200
Acrlico
75.0 x 10 -6
0.075
For example, a material with two micro ohm centimeter of resistivity will have
microSiemens/centimeter of conductivity. Resistivity values in microhm centimeters units
can be converted to % IACS conductivity values with the following formula:
172.41 / resistivity = % IACS
Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity
As noted above, electrical conductivity values (and resistivity values) are typically reported
at 20 oC. This is done because the conductivity and resistivity of material is temperature
dependant. The conductivity of most materials decreases as temperature increases.
Alternately, the resistivity of most material increases with increasing temperature. The
amount of change is material dependant but has been established for many elements and
engineering materials.
The reason that resistivity increases with increasing temperature is that the number of
imperfection in the atomic lattice structure increases with temperature and this hampers
electron movement. These imperfections include dislocations, vacancies, interstitial defects
and impurity atoms. Additionally, above absolute zero, even the lattice atoms participate in
the interference of directional electron movement as they are not always found at their ideal
lattice sites. Thermal energy causes the atoms to vibrate about their equilibrium positions.
At any moment in time many individual lattice atoms will be away from their perfect lattice
sites and this interferes with electron movement.
When the temperature coefficient is known, an adjusted resistivity value can be computed
using the following formula:
R1 = R2 * [1 + a * (T1T2)]
Where: R1 = resistivity value adjusted to T1
R2 = resistivity value known or measured at temperature T2
a = Temperature Coefficient
T1 = Temperature at which resistivity value needs to be known
T2 = Temperature at which known or measured value was obtained
For example, suppose that resistivity measurements were being made on a hot piece of
aluminum. Normally when measuring resistivity or conductivity, the instrument is
calibrated using standards that are at the same temperature as the material being measured,
and then no correction for temperature will be required. However, if the calibration
standard and the test material are at different temperatures, a correction to the measured
value must be made. Presume that the instrument was calibrated at 20oC (68oF) but the
measurement was made at 25oC (77oF) and the resistivity value obtained was 2.706 x 10-8
ohm meters. Using the above equation and the following temperature coefficient value, the
resistivity value corrected for temperature can be calculated.
R1 = R2 * [1 + a * (T1T2)]
Where: R1 = ?
R2 = 2.706 x 10-8 ohm meters (measured resistivity at 25 oC)
a = 0.0043/ oC
T1 = 20 oC
T2 = 25 oC
R1 = 2.706 x 10-8ohm meters * [1 + 0.0043/ oC * (20 oC 25 oC)]
R1 = 2.648 x 10-8ohm meters
Note that the resistivity value was adjusted downward since this example involved
calculating the resistivity for a lower temperature.
Since conductivity is simply the inverse of resistivity, the temperature coefficient is the
same for conductivity and the equation requires only slight modification. The equation
becomes:
s1 = s2 / [1 + a * (T1T2)]
Where: s1 = conductivity value adjusted to T1
s2 = conductivity value known or measured at temperature T2
a = Temperature Coefficient
T1 = Temperature at which conductivity value needs to be known
T2 = Temperature at which known or measured value was obtained
In this example lets consider the same aluminum alloy with a temperature coefficient of
0.0043 per degree centigrade and a conductivity of 63.6% IACS at 25 oC. What will the
conductivity be when adjusted to 20 oC?
s1= 63.6% IACS / [1 + 0.0043 * (20 oC 25 oC)]
s1= 65.0% IASC
The temperature coefficient for a few metallic elements is shown below.
Material
Nickel
0.0059
Iron
0.0060
Molybdenum
0.0046
Tungsten
0.0044
Aluminum
0.0043
Copper
0.0040
Silver
0.0038
Platinum
0.0038
Gold
0.0037
Zinc
0.0038
Nquel
0.0059
Hierro
0.0060
Molibdeno
0.0046
Tungsteno
0.0044
Aluminio
0.0043
Cobre
0.0040
Plata
0.0038
Platinum
0.0038
Oro
0.0037
Cinc
0.0038
Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability or simply permeability is the ease with which a material can be
magnetized. It is a constant of proportionality that exists between magnetic induction and
magnetic field intensity. This constant is equal to approximately 1.257 x 10-6 Henry per
meter (H/m) in free space (a vacuum). In other materials it can be much different, often
substantially greater than the free-space value, which is symbolized 0.
Materials that cause the lines of flux to move farther apart, resulting in a decrease in
magnetic flux density compared with a vacuum, are called diamagnetic. Materials that
concentrate magnetic flux by a factor of more than one but less than or equal to ten are
called paramagnetic; materials that concentrate the flux by a factor of more than ten are
called ferromagnetic. The permeability factors of some substances change with rising or
falling temperature, or with the intensity of the applied magnetic field.
In engineering applications, permeability is often expressed in relative, rather than in
absolute, terms. If o represents the permeability of free space (that is, 4p X10-7H/m or
1.257 x 10-6 H/m) and represents the permeability of the substance in question (also
specified in henrys per meter), then the relative permeability, r, is given by:
r = / 0
For non-ferrous metals such as copper, brass, aluminum etc., the permeability is the same
as that of "free space", i.e. the relative permeability is one. For ferrous metals however the
value of r may be several hundred. Certain ferromagnetic materials, especially powdered
or laminated iron, steel, or nickel alloys, have r that can range up to about 1,000,000.
Diamagnetic materials have r less than one, but no known substance has relative
permeability much less than one. In addition, permeability can vary greatly within a metal
part due to localized stresses, heating effects, etc.
When a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic core is inserted into a coil, the inductance is
multiplied by r compared with the inductance of the same coil with an air core. This effect
is useful in the design of transformers and eddy current probes.
Permeabilidad magntica
Permeabilidad magntica o simplemente permeabilidad es la facilidad con que un material
puede ser magnetizado. Es una constante de proporcionalidad que existe entre la induccin
magntica y la intensidad del campo magntico. Esta constante es igual a aproximadamente
1.257 x 10-6 Henrio por metro (H/m) de espacio libre (vaco). En otros materiales puede ser
muy diferente, a menudo substancialmente mayor que el valor de espacio libre, que es
simbolizado 0.
Materiales que causan las lneas de flujo para mover ms lejos aparte, dando por resultado
una disminucin en la densidad de flujo magntico en comparacin con el vaco, se llaman
diamagnticos. Materiales que concentran el flujo magntico por un factor de ms de uno,
pero inferior o igual a diez se llaman paramagnticos; materiales que concentran el flujo
por un factor de ms de diez se denominan ferromagnticos. Los factores de permeabilidad
de algunas sustancias cambian con temperatura ascendente o descendente, o con la
intensidad del campo magntico aplicado.
En aplicaciones de ingeniera, la permeabilidad se expresa a menudo en relativa, y no en
trminos absolutos,. Si o representa la permeabilidad del espacio libre (es decir, 4p X 107
H/m o 1.257 x 10-6 H/m) y representa la permeabilidad de la sustancia en cuestin
(tambin especificada en Henrios por el metro), y luego la relativa permeabilidad, r, est
dada por:
r = / 0
Para metales no ferrosos tales como cobre, latn, aluminio etc., la permeabilidad es igual a
la de "espacio libre", es decir, la permeabilidad relativa es una. Metales ferrosos sin
embargo el valor de r puede ser varios cientos. Algunos materiales ferromagnticos,
especialmente en polvo o laminado de hierro, acero o aleaciones de nquel, tienen r que
puede extenderse hasta cerca de 1.000.000. Los materiales diamagnticos tienen r menos
de uno, pero ninguna sustancia conocida tiene permeabilidad relativa mucho menor que
uno. Adems, la permeabilidad puede variar mucho dentro de una pieza de metal debido a
tensiones localizadas, efectos, etc. de la calefaccin.
Cuando un ncleo paramagntico o ferromagntico se introduce en una bobina, la
inductancia se multiplica por r en comparacin con la inductancia de la misma bobina con
un ncleo de aire. Este efecto es til en el diseo de transformadores y sondas corriente de
Foucault.
Corrosion
Corrosion involves the deterioration of a material as it reacts with its environment.
Corrosion is the primary means by which metals deteriorate. Corrosion literally consumes
the material reducing load carrying capability and causing stress concentrations. Corrosion
is often a major part of maintenance cost and corrosion prevention is vital in many designs.
Corrosion is not expressed in terms of a design property value like other properties but
rather in more qualitative terms such as a material is immune, resistant, susceptible or very
susceptible to corrosion.
The corrosion process is usually electrochemical in nature, having
the essential features of a battery. Corrosion is a natural process
that commonly occurs because unstable materials, such as refined
metals want to return to a more stable compound. For example,
some metals, such as gold and silver, can be found in the earth in
their natural, metallic state and they have little tendency to
corrode. Iron is a moderately active metal and corrodes readily in
the presence of water. The natural state of iron is iron oxide and
the most common iron ore is Hematite with a chemical
composition of Fe203. Rust, the most common corrosion product
of iron, also has a chemical composition of Fe2O3.
The difficulty in terms of energy required to extract metals from
their ores is directly related to the ensuing tendency to corrode
and release this energy. The electromotive force series (See
table) is a ranking of metals with respect to their inherent
reactivity. The most noble metal is at the top and has the highest
positive electrochemical potential. The most active metal is at the
bottom and has the most negative electrochemical potential.
Electrode Reaction
(at 25oC), V-SHE
1.498
2+
Pd + 2e -> Pd
0.987
0.854
Ag + e -> Au
0.799
Cu+ + e- -> Cu
0.521
2+
Cu + 2e -> Cu
0.337
0.000 (Ref.)
-0.126
2+
Sn + 2e -> Sn
-0.136
-0.250
2+
Co + 2e -> Co
-0.277
-0.403
2+
Fe + 2e -> Fe
-0.440
-0.744
2+
Cr + 2e -> Cr
-0.910
-0.763
2+
Mn + 2e -> Mn
-1.180
-1.630
-1.662
2+
Be + 2e -> Be
-1.850
-2.363
Li + e -> Li
-3.050
Note that aluminum, as indicated by its position in the series, is a relatively reactive metal; among structural
metals, only beryllium and magnesium are more reactive. Aluminum owes its excellent corrosion resistance
to the barrier oxide film that is bonded strongly to the surface and if damaged reforms immediately in most
environments. On a surface freshly abraded and exposed to air, the protective film is only 10 Angstroms thick
but highly effective at protecting the metal from corrosion.
corresponding reduction reaction takes place and consumes the free electrons. The
electrical balance of the circuit is restored at the cathode when the electrons react with
neutralizing positive ions, such as hydrogen ions, in the electrolyte. From this description, it
can be seen that there are four essential components that are needed for a corrosion reaction
to proceed. These components are an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte with oxidizing
species, and some direct electrical connection between the anode and cathode. Although
atmospheric air is the most common environmental electrolyte, natural waters, such as
seawater rain, as well as man-made solutions, are the environments most frequently
associated with corrosion problems.
A typical situation might involve a piece of
metal that has anodic and cathodic regions
on the same surface. If the surface becomes
wet, corrosion may take place through ionic
exchange in the surface water layer between
the anode and cathode. Electron exchange
will take place through the bulk metal.
Corrosion will proceed at the anodic site
according to a reaction such as
M M++ + 2ewhere M is a metal atom. The resulting
metal cations (M++) are available at the
metal surface to become corrosion products
such as oxides, hydroxides, etc. The
liberated electrons travel through the bulk
metal (or another low resistance electrical connection) to the cathode, where they are
consumed by cathodic reactions such as
2H+ + 2e- H 2
The basic principles of corrosion that were just covered, generally apply to all corrosion
situation except certain types of high temperature corrosion. However, the process of
corrosion can be very straightforward but is often very complex due to variety of variable
that can contribute to the process. A few of these variable are the composition of the
material acting in the corrosion cell, the heat treatment and stress state of the materials, the
composition of the electrolyte, the distance between the anode and the cathode,
temperature, protective oxides and coating, etc.
Types of Corrosion
Corrosion is commonly classified based on the appearance of the corroded material. The
classifications used vary slightly from reference to reference but there is generally
considered to be eight different forms of corrosion. There forms are:
Uniform or general corrosion that is distributed more or less uniformly over a surface.
Localized corrosion that is confined to small area. Localized corrosion often occurs due
to a concentrated cell. A concentrated cell is an electrolytic cell in which the electromotive
force is caused by a concentration of some components in the electrolyte. This difference
leads to the formation of distinct anode and cathode regions.
Pitting corrosion that is confined to small areas and take the form of cavities on a
surface.
Crevice corrosion occurring at locations where easy access to the bulk
environment is prevented, such as the mating surfaces of two components.
Filiform Corrosion that occurs under some coatings in the form of randomly
distributed threadlike filaments.
Galvanic corrosion associated primarily with the electrical coupling of materials with
significantly different electrochemical potentials.
Environmental Cracking brittle fracture of a normally ductile material that occurs
partially due to the corrosive effect of an environment.
Dezincification corrosion resulting in the selective removal of zinc from copperzinc alloys.
A la corrosin
Corrosin implica el deterioro de un material que reacciona con su ambiente. La corrosin
es el principal medio por el cual los metales se deterioran. Corrosin literalmente consume
el material reduciendo la carga de capacidad de transporte y provocando concentracin de
tensiones. La corrosin es a menudo una parte importante del coste de mantenimiento y
prevencin de la corrosin es vital en muchos diseos. Corrosin no se expresa en trminos
de valor de una propiedad de diseo como otras propiedades pero ms bien en trminos
ms cualitativos como un material es inmune, resistentes, susceptibles o muy susceptibles a
la corrosin.
Serie de fuerza electromotriz parcial
Potencial estndar
Reaccin de electrodo
(a 25oC), V-SHE
1.498
0.987
2+
Hg
+ 2e - > Hg
-
0.854
AG + e - > Au
0.799
Cu+ + e- - > Cu
0.521
Cu
2+
+ 2e - > Cu
0.337
H 2+ + 2e- - > H2
0.000 (ref.)
-0.126
-0.136
-0.250
+ 2e - > Co
-0.277
-0.403
Ni
2+
2+
Co
Fe
2+
+ 2e - > Ni
+ 2e - > Fe
-0.440
-0.744
Cr
2+
Zn
2+
-0.910
-0.763
+ 2e - > Cr
+ 2e - > Zn
Grieta, la corrosin que ocurre en lugares donde se impide acceso fcil al medio
ambiente a granel, tales como las superficies de acoplamiento de dos componentes.
Fatiga de corrosin fatiga grietas que se caracteriza por Inicio atpicamente corto
tiempo o crecimiento la tasa debido al dao de corrosin o acumulacin de
productos de corrosin.
Metal lquido grietas, grietas causadas por el contacto con un metal lquido.
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of a material are those properties that involve a reaction
to an applied load. The mechanical properties of metals determine the range of
usefulness of a material and establish the service life that can be expected.
Mechanical properties are also used to help classify and identify material. The most
common properties considered are strength, ductility, hardness, impact resistance,
and fracture toughness.
Most structural materials are anisotropic, which means that their material properties
vary with orientation. The variation in properties can be due to directionality in the
microstructure (texture) from forming or cold working operation, the controlled
alignment of fiber reinforcement and a variety of other causes. Mechanical
properties are generally specific to product form such as sheet, plate, extrusion,
casting, forging, and etc. Additionally, it is common to see mechanical property
listed by the directional grain structure of the material. In products such as sheet and
plate, the rolling direction is called the longitudinal direction, the width of the
product is called the transverse direction, and the thickness is called the short
transverse direction. The grain orientations in standard wrought forms of metallic
products are shown the image.
The mechanical properties of a material are not constants and often change as a
function of temperature, rate of loading, and other conditions. For example,
temperatures below room temperature generally cause an increase in strength
properties of metallic alloys; while ductility, fracture toughness, and elongation
usually decrease. Temperatures above room temperature usually cause a decrease in
the strength properties of metallic alloys. Ductility may increase or decrease with
increasing temperature depending on the same variables
It should also be noted that there is often significant variability in the values
obtained when measuring mechanical properties. Seemingly identical test specimen
from the same lot of material will often produce considerable different results.
Therefore, multiple tests are commonly conducted to determine mechanical
properties and values reported can be an average value or calculated statistical
minimum value. Also, a range of values are sometimes reported in order to show
variability.
Propiedades mecnicas
Debe sealarse tambin que a menudo existe importante variabilidad en los valores
obtenidos al medir las propiedades mecnicas. Aparentemente probeta idntica del
mismo lote de material produce a menudo considerables resultados diferentes. Por
lo tanto, comnmente se llevan a cabo mltiples pruebas para determinar
propiedades mecnicas y valores pueden ser un valor medio o valor mnimo
estadstico calculado. Tambin, una gama de valores se divulgan a veces para
demostrar variabilidad.
Loading
The application of a force to an object is known as loading. Materials can be subjected to
many different loading scenarios and a materials performance is dependant on the loading
conditions. There are five fundamental loading conditions; tension, compression, bending,
shear, and torsion. Tension is the type of loading in which the two sections of material on
either side of a plane tend to be pulled apart or elongated. Compression is the reverse of
tensile loading and involves pressing the material together. Loading by bending involves
applying a load in a manner that causes a material to curve and results in compressing the
material on one side and stretching it on the other. Shear involves applying a load parallel
to a plane which caused the material on one side of the plane to want to slide across the
material on the other side of the plane. Torsion is the application of a force that causes
twisting in a material.
If a material is subjected to a constant force, it is called static loading. If the loading of the
material is not constant but instead fluctuates, it is called dynamic or cyclic loading. The
way a material is loaded greatly affects its mechanical properties and largely determines
how, or if, a component will fail; and whether it will show warning signs before failure
actually occurs.
Carga
La aplicacin de una fuerza a un objeto se conoce como carga. Materiales pueden ser
sometidos a muchos escenarios diferentes de carga y rendimiento de un material depende
de las condiciones de carga. Existen cinco condiciones de la carga fundamental; tensin,
compresin, flexin, cortante y torsin. Tensin es el tipo de carga en el que las dos
secciones de material a ambos lados de un plano tienden a ser tirado aparte o alargada. La
compresin es la inversa de la resistencia a la traccin carga y consiste en juntar el material.
Carga por flexin consiste en aplicar una carga de una manera que hace que un material a la
curva y los resultados en comprimir el material en un lado y estirar sobre la otra. Corte
consiste en aplicar una carga paralela a un plano que caus el material en un lado del plano
a deslizar a travs del material en el otro lado del plano. La torsin es la aplicacin de una
fuerza que hace girar en un material.
Si un material se somete a una fuerza constante, se denomina carga esttica. Si la carga del
material no es constante pero flucta en su lugar, se denomina carga dinmica o cclica. La
forma de un material se carga afecta en gran medida sus propiedades mecnicas y
determina en gran medida cmo, o si un componente fallar; y si mostrar signos de
advertencia antes de la falla realmente se produce.
bar that is being stretched in tension is the amount of elongation or change in length divided
by its original length. As in the case of stress, the strain distribution may or may not be
uniform in a complex structural element, depending on the nature of the loading condition.
If the stress is small, the material may only strain a small amount and the material will
return to its original size after the stress is released. This is called elastic deformation,
because like elastic it returns to its unstressed state. Elastic deformation only occurs in a
material when stresses are lower than a critical stress called the yield strength. If a material
is loaded beyond it elastic limit, the material will remain in a deformed condition after the
load is removed. This is called plastic deformation.
Engineering and True Stress and Strain
The discussion above focused on engineering stress and strain, which use the fixed,
undeformed cross-sectional area in the calculations. True stress and strain measures account
for changes in cross-sectional area by using the instantaneous values for the area. The
engineering stress-strain curve does not give a true indication of the deformation
characteristics of a metal because it is based entirely on the original dimensions of the
specimen, and these dimensions change continuously during the testing used to generate the
data.
Engineering stress and strain data is commonly used because it is easier to generate the data
and the tensile properties are adequate for engineering calculations. When considering the
stress-strain curves in the next section,
however, it should be understood that metals
and other materials continues to strain-harden
until they fracture and the stress required to
produce further deformation also increase.
Stress Concentration
When an axial load is applied to a piece of
material with a uniform cross-section, the
norm al stress will be uniformly distributed
over the cross-section. However, if a hole is
drilled in the material, the stress distribution
will no longer be uniform. Since the material
that has been removed from the hole is no
longer available to carry any load, the load must be redistributed over the remaining
material. It is not redistributed evenly over the entire remaining cross-sectional area but
instead will be redistributed in an uneven pattern that is highest at the edges of the hole as
shown in the image. This phenomenon is known as stress concentration.
Tensin y la tensin
Estrs
La tensin del trmino (s) se utiliza para expresar la carga en trminos de fuerza aplicado a
cierta rea transversal de un objeto. Desde la perspectiva de la carga, el estrs es el sistema
de fuerzas que tiende a deformar un cuerpo o fuerza aplicada. Desde la perspectiva de lo
que est sucediendo dentro de un material, el estrs es la distribucin interna de las fuerzas
dentro de un cuerpo que equilibrar y reaccionar a las cargas aplicadas a l. La distribucin
de las tensiones puede o no ser uniforme, dependiendo de la naturaleza de la condicin de
carga. Por ejemplo, una barra cargada en tensin pura tendr esencialmente una
distribucin uniforme de la tensin. Sin embargo, una barra de carga en flexin tendr una
distribucin de las tensiones que cambia con la distancia perpendicular al eje normal.
Suposiciones de simplificacin a menudo se utilizan para representar estrs como una
cantidad vectorial para muchos clculos de ingeniera y para la determinacin de la
caracterstica material. La palabra "vector" se refiere normalmente a una cantidad que tiene
una "magnitud" y una "direccin". Por ejemplo, la tensin en una barra cargada axialmente
es simplemente igual a la fuerza aplicada dividida por el rea transversal de la barra.
Algunas medidas comunes del estrs son:
PSI = lb/in2 (libras por pulgada cuadrada)
ksi o kpsi = kilolibras/en2 (1 mil o 103 libras por pulgada cuadrada)
PA = N/m2 (pascales o Newtons por metro cuadrado)
kPa = kilopascales (1 mil o 103 Newtons por metro cuadrado)
GPa = Gigapascals (1 milln o 106 Newtons por metro cuadrado)
demostrar que las tensiones en cualquier plano se pueden computar de las tensiones en tres
planos ortogonales, pasando por el punto. Cada plano tiene tres tensiones, el tensor de la
tensin tiene nueve componentes del estrs, que describen completamente el estado de
tensin en un punto.
Cepa
Tensin es la respuesta de un sistema a una tensin aplicada. Cuando un material se carga
con una fuerza, produce una tensin, que provoca luego un material para deformarse.
Tensin de la ingeniera se define como la cantidad de deformacin en la direccin de la
fuerza aplicada dividida por la longitud inicial del material. Esto resulta en un nmero sin
unidades, aunque a menudo se deja en forma unsimplified, tales como pulgadas por
pulgada o en metros por metro. Por ejemplo, la tensin en una barra que se est estirando
en tensin es la cantidad de alargamiento o cambio en la longitud dividida por su longitud
original. Como en el caso del estrs, la distribucin de tensin puede o puede no ser
uniforme en un elemento estructural complejo, dependiendo de la naturaleza de la
condicin de carga.
Si la tensin es pequea, el material slo puede colar una pequea cantidad y el material
volver a su tamao original despus de haber liberado la tensin. Esto se denomina
deformacin elstica, ya que como elstico vuelve a su estado unstressed. Deformacin
elstica se produce slo en un material cuando las tensiones son inferiores a un esfuerzo
crtico llamado la fuerza de la produccin. Si un material se carga ms all de su lmite
elstico, el material permanecer en un estado deformado despus de retira la carga. Esto se
denomina deformacin plstica.
Ingeniera y verdadera tensin y la tensin
La discusin anterior se centra en ingeniera tensiones, que utilizan el rea transversal fijo,
exhum en los clculos. Medidas de tensin y la tensin verdadera representan cambios en
el rea de seccin transversal mediante el uso de los valores instantneos de la zona. La
curva del stress-strain ingeniera no da una indicacin verdadera de las caractersticas de
deformacin de un metal, porque se basa enteramente en las dimensiones originales de la
muestra, y estas dimensiones cambian continuamente durante la prueba para generar los
datos.
Datos de tensin y la tensin de la ingeniera es muy frecuente porque es ms fcil generar
los datos y las propiedades de traccin son adecuadas para los clculos de ingeniera. Al
considerar las curvas tensin-deformacin en la seccin siguiente, sin embargo, debe
entenderse que metales y otros materiales contina tensin-endurecer hasta que fractura y
aumentar la tensin necesaria para producir deformacin adicional.
Concentracin de tensiones
Cuando se aplica una carga axial a una pieza de material de seccin uniforme, la tensin de
al norma se distribuir uniformemente sobre la seccin transversal. Sin embargo, si se
perfora un agujero en el material, la distribucin de la tensin no ser uniforme. Puesto que
el material que se ha eliminado desde el agujero ya no est disponible para cualquier carga,
la carga debe ser redistribuida sobre el material restante. No se redistribuye uniformemente
sobre toda el rea transversal restante pero en cambio se redistribuirn en un patrn
irregular que es el ms alto en los bordes del agujero como se muestra en la imagen. Este
fenmeno se conoce como concentracin de tensin.
Tensile Properties
Tensile properties indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in tension. A
tensile test is a fundamental mechanical test where a carefully prepared specimen is loaded
in a very controlled manner while measuring the applied load and the elongation of the
specimen over some distance. Tensile tests are used to determine the modulus of elasticity,
elastic limit, elongation, proportional limit, reduction in area, tensile strength, yield point,
yield strength and other tensile properties.
The main product of a tensile test is a load versus elongation curve which is then converted
into a stress versus strain curve. Since both the engineering stress and the engineering strain
are obtained by dividing the load and elongation by constant values (specimen geometry
information), the load-elongation curve will have the same shape as the engineering stressstrain curve. The stress-strain curve relates the applied stress to the resulting strain and each
material has its own unique stress-strain curve. A typical engineering stress-strain curve is
shown below. If the true stress, based on the actual cross-sectional area of the specimen, is
used, it is found that the stress-strain curve increases continuously up to fracture.
This is the linear-elastic portion of the curve and it indicates that no plastic deformation has
occurred. In this region of the curve, when the stress is reduced, the material will return to
its original shape. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship defined as Hooke's
Law where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.
The slope of the line in this region where stress is proportional to strain and is called the
modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus. The modulus of elasticity (E) defines the
properties of a material as it undergoes stress, deforms, and then returns to its original
shape after the stress is removed. It is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. To
compute the modulus of elastic , simply divide the stress by the strain in the material. Since
strain is unitless, the modulus will have the same units as the stress, such as kpi or MPa.
The modulus of elasticity applies specifically to the situation of a component being
stretched with a tensile force. This modulus is of interest when it is necessary to compute
how much a rod or wire stretches under a tensile load.
There are several different kinds of moduli depending on the way the material is being
stretched, bent, or otherwise distorted. When a component is subjected to pure shear, for
instance, a cylindrical bar under torsion, the shear modulus describes the linear-elastic
stress-strain relationship.
Axial strain is always accompanied by lateral strains of opposite sign in the two directions
mutually perpendicular to the axial strain. Strains that result from an increase in length are
designated as positive (+) and those that result in a decrease in length are designated as
negative (-). Poisson's ratio is defined as the negative of the ratio of the lateral strain to the
axial strain for a uniaxial stress state.
Poisson's ratio is sometimes also defined as the ratio of the absolute values of lateral and
axial strain. This ratio, like strain, is unitless since both strains are unitless. For stresses
within the elastic range, this ratio is approximately constant. For a perfectly isotropic
elastic material, Poisson's Ratio is 0.25, but for most materials the value lies in the range of
0.28 to 0.33. Generally for steels, Poissons ratio will have a value of approximately 0.3.
This means that if there is one inch per inch of deformation in the direction that stress is
applied, there will be 0.3 inches per inch of deformation perpendicular to the direction that
force is applied.
Only two of the elastic constants are independent so if two constants are known, the third
can be calculated using the following formula:
E = 2 (1 + n) G.
Where:
A couple of additional elastic constants that may be encountered include the bulk modulus
(K), and Lame's constants (m and l). The bulk modulus is used describe the situation where
a piece of material is subjected to a pressure increase on all sides. The relationship between
the change in pressure and the resulting strain produced is the bulk modulus. Lame's
constants are derived from modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio.
Yield Point
In ductile materials, at some point, the stress-strain curve deviates from the straight-line
relationship and Law no longer applies as the strain increases faster than the stress. From
this point on in the tensile test, some permanent deformation occurs in the specimen and the
material is said to react plastically to any further increase in load or stress. The material will
not return to its original, unstressed condition when the load is removed. In brittle
materials, little or no plastic deformation occurs and the material fractures near the end of
the linear-elastic portion of the curve.
With most materials there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behavior, and the
exact point at which plastic deformation begins to occur is hard to determine. Therefore,
various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity of the
strain measurements and the intended use of the data. (See Table) For most engineering
design and specification applications, the yield strength is used. The yield strength is
defined as the stress required to produce a small, amount of plastic deformation. The offset
yield strength is the stress corresponding to the intersection of the stress-strain curve and a
line parallel to the elastic part of the curve offset by a specified strain (in the US the offset
is typically 0.2% for metals and 2% for plastics).
To determine the yield strength using this offset, the point is
In Great Britain, the yield
found on the strain axis (x-axis) of 0.002, and then a line
parallel to the stress-strain line is drawn. This line will intersect strength is often referred
to as the proof stress. The
the stress-strain line slightly after it begins to curve, and that
offset value is either 0.1%
intersection is defined as the yield strength with a 0.2% offset.
A good way of looking at offset yield strength is that after a
or 0.5%
specimen has been loaded to its 0.2 percent offset yield strength
and then unloaded it will be 0.2 percent longer than before the
test. Even though the yield strength is meant to represent the exact point at which the
material becomes permanently deformed, 0.2% elongation is considered to be a tolerable
amount of sacrifice for the ease it creates in defining the yield strength.
Some materials such as gray cast iron or soft copper exhibit essentially no linear-elastic
behavior. For these materials the usual practice is to define the yield strength as the stress
required to produce some total amount of strain.
True elastic limit is a very low value and is related to the motion of a few hundred
dislocations. Micro strain measurements are required to detect strain on order of 2 x 10 -6
in/in.
Proportional limit is the highest stress at which stress is directly proportional to strain. It is
obtained by observing the deviation from the straight-line portion of the stress-strain
curve.
Elastic limit is the greatest stress the material can withstand without any measurable
permanent strain remaining on the complete release of load. It is determined using a
tedious incremental loading-unloading test procedure. With the sensitivity of strain
measurements usually employed in engineering studies (10 -4in/in), the elastic limit is
greater than the proportional limit. With increasing sensitivity of strain measurement, the
value of the elastic limit decreases until it eventually equals the true elastic limit
determined from micro strain measurements.
Yield strength is the stress required to produce a small-specified amount of plastic
deformation. The yield strength obtained by an offset method is commonly used for
engineering purposes because it avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the elastic
limit or proportional limit.
operations such as rolling and extrusion. It also provides an indication of how visible
overload damage to a component might become before the component fractures. Ductility
is also used a quality control measure to assess the level of impurities and proper
processing of a material.
The conventional measures of ductility are
the engineering strain at fracture (usually
called the elongation ) and the reduction of
area at fracture. Both of these properties
are obtained by fitting the specimen back
together after fracture and measuring the
change in length and cross-sectional area.
Elongation is the change in axial length
divided by the original length of the
specimen or portion of the specimen. It is
expressed as a percentage. Because an
appreciable fraction of the plastic
deformation will be concentrated in the
necked region of the tensile specimen, the
value of elongation will depend on the gage length over which the measurement is taken.
The smaller the gage length the greater the large localized strain in the necked region will
factor into the calculation. Therefore, when reporting values of elongation , the gage length
should be given.
One way to avoid the complication from necking is to base the elongation measurement on
the uniform strain out to the point at which necking begins. This works well at times but
some engineering stress-strain curve are often quite flat in the vicinity of maximum loading
and it is difficult to precisely establish the strain when necking starts to occur.
Reduction of area is the change in cross-sectional area divided by the original crosssectional area. This change is measured in the necked down region of the specimen. Like
elongation, it is usually expressed as a percentage.
As previously discussed, tension is just one of the way that a material can be loaded. Other
ways of loading a material include compression, bending, shear and torsion, and there are a
number of standard tests that have been established to characterize how a material performs
under these other loading conditions. A very cursory introduction to some of these other
material properties will be provided on the next page.
Propiedades de traccin
Propiedades de traccin indican cmo reaccionar el material a las fuerzas que se aplican
en tensin. Un ensayo de traccin es una prueba mecnica fundamental donde un
espcimen cuidadosamente preparado se carga en forma muy controlada mientras que mide
Cociente de Poisson a veces tambin se define como el cociente de los valores absolutos de
tensin axial y lateral. Esta relacin, como tensin, es sin unidades, puesto que ambas cepas
son sin unidades. Para las tensiones dentro de la gama elstico, este cociente es
aproximadamente constante. Para un material elstico istropo perfectamente, cociente de
Poisson es 0.25, pero para la mayora de los materiales el valor miente en la gama de 0.28 a
0.33. Generalmente aceros, cociente de Poisson tiene un valor de aproximadamente 0.3.
Esto significa que si hay una pulgada por pulgada de la deformacin en la direccin que el
estrs se aplica, ser 0,3 pulgadas por pulgada de la deformacin perpendicular a la
direccin que la fuerza es aplicada.
Slo dos de las constantes elsticas son independientes por lo que si se conocen dos
constantes, la tercera puede calcularse utilizando la siguiente frmula:
E = 2 (1 + n) G.
Donde:
Algunos materiales tales como hierro fundido gris o cobre suave no exhiben esencialmente
ningn comportamiento lineal elstico. Para estos materiales la prctica usual es definir el
lmite elstico como la tensin necesaria para producir cierta cantidad total de tensin.
Lmite elstico es la mayor tensin que puede soportar el material sin cualquier medible
tensin permanente restante en la completa liberacin de la carga. Se determina
mediante un tedioso procedimiento incremental de prueba de carga y descarga. Con la
sensibilidad de la cepa mediciones generalmente emplean en estudios de ingeniera (10 -4
en/in), el lmite elstico es mayor que el lmite proporcional. Con el aumento de
sensibilidad de la medicin de la tensin, el valor del lmite elstico disminuye hasta que
finalmente es igual al verdadero lmite elstico determinado a partir de medidas de
tensin micro.
Reduccin del rea es el cambio en el rea de seccin transversal dividido por el rea
transversal original. Este cambio se mide en la regin del cuello abajo de la muestra. Como
elongacin, generalmente se expresa como un porcentaje.
Previamente discutido, la tensin es slo uno de la forma en que un material puede ser
cargado. Otras formas de cargar un material incluyen la compresin, flexin, cortante y
torsin, y hay una serie de pruebas estndar que se han establecido para caracterizar cmo
un material realiza bajo estas otras condiciones de carga. Una introduccin muy rpida a
algunas de estas otras propiedades de los materiales se proporcionarn en la pgina
siguiente.
and 2.0 are common. A hardened pin is inserted through the hole and an axial load applied
to the specimen and the pin. The bearing stress is computed by dividing the load applied to
the pin, which bears against the edge of the hole, by the bearing area (the product of the pin
diameter and the sheet or plate thickness). Bearing yield and ultimate stresses are obtained
from bearing tests. BYS is computed from a bearing stress deformation curve by drawing a
line parallel to the initial slope at an offset of 0.02 times the pin diameter. BUS is the
maximum stress withstood by a bearing specimen.
Shear Properties
A shearing stress acts parallel to the stress plane, whereas a tensile or compressive stress
acts normal to the stress plane. Shear properties are primarily used in the design of
mechanically fastened components, webs, and torsion members, and other components
subject to parallel, opposing loads. Shear properties are dependant on the type of shear test
and their is a variety of different standard shear tests that can be performed including the
single-shear test, double-shear test, blanking-shear test, torsion-shear test and others. The
shear modulus of elasticity is considered a basic shear property. Other properties, such as
the proportional limit stress and shear ultimate stress, cannot be treated as basic shear
properties because of form factor effects.
Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. The term can apply to
deformation from indentation, scratching, cutting or bending. In metals, ceramics and most
polymers, the deformation considered is plastic deformation of the surface. For elastomers
and some polymers, hardness is defined at the resistance to elastic deformation of the
surface. The lack of a fundamental definition indicates that hardness is not be a basic
property of a material, but rather a composite one with contributions from the yield
strength, work hardening, true tensile strength, modulus, and others factors. Hardness
measurements are widely used for the quality control of materials because they are quick
and considered to be nondestructive tests when the marks or indentations produced by the
test are in low stress areas.
There are a large variety of methods used for determining the hardness of a substance. A
few of the more common methods are introduced below.
Mohs Hardness Test
One of the oldest ways of measuring hardness was devised by the German mineralogist
Friedrich Mohs in 1812. The Mohs hardness test involves observing whether a materials
surface is scratched by a substance of known or defined hardness. To give numerical values
to this physical property, minerals are ranked along the Mohs scale, which is composed of
10 minerals that have been given arbitrary hardness values. Mohs hardness test, while
greatly facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, is not suitable for accurately
gauging the hardness of industrial materials such as steel or ceramics. For engineering
materials, a variety of instruments have been developed over the years to provide a precise
measure of hardness. Many apply a load and measure the depth or size of the resulting
indentation. Hardness can be measured on the macro-, micro- or nano- scale.
Brinell Hardness Test
The oldest of the hardness test methods in common use on engineering materials today is
the Brinell hardness test. Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The
Brinell test uses a desktop machine to applying a specified load to a hardened sphere of a
specified diameter. The Brinell hardness number, or simply the Brinell number, is obtained
by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the measured surface area of the indentation, in
square millimeters, left on the test surface. The Brinell test is frequently used to determine
the hardness metal forgings and castings that have a large grain structures. The Brinell test
provides a measurement over a fairly large area that is less affected by the course grain
structure of these materials than are Rockwell or Vickers tests.
A wide range of materials can be tested using a Brinell test simply by varying the test load
and indenter ball size. In the USA, Brinell testing is typically done on iron and steel
castings using a 3000Kg test force and a 10mm diameter ball. A 1500 kilogram load is
usually used for aluminum castings. Copper, brass and thin stock are frequently tested
using a 500Kg test force and a 10 or 5mm ball. In Europe Brinell testing is done using a
much wider range of forces and ball sizes and it is common to perform Brinell tests on
small parts using a 1mm carbide ball and a test force as low as 1kg. These low load tests are
commonly referred to as baby Brinell tests. The test conditions should be reported along
with the Brinell hardness number. A value reported as "60 HB 10/1500/30" means that a
Brinell Hardness of 60 was obtained using a 10mm diameter ball with a 1500 kilogram load
applied for 30 seconds.
Rockwell Hardness Test
The Rockwell Hardness test also uses a machine to apply a specific load and then measure
the depth of the resulting impression. The indenter may either be a steel ball of some
specified diameter or a spherical diamond-tipped cone of 120 angle and 0.2 mm tip radius,
called a brale. A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, which causes a small initial
penetration to seat the indenter and remove the effects of any surface irregularities. Then,
the dial is set to zero and the major load is applied. Upon removal of the major load, the
depth reading is taken while the minor load is still on. The hardness number may then be
read directly from the scale. The indenter and the test load used determine the hardness
scale that is used (A, B, C, etc).
For soft materials such as copper alloys, soft steel, and aluminum alloys a 1/16" diameter
steel ball is used with a 100-kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "B" scale. In
testing harder materials, hard cast iron and many steel alloys, a 120 degrees diamond cone
is used with up to a 150 kilogram load and the hardness is read on the "C" scale. There are
several Rockwell scales other than the "B" & "C" scales, (which are called the common
scales). A properly reported Rockwell value will have the hardness number followed by
"HR" (Hardness Rockwell) and the scale letter. For example, 50 HRB indicates that the
material has a hardness reading of 50 on the B scale.
A -Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case hardened steel
B -Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminum alloys, malleable iron, etc.
C -Steel, hard cast irons, pearlitic malleable iron, titanium, deep case hardened
steel and other materials harder than B 100
D -Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
E -Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
F -Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
G -Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons
H -Aluminum, zinc, lead
K, L, M, P, R, S, V -Bearing metals and other very soft or thin materials,
including plastics.
Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
The Rockwell Superficial Hardness Tester is used to test thin materials, lightly carburized
steel surfaces, or parts that might bend or crush under the conditions of the regular test.
This tester uses the same indenters as the standard Rockwell tester but the loads are
reduced. A minor load of 3 kilograms is used and the major load is either 15 or 45
kilograms depending on the indenter used. Using the 1/16" diameter, steel ball indenter, a
"T" is added (meaning thin sheet testing) to the superficial hardness designation. An
example of a superficial Rockwell hardness is 23 HR15T, which indicates the superficial
hardness as 23, with a load of 15 kilograms using the steel ball.
Vickers and Knoop Microhardness Tests
The Vickers and Knoop Hardness Tests are a modification of the Brinell test and are used
to measure the hardness of thin film coatings or the surface hardness of case-hardened
parts. With these tests, a small diamond pyramid is pressed into the sample under loads that
are much less than those used in the Brinell test. The difference between the Vickers and
the Knoop Tests is simply the shape of the diamond pyramid indenter. The Vickers test
uses a square pyramidal indenter which is prone to crack brittle materials. Consequently,
the Knoop test using a rhombic-based (diagonal ratio 7.114:1) pyramidal indenter was
developed which produces longer but shallower indentations. For the same load, Knoop
indentations are about 2.8 times longer than Vickers indentations.
An applied load ranging from 10g to 1,000g is used. This low amount of load creates a
small indent that must be measured under a microscope. The measurements for hard
coatings like TiN must be taken at very high magnification (i.e. 1000X), because the
indents are so small. The surface usually needs to be polished. The diagonals of the
impression are measured, and these values are used to obtain a hardness number (VHN),
usually from a lookup table or chart. The Vickers test can be used to characterize very hard
materials but the hardness is measured over a very small region.
The values are expressed like 2500 HK25 (or HV25) meaning 2500 Hardness Knoop at 25
gram force load. The Knoop and Vickers hardness values differ slightly, but for hard
coatings, the values are close enough to be within the measurement error and can be used
interchangeably.
Scleroscope and Rebound Hardness Tests
The Scleroscope test is a very old test that involves dropping a diamond tipped hammer,
which falls inside a glass tube under the force of its own weight from a fixed height, onto
the test specimen. The height of the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a
graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is arbitrarily chosen and consists on Shore units,
divided into 100 parts, which represent the average rebound from pure hardened highcarbon steel. The scale is continued higher than 100 to include metals having greater
hardness. The Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of the elasticity of the
material and the hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer rebounds,
the harder the material, the higher the rebound.
The Rebound Hardness Test Method is a recent advancement that builds on the
Scleroscope. There are a variety of electronic instruments on the market that measure the
loss of energy of the impact body. These instruments typically use a spring to accelerate a
spherical, tungsten carbide tipped mass towards the surface of the test object. When the
mass contacts the surface it has a specific kinetic energy and the impact produces an
indentation (plastic deformation) on the surface which takes some of this energy from the
impact body. The impact body will lose more energy and it rebound velocity will be less
when a larger indentation is produced on softer material. The velocities of the impact body
before and after impact are measured and the loss of velocity is related to Brinell,
Rockwell, or other common hardness value.
Durometer Hardness Test
A Durometer is an instrument that is commonly used for measuring the indentation
hardness of rubbers/elastomers and soft plastics such as polyolefin, fluoropolymer, and
vinyl. A Durometer simply uses a calibrated spring to apply a specific pressure to an
indenter foot. The indenter foot can be either cone or sphere shaped. An indicating device
measures the depth of indentation. Durometers are available in a variety of models and the
most popular testers are the Model A used for measuring softer materials and the Model D
for harder materials.
Barcol Hardness Test
The Barcol hardness test obtains a hardness value by measuring the penetration of a sharp
steel point under a spring load. The specimen is placed under the indenter of the Barcol
hardness tester and a uniform pressure is applied until the dial indication reaches a
maximum. The Barcol hardness test method is used to determine the hardness of both
reinforced and non-reinforced rigid plastics and to determine the degree of cure of resins
and plastics.
Dureza
La dureza es la resistencia de un material a la deformacin localizada. El trmino puede
aplicarse a deformacin de indentacin, rayar, cortar o doblar. En metales, cermica y la
mayora de polmeros, la deformacin considerada es deformacin plstica de la superficie.
Para algunos polmeros y elastmeros, la dureza se define en la resistencia a la deformacin
elstica de la superficie. La falta de una definicin fundamental indica que la dureza no es
ser una propiedad bsica de un material, sino ms bien un compuesto con contribuciones de
la fuerza de la produccin, endurecimiento, verdadera resistencia a la traccin, mdulo y
otros factores. Mediciones de dureza son ampliamente utilizadas para el control de calidad
de materiales porque son rpidos y considera que las pruebas no destructivas cuando los
marcas o muescas producidas por la prueba son en reas con baja tensin.
Hay una gran variedad de mtodos utilizados para la determinacin de la dureza de una
sustancia. Algunos de los mtodos ms comunes se presentan a continuacin.
Prueba de dureza de Mohs
Una de las formas ms antiguas de medicin de dureza fue ideada por el mineralogista
alemn Friedrich Mohs en 1812. La prueba de dureza de Mohs consiste en observar si una
superficie material es rayada por una sustancia de dureza conocida o definida. Para dar
valores numricos a esta propiedad fsica, minerales se alinean a lo largo de la escala de
Mohs, que se compone de 10 minerales que se han dado valores de dureza arbitraria.
Prueba de dureza de Mohs, mientras que facilita enormemente la identificacin de
minerales en el campo, no es adecuado para medir con precisin la dureza de materiales
industriales como el acero o cermica. Para materiales de ingeniera, una variedad de
instrumentos se han desarrollado sobre los aos para proporcionar una medida exacta de la
dureza. Muchos aplican una carga y medir la profundidad o tamao de la sangra resultante.
Dureza se puede medir en la macro, micro o nano-escala.
Prueba de dureza Brinell
El ms viejo de la prueba de dureza, mtodos de usan comn en ingeniera materiales hoy
en da es la prueba de dureza Brinell. Dr. J. A. Brinell en 1900, invent la prueba Brinell en
Suecia. La prueba de Brinell utiliza una mquina de escritorio a la aplicacin de una carga
especificada a una esfera endurecida de un dimetro especificado. El nmero de dureza
Brinell, o simplemente el nmero Brinell, se obtiene dividiendo la carga utilizada, en
kilogramos, por la superficie medida de la sangra, en milmetros cuadrados, a la izquierda
en la superficie de prueba. La prueba de Brinell se utiliza con frecuencia para determinar la
forja metal dureza y piezas fundidas que tienen una estructura de grano grande. La prueba
Brinell proporciona una medicin sobre un rea bastante grande que es menos afectado por
la estructura del grano de curso de estos materiales que son Rockwell o pruebas de Vickers.
Una amplia gama de materiales puede ser probada usando una prueba Brinell simplemente
variando el tamao de la bola de carga y penetrador de prueba. En los Estados Unidos,
prueba de Brinell se suele hacer en hierro y fundicin de acero con un 3000Kg prueba de
fuerza y una bola de 10mm de dimetro. Una carga de 1500 kg se utiliza generalmente para
los bastidores de aluminio. Cobre, latn y caldo fino se prueban con frecuencia usando una
fuerza de la prueba de 500Kg y una bola de 10 o 5 mm. En Europa Brinell de la prueba es
hecha usando una gama mucho ms amplia de las fuerzas y los tamaos de bola y es comn
para realizar ensayos Brinell en piezas pequeas usando una bola de carburo de 1mm y una
fuerza de la prueba como 1kg. Estas pruebas de baja carga se refieren comnmente como
prueba de Brinell de beb. Las condiciones de prueba deben ser comunicadas junto con el
nmero de dureza Brinell. Un valor reportado como "60 HB 10/1500/30" significa que una
dureza Brinell de 60 fue obtenida usando una bola de 10mm de dimetro con una carga de
1500 kg, aplicada durante 30 segundos.
Prueba de dureza Rockwell
La prueba de dureza Rockwell tambin utiliza una mquina para aplicar una carga
especfica y luego se mide la profundidad de la impresin resultante. El penetrador puede
ser una bola de acero de un dimetro especificado o un cono con punta de diamante esfrico
de 120 de ngulo y radio de punta de 0.2 mm, llamado un brale. Primero se aplica una
carga menor de 10 kg, lo que provoca una penetracin inicial pequeo asentar al penetrador
y eliminar los efectos de las irregularidades superficiales. Luego, el disco est ajustado a
cero y se aplica la carga mayor. Sobre retiro de la carga principal, se toma la lectura de
profundidad mientras la carga menor todava. Entonces, el nmero de dureza se puede leer
directamente de la escala. El penetrador y la carga de la prueba utilizado determinar la
escala de dureza que se usa (A, B, C, etc.).
Para materiales blandos como aleaciones de cobre, acero dulce, aleaciones de aluminio se
utiliza una bola de acero dimetro 1/16" con una carga de 100 kilos de peso y la dureza se
lee en la escala"B". En la prueba de materiales duros, fundicin dura y muchas aleaciones
de acero, se utiliza un cono de diamante de 120 grados con hasta 150 kilogramo carga y la
dureza se lee en la escala de "C". Existen varias escalas de Rockwell que no sean las
escalas "B" y "C", (que se llaman las escalas comunes). Un valor Rockwell correctamente
comunicado tendr el nmero de dureza seguido de "HR" (dureza Rockwell) y la carta de
escala. Por ejemplo, HRB 50 indica que el material tiene una lectura de dureza de 50 en la
escala B.
-Carburos cementados, acero delgado y superficial de la carcasa acero endurecida
B-aleaciones, aceros suaves, aleaciones de aluminio, hierro maleable, etc. de cobre.
C-acero, duros hierros fundido, hierro maleable perltica, titanio, profundo caso endurecido
acero y otros materiales ms que 100 B
D-fina acero y medio caso endurecido acero y perltica maleable
E-fundicin de aleaciones de hierro, aluminio y magnesio, metales del cojinete
F-aleaciones de cobre recocidas, metales de hoja suaves finos
G-fsforo bronce, hierro maleable, cobre berilio
Creep data for general design use are usually obtained under conditions of constant uniaxial
loading and constant temperature. Results of tests are usually plotted as strain versus time
up to rupture. As indicated in the image, creep often takes place in three stages. In the
initial stage, strain occurs at a relatively rapid rate but the rate gradually decreases until it
becomes approximately constant during the second stage. This constant creep rate is called
the minimum creep rate or steady-state creep rate since it is the slowest creep rate during
the test. In the third stage, the strain rate increases until failure occurs.
Creep in service is usually affected by changing conditions of loading and temperature and
the number of possible stress-temperature-time combinations is infinite. While most
materials are subject to creep, the creep mechanisms is often different between metals,
plastics, rubber, concrete.
Stress Rupture Properties
Stress rupture testing is similar to creep testing except that the stresses are higher than those
used in a creep testing. Stress rupture tests are used to determine the time necessary to
produce failure so stress rupture testing is always done until failure. Data is plotted log-log
as in the chart above. A straight line or best fit curve is usually obtained at each
temperature of interest. This information can then be used to extrapolate time to failure for
longer times. A typical set of stress rupture curves is shown below.
Generalmente se obtienen datos de fluencia para diseo general bajo condiciones de carga
uniaxial constante y temperatura constante. Resultados de las pruebas generalmente se
trazan como tensin frente al tiempo a romper. Como se indica en la imagen, fluencia a
menudo lleva a cabo en tres etapas. En la etapa inicial, la tensin se produce a un ritmo
relativamente rpido pero la velocidad disminuye gradualmente hasta que llega a ser
aproximadamente constante durante la segunda etapa. Esta tasa de fluencia constante se
denomina tasa de fluencia mnima o velocidad de fluencia estacionaria ya que es la tasa
ms lenta de fluencia durante la prueba. En la tercera fase, el grado de deformacin
aumenta hasta que se produzca el fallo.
Fluencia en servicio es afectado generalmente por cambio de condiciones de carga y
temperatura y el nmero de combinaciones posibles de tensin-temperatura-tiempo es
infinito. Mientras que la mayora de los materiales est sujetos a la fluencia, los
mecanismos de creep suele ser diferente entre los metales, plsticos, caucho, cemento.
Propiedades de ruptura de tensin
La prueba de la ruptura de la tensin es similar a la prueba excepto que las tensiones son
ms altas que los que se utilizan en una fluencia prueba de arrastramiento. Pruebas de
ruptura de resistencia se utilizan para determinar el tiempo necesario para producir fracaso
por lo que la prueba de la ruptura de la tensin se hace siempre hasta el fallo. Datos estn
trazada log-log como en la tabla anterior. Una lnea recta o mejor curva de ajuste se obtiene
generalmente a cada temperatura de inters. Esta informacin puede utilizarse entonces
para extrapolar el tiempo hasta el fracaso por ms tiempo. A continuacin se muestra un
conjunto tpico de curvas de ruptura de estrs.
Toughness
The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before
fracture is termed toughness. The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability
to absorb energy before fracture. Recall that ductility is a measure of how much something
deforms plastically before fracture, but just because a material is ductile does not make it
tough. The key to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility. A material
with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low
strength and high ductility. Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating the
area under the stress strain curve from a tensile test. This value is simply called material
toughness and it has units of energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow
absorption of energy by the material.
There are several variables that have a profound influence on the toughness of a material.
These variables are:
A metal may possess satisfactory toughness under static loads but may fail under dynamic
loads or impact. As a rule ductility and, therefore, toughness decrease as the rate of loading
increases. Temperature is the second variable to have a major influence on its toughness.
As temperature is lowered, the ductility and toughness also decrease. The third variable is
termed notch effect, has to due with the distribution of stress. A material might display
good toughness when the applied stress is uniaxial; but when a multiaxial stress state is
produced due to the presence of a notch, the material might not withstand the simultaneous
elastic and plastic deformation in the various directions.
There are several standard types of toughness test that generate data for specific loading
conditions and/or component design approaches. Three of the toughness properties that
will be discussed in more detail are 1) impact toughness, 2) notch toughness and 3) fracture
toughness.
Dureza
La capacidad de un metal para deformarse plsticamente y para absorber la energa en el
proceso antes de fractura se denomina tenacidad. El nfasis de esta definicin debe
colocarse sobre la capacidad de absorber energa antes de fractura. Recordemos que la
ductilidad es una medida de cunto algo deforma plsticamente ante la fractura, pero slo
porque un material es dctil no hacen resistente. La clave de la dureza es una buena
combinacin de resistencia y ductilidad. Un material con alta resistencia y alta ductilidad
tendr ms resistencia que un material con baja resistencia y alta ductilidad. Por lo tanto,
una forma de medir la dureza es calculando el rea bajo la curva de tensin de tensin de un
ensayo de traccin. Este valor se llama simplemente "material dureza" y tiene unidades de
energa por volumen. Material dureza equivale a una absorcin lenta de la energa por el
material.
Hay varias variables que tienen una profunda influencia sobre la dureza de un material.
Estas variables son:
Temperatura
Efecto de la muesca
Un metal puede poseer resistencia satisfactoria bajo cargas estticas, pero puede fallar bajo
cargas dinmicas o de impacto. Como una regla de ductilidad y, por lo tanto, la dureza
disminuyen a medida que la tasa de aumento de carga. La temperatura es la segunda
variable a tener una gran influencia en su dureza. Como se baja la temperatura, la ductilidad
y dureza tambin disminuyen. La tercera variable se denomina efecto de muesca, tiene a la
deuda con la distribucin de la tensin. Un material puede mostrar buena dureza cuando la
tensin aplicada es uniaxial; pero cuando un estado de esfuerzo multiaxial se produce
debido a la presencia de una muesca, el material no puede resistir la deformacin elstica y
plstica simultnea en varias direcciones.
Hay varios tipos de prueba de dureza que generan datos para condiciones de carga
especfica y/o enfoques de diseo de componentes. Son tres de las propiedades de dureza
que se discutir en ms detalle 1) impacto dureza, 2) muesca dureza y resistencia a la
fractura 3).
Impact Toughness
The impact toughness (AKA Impact strength) of a material can be determined with a
Charpy or Izod test. These tests are named after their inventors and were developed in the
early 1900s before fracture mechanics theory was available. Impact properties are not
directly used in fracture mechanics calculations, but the economical impact tests continue
to be used as a quality control method to assess notch sensitivity and for comparing the
relative toughness of engineering materials.
The two tests use different specimens and
methods of holding the specimens, but both
tests make use of a pendulum-testing
machine. For both tests, the specimen is
broken by a single overload event due to the
impact of the pendulum. A stop pointer is
used to record how far the pendulum swings
back up after fracturing the specimen. The
impact toughness of a metal is determined
by measuring the energy absorbed in the
fracture of the specimen. This is simply
obtained by noting the height at which the
pendulum is released and the height to
which the pendulum swings after it has
struck the specimen . The height of the
pendulum times the weight of the pendulum
produces the potential energy and the difference in potential energy of the pendulum at the
start and the end of the test is equal to the absorbed energy.
Since toughness is greatly affected by temperature, a
Charpy or Izod test is often repeated numerous times
with each specimen tested at a different temperature.
This produces a graph of impact toughness for the
material as a function of temperature. An impact
toughness versus temperature graph for a steel is
shown in the image. It can be seen that at low
temperatures the material is more brittle and impact
toughness is low. At high temperatures the material
is more ductile and impact toughness is higher. The
transition temperature is the boundary between
brittle and ductile behavior and this temperature is
often an extremely important consideration in the
selection of a material.
Notch-Toughness
Notch toughness is the ability that a material possesses to absorb energy in the presence of
a flaw. As mentioned previously, in the presence of a flaw, such as a notch or crack, a
material will likely exhibit a lower level of toughness. When a flaw is present in a material,
loading induces a triaxial tension stress state adjacent to the flaw. The material develops
plastic strains as the yield stress is exceeded in the region near the crack tip. However, the
amount of plastic deformation is restricted by the surrounding material, which remains
elastic. When a material is prevented from deforming plastically, it fails in a brittle manner.
Notch-toughness is measured with a variety of specimens such as the Charpy V-notch
impact specimen or the dynamic tear test specimen. As with regular impact testing the tests
are often repeated numerous times with specimens tested at a different temperature. With
these specimens and by varying the loading speed and the temperature, it is possible to
generate curves such as those shown in the graph. Typically only static and impact testing
is conducted but it should be recognized that many components in service see intermediate
loading rates in the range of the dashed red line.
Dureza de la muesca
La dureza de la muesca es la capacidad que posee un material para absorber energa en
presencia de un defecto. Como se mencion anteriormente, en presencia de un defecto,
como una muesca o un crack, un material probablemente exhibir un menor nivel de
dureza. Cuando una falla se presente en un material, carga induce un estado de estrs de
tensin triaxial adyacente a la falla. El material desarrolla cepas de plstico como se supera
la tensin de produccin en la regin cerca de la punta de la grieta. Sin embargo, la
cantidad de deformacin plstica est restringida por el material circundante, que sigue
siendo elstico. Cuando un material se impide deformar plsticamente, no de una manera
frgil.
Dureza de la muesca se mide con una variedad de muestras como la muestra de impacto
Charpy V-notch o la probeta rotura dinmica. Como con las pruebas de impacto regular las
pruebas son a menudo repetidas numerosas veces con muestras analizadas a diferentes
temperaturas. Con estos ejemplares y variando la velocidad de carga y la temperatura, es
posible generar curvas como las mostradas en el grfico. Por lo general slo esttica y
prueba del impacto se lleva a cabo pero debe reconocerse que muchos componentes en
servicio ven tarifas de carga intermedio en la gama de la lnea roja discontinua.
Fracture Toughness
Fracture toughness is an indication of the amount of stress required to propagate a
preexisting flaw. It is a very important material property since the occurrence of flaws is
not completely avoidable in the processing, fabrication, or service of a material/component.
Flaws may appear as cracks, voids, metallurgical inclusions, weld defects, design
discontinuities, or some combination thereof. Since engineers can never be totally sure that
a material is flaw free, it is common practice to assume that a flaw of some chosen size will
be present in some number of components and use the linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM) approach to design critical components. This approach uses the flaw size and
features, component geometry, loading conditions and the material property called fracture
toughness to evaluate the ability of a component containing a flaw to resist fracture.
A parameter called the stress-intensity factor (K) is used to
determine the fracture toughness of most materials. A Roman
numeral subscript indicates the mode of fracture and the three
modes of fracture are illustrated in the image to the right. Mode I
fracture is the condition in which the crack plane is normal to the
direction of largest tensile loading. This is the most commonly
encountered mode and, therefore, for the remainder of the material
we will consider KI
The stress intensity factor is a function of loading, crack size, and
structural geometry. The stress intensity factor may be represented
by the following equation:
(plane-strain) conditions that a material can withstand without fracture. As the stress
intensity factor reaches the KIC value, unstable fracture occurs. As with a materials other
mechanical properties, KIC is commonly reported in reference books and other sources.
fracture toughness requires a specimen whose thickness exceeds some critical thickness
(B). Testing has shown that plane-strain conditions generally prevail when:
Where: B
Where: sc
KIC
KIC values are used also used to calculate the critical stress value when a crack of a given
length is found in a component.
Where: a
KIC
Orientation
The fracture toughness of a material commonly varies with grain direction. Therefore, it is
customary to specify specimen and crack orientations by an ordered pair of grain direction
symbols. The first letter designates the grain direction normal to the crack plane. The
second letter designates the grain direction parallel to the fracture plane. For flat sections of
various products, e.g., plate, extrusions, forgings, etc., in which the three grain directions
are designated (L) longitudinal, (T) transverse, and (S) short transverse, the six principal
fracture path directions are: L-T, L-S, T-L, T-S, S-L and S-T.
Resistencia a la fractura
Resistencia a la fractura es una indicacin de la cantidad de tensin necesaria para propagar
un defecto preexistente. Es una propiedad del material muy importante ya que la ocurrencia
de fallas no es completamente evitable en el procesamiento, fabricacin o servicio de un
componente de material. Pueden aparecer defectos como grietas, huecos, metalrgicas
inclusiones, defectos de soldadura, diseo discontinuidades o alguna combinacin de stos.
Puesto que los ingenieros nunca pueden estar totalmente seguros de que un material es
libre, es prctica comn suponer que un defecto de cierto tamao solicitada ser presentes
en cierto nmero de componentes y utilizar el enfoque de fractura elstica lineal (LEFM) la
mecnica para el diseo de componentes crticos de falla. Este enfoque utiliza el tamao del
defecto y caractersticas, geometra del componente, carga de las condiciones y la
propiedad del material llamada resistencia a la fractura para evaluar la capacidad de un
componente que contiene un defecto para resistir la fractura.
Un parmetro llamado el factor de intensidad de estrs (K) se
utiliza para determinar la resistencia a la fractura de materiales
ms. Un subndice del nmero romano indica el modo de fractura y
los tres modos de fractura se ilustran en la imagen a la derecha.
Modo que la fractura es la condicin en la que el plano de la grieta
es normal a la direccin de la carga de resistencia a la traccin ms
grande. Este es el modo ms comnmente encontrado y, por lo
tanto, para el resto del material lo tendremos en cuenta Kyo
El factor de intensidad del estrs es una funcin de carga, crack
tamao y geometra. El factor de intensidad de estrs puede
representarse por la siguiente ecuacin:
convierte relativamente constante y este valor, KIC , es una verdadera propiedad del
material que se llama la resistencia a la fractura de la deformacin plana. La relacin entre
la intensidad de tensin Kyoy fractura dureza, KIC, es similar a la relacin entre el estrs y la
tensin de traccin. La intensidad del estrs, K, representa el nivel de "estrs" en la punta
de la grieta y la fractura dureza, KIC, es el mayor valor de intensidad de tensin que un
material en condiciones muy concretas (deformacin plana) que un material puede resistir
sin fractura. Como el factor de intensidad de tensin alcanza el valor de KIC , se produce
fractura inestable. Como con un material otras propiedades mecnicas, KIC se divulga
comnmente en libros de referencia y otras fuentes.
un componente relativamente
deformarse lateralmente como
material circundante. El
condiciones tiende a triaxial y
perpendicular al eje de tensin
propagacin de la grieta
carga en tensin. Esta
"deformacin plana" y se
gruesas. Bajo condiciones de
materiales comportan
hasta la fractura de estrs se
produce la fractura rpida.
poca o ninguna deformacin
este modo se denomina
Donde: B
intermedio, es ms apropiado utilizar la integral J o los datos de R-curva, que lento, estable
fractura (desgarramiento dctil) en lugar de la fractura (frgil) rpido.
Usos de la resistencia a la fractura de la deformacin plana
Valores deIC K se utilizan para determinar la longitud de grieta crtica cuando se aplica una
determinada tensin a un componente.
Donde: s c
K valores deIC se utilizan tambin permite calcular el valor de esfuerzo crtico cuando una
grieta de longitud dada se encuentra en un componente.
Donde: un
KIC
Orientacin
La resistencia a la fractura de un material comnmente vara con la direccin del grano. Por
lo tanto, es habitual especificar a modelo y crack orientaciones por un par ordenado de
smbolos de direccin de grano. La primera letra seala la direccin de grano normal al
plano de la grieta. La segunda letra seala la direccin de grano paralela al plano de
fractura. Para secciones planas de diversos productos, por ejemplo, placa, extrusiones,
piezas forjadas, etc., en el que se sealan las direcciones de tres granos longitudinal,
transversal de (T) (L) y transversal corto (S), las seis direcciones de la ruta principal de
fractura son: L-T L-S, T-L, T-S, S-L y S-T.
Fatigue Properties
Fatigue cracking is one of the primary damage mechanisms of structural components.
Fatigue cracking results from cyclic stresses that are below the ultimate tensile stress, or
even the yield stress of the material. The name fatigue is based on the concept that a
material becomes tired and fails at a stress level below the nominal strength of the
material. The facts that the original bulk design strengths are not exceeded and the only
warning sign of an impending fracture is an often hard to see crack, makes fatigue damage
especially dangerous.
The fatigue life of a component can be expressed as the number of loading cycles required
to initiate a fatigue crack and to propagate the crack to critical size. Therefore, it can be said
that fatigue failure occurs in three stages crack initiation; slow, stable crack growth; and
rapid fracture.
As discussed previously, dislocations play a major role in the
fatigue crack initiation phase. In the first stage, dislocations
accumulate near surface stress concentrations and form
structures called persistent slip bands (PSB) after a large
number of loading cycles. PSBs are areas that rise above
(extrusion) or fall below (intrusion) the surface of the
component due to movement of material along slip planes. This
leaves tiny steps in the surface that serve as stress risers where
tiny cracks can initiate. These tiny crack (called microcracks)
nucleate along planes of high shear stress which is often 45o to
the loading direction.
In the second stage of fatigue, some of the tiny microcracks join together and begin to
propagate through the material in a direction that is perpendicular to the maximum tensile
stress. Eventually, the growth of one or a few crack of the larger cracks will dominate over
the rest of the cracks. With continued cyclic loading, the growth of the dominate crack or
cracks will continue until the remaining uncracked section of the component can no longer
support the load. At this point, the fracture toughness is exceeded and the remaining crosssection of the material experiences rapid fracture. This rapid overload fracture is the third
stage of fatigue failure.
Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
In order for fatigue cracks to initiate, three basic factors are necessary. First, the loading
pattern must contain minimum and maximum peak values with large enough variation or
fluctuation. The peak values may be in tension or compression and may change over time
but the reverse loading cycle must be sufficiently great for fatigue crack initiation.
Secondly, the peak stress levels must be of sufficiently high value. If the peak stresses are
too low, no crack initiation will occur. Thirdly, the material must experience a sufficiently
large number of cycles of the applied stress. The number of cycles required to initiate and
grow a crack is largely dependant on the first to factors.
In addition to these three basic factors, there are a host of other variables, such as stress
concentration, corrosion, temperature, overload, metallurgical structure, and residual
stresses which can affect the propensity for fatigue. Since fatigue cracks generally initiate at
a surface, the surface condition of the component being loaded will have an effect on its
fatigue life. Surface roughness is important because it is directly related to the level and
number of stress concentrations on the surface. The higher the stress concentration the more
likely a crack is to nucleate. Smooth surfaces increase the time to nucleation. Notches,
scratches, and other stress risers decrease fatigue life. Surface residual stress will also have
a significant effect on fatigue life. Compressive residual stresses from machining, cold
working, heat treating will oppose a tensile load and thus lower the amplitude of cyclic
loading
The figure shows several types of loading that could initiate a fatigue crack. The upper left
figure shows sinusoidal loading going from a tensile stress to a compressive stress. For this
type of stress cycle the maximum and minimum stresses are equal. Tensile stress is
considered positive, and compressive stress is negative. The figure in the upper right shows
sinusoidal loading with the minimum and maximum stresses both in the tensile realm.
Cyclic compression loading can also cause fatigue. The lower figure shows variableamplitude loading, which might be experienced by a bridge or airplane wing or any other
component that experiences changing loading patterns. In variable-amplitude loading, only
those cycles exceeding some peak threshold will contribute to fatigue cracking.
Propiedades de fatiga
Agrietarse de la fatiga es uno de los mecanismos de dao primario de componentes
estructurales. Fatiga grietas resultados de tensiones cclicas que estn por debajo de la
tensin de traccin final, o incluso la fluencia del material. El nombre "la fatiga" se basa en
el concepto que un material se convierte en "cansado" y no a un nivel de estrs por debajo
de la resistencia nominal del material. Los hechos que el diseo original de a granel no se
superan las fuerzas y slo avisando de una inminente fractura es un a menudo difcil ver
crack, hace fatiga daar especialmente peligroso.
La vida a fatiga de un componente puede ser expresada como el nmero de ciclos
necesarios para iniciar una grieta de fatiga y para propagar la fisura al tamao crtico de
carga. Por lo tanto, se puede decir que fallo de cansancio ocurre en tres etapas: iniciacin de
la grieta; crecimiento de las grietas lenta y estable; y fractura rpida.
Como comentamos anteriormente, dislocaciones juegan un papel importante en la fase de
iniciacin de grieta de fatiga. En la primera etapa, dislocaciones acumulan cerca de
concentraciones de tensin superficial y forma estructuras bandas denominada deslizante
persistente (PSB) despus de un gran nmero de ciclos de carga. Subsidiarios son reas que
superan (extrusin) o inferiores (intrusin) de la superficie del componente debido al
movimiento de material a lo largo de planos de deslizamiento. Esto deja pequeos pasos en
la superficie que sirven como elevadores de tensin donde pueden iniciar pequeas grietas.
Estos crack pequeo (llamado microfisuras) nuclear a lo largo de planos de alta tensin de
esquileo, que suele ser 45o a la direccin de la carga.
En la segunda etapa de la fatiga, algunas de las pequeas microfisuras se unen y comienzan
a propagarse a travs del material en una direccin que es perpendicular a la tensin de
traccin mxima. Finalmente, el crecimiento de uno o varios crack de las grietas ms
grandes dominar sobre el resto de las grietas. Con carga cclica continua, el crecimiento de
la grieta dominante o grietas continuar hasta que la seccin intactas restantes del
componente ya no puede soportar la carga. En este punto, se supera la resistencia a la
fractura y la seccin restante del material experimenta fractura rpida. Esta fractura de la
sobrecarga rpida es la tercera etapa de la falta de fatiga.
Factores que afectan la vida de fatiga
A fin de grietas de fatiga al iniciar, son necesarios tres factores bsicos. En primer lugar, el
patrn de carga debe contener valores de pico mnimo y mximo con bastante grande
variacin o fluctuacin. Los valores mximos pueden estar en tensin o compresin y
pueden cambiar con el tiempo pero el ciclo de carga inversa debe ser suficientemente
grande para la iniciacin de grieta de fatiga. En segundo lugar, los niveles de tensin de
pico deben ser de valor suficientemente alto. Si las tensiones de pico estn demasiado bajas,
no se producir la iniciacin de la grieta. En tercer lugar, el material debe experimentar un
nmero suficientemente grande de ciclos de la tensin aplicada. El nmero de ciclos
necesarios para iniciar y hacer crecer una grieta depende en gran medida los primeros
factores.
Adems de estos tres factores bsicos, hay una serie de otras variables, como concentracin
de tensiones, corrosin, temperatura, sobrecarga, estructura metalrgica y tensiones
residuales que pueden afectar a la propensin a la fatiga. Puesto que las grietas de fatiga se
inician generalmente en una superficie, la condicin de la superficie de la componente de
carga tendr un efecto sobre su vida de fatiga. Rugosidad de la superficie es importante
porque est directamente relacionada con el nivel y el nmero de concentracin de
tensiones en la superficie. Cuanto mayor sea la concentracin de estrs ms probable un
crack es nuclear. Superficies lisas aumentan el tiempo de nucleacin. Muescas, rayas y
otras bandas de estrs, disminuyen la vida de fatiga. Tensiones residuales superficiales
tambin tendr un efecto significativo sobre la vida de fatiga. Compresiva residual
tensiones del mecanizado, trabajo fro, tratamiento trmico ser oponerse a una carga de
traccin y as disminuir la amplitud de carga cclica
La figura muestra varios tipos de carga podran iniciar una grieta de fatiga. La figura
superior izquierda muestra carga sinusoidal pasando de una tensin de traccin a una
tensin compresiva. Para este tipo de ciclo de tensin las tensiones mximas y mnimas son
iguales. Tensin de traccin se considera positivo, y esfuerzo de compresin es negativo.
La figura en la parte superior derecha muestra carga sinusoidal con el mnimo y mximo
destaca tanto en el resistencia del Reino. Carga de compresin cclica tambin puede causar
fatiga. La figura inferior muestra la carga de amplitud variable, que puede ser
experimentada por un ala de puente o de avin o cualquier otro componente que
experimenta cambio de modelos de carga. En carga de amplitud variable, solamente esos
ciclos superior a cierto umbral pico contribuir a agrietarse de la fatiga.
a fatigue threshold (most nonferrous metallic alloys do not) and for these materials the test
is usually terminated after about 108 or 5x108 cycles.
Since the amplitude of the cyclic loading has a major effect on the fatigue performance, the
S-N relationship is determined for one specific loading amplitude. The amplitude is express
as the R ratio value, which is the minimum peak stress divided by the maximum peak
stress. (R=min/max). It is most common to test at an R ratio of 0.1 but families of curves,
with each curve at a different R ratio, are often developed.
A variation to the cyclic stress controlled fatigue test is the cyclic strain controlled test. In
this test, the strain amplitude is held constant during cycling. Strain controlled cyclic
loading is more representative of the loading found in thermal cycling, where a component
expands and contracts in response to fluctuations in the operating temperature.
It should be noted that there are several short comings of S-N fatigue data. First, the
conditions of the test specimens do not always represent actual service conditions. For
example, components with surface conditions, such as pitting from corrosion, which differs
from the condition of the test specimens will have significantly different fatigue
performance. Furthermore, there is often a considerable amount of scatter in fatigue data
even when carefully machined standard specimens out of the same lot of material are used.
Since there is considerable scatter in the data, a reduction factor is often applied to the S-N
curves to provide conservative values for the design of components.
Una variacin a la prueba de fatiga cclica estrs controlado es la prueba de esfuerzo cclico
controlado. En esta prueba, la amplitud de la tensin se mantiene constante durante el ciclo.
Cargas cclicas de tensin controlada es ms representativo de la carga en ciclos trmicos,
donde el componente se expande y contrae en respuesta a las fluctuaciones en la
temperatura de funcionamiento.
Cabe sealar que hay varias idas corto de datos de fatiga S-N. En primer lugar, las
condiciones de las probetas no siempre representan las condiciones de servicio reales. Por
ejemplo, los componentes con condiciones de la superficie, como picaduras de corrosin,
que difiere de la condicin de los especmenes de prueba tendr rendimiento
significativamente diferente de la fatiga. Adems, suele haber una considerable cantidad de
dispersin en datos de fatiga incluso cuando se utilizan muestras estndar cuidadosamente
trabajados a mquina de un mismo lote de material. Ya que hay considerable dispersin en
los datos, un factor de reduccin se aplica a menudo a las curvas S-N para proporcionar
valores conservadores para el diseo de componentes.
crack.
The data can be reduced to a single curve by
presenting the data in terms of crack growth rate per
cycle of loading (Da/ DN or da/dN) versus the
fluctuation of the stress-intensity factor at the tip of
the crack (DKI). DKI is representative of the
mechanical driving force, and it incorporates the
effect of changing crack length and the magnitude
of the cyclic loading. (See the page on fracture
toughness for more information on the stressintensity factor.) The most common form of
presenting fatigue crack growth data is a log-log
plot of da/dN versus DKI.
The fatigue crack propagation behavior of many
materials can be divided into three regions as shown
in the image. Region I is the fatigue threshold
region where the Dk is too low to propagate a
crack. Region II encompasses data where the rate of
crack growth changes roughly linearly with a
change in stress intensity fluctuation. In region III, small increases in the stress intensity
amplitude, produce relatively large increases in crack growth rate since the material is
nearing the point of unstable fracture.