Pir Sensor Based Energy Saver

PIR SENSOR BASED POWER SAVER FOR AUDITORIUM AND CONFERENCE HALL
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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO PIR SENSOR BASED POWER SAVER
Embedded systems have grown tremendously in recent years, not only in their popularity
but also in their complexity. Gadgets are increasingly becoming intelligent and autonomous.
Refrigerators, air-conditioners, automobiles, mobile phones etc are some of the common
examples of devices with built in intelligence. These devices function based on operating and
environmental parameters.
The intelligence of smart devices resides in embedded systems. An embedded system, in
general, in co-operates hardware, operating systems, low-level software binding the operating
system and peripheral devices, and communication software to enable the device to perform the
pre-defined functions. An embedded system performs a single, well-defined task, is tightly
constrained, is reactive and computes results in real time.
Let us take a detailed look at these features of embedded systems:
Single functioned: An embedded system executes a specific program repeatedly. For

example, a pager is always a pager. In contrast a desktop system executes a variety of
programs like spreadsheets, word processors, etc. However there are exceptions where in
an embedded systems program is updated with newer program versions. Cell phones are
examples of being updated in such a manner.

Tightly constrained: All computing systems have constraints on design metrics but those
on embedded systems can be especially tight. A design metric is a measure of an
implementations features, such as cost, size performance and power.

Reactive and real time: Many embedded systems must continually react to changes in
the systems environment and must compute certain results in real time without delay.
1.1 EMBEDDED HARDWARE

All embedded systems need a microprocessor, and the kinds of microprocessors used in
them are quite varied. A list of some of the common microprocessor families is the ZILOG Z8
family, Intel 805/80188/x 86 families, Motorola 68k family and the PowerPC family.
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1.2 EMBEDDED SOFTWARE

The software for the embedded systems is called firmware. The firmware will be written
in assembly languages for time or resource critical operations or using higher-level languages
like C or embedded C. The software will be simulated using micro code simulators for the target
processor. Since they are supposed to perform only specific tasks these programs are stored in
Read Only Memories (ROMs).
1.3 APPLICATIONS
Embedded software is present in almost every electronic device you use today. There is
embedded software inside your watch, cellular phone, automobile, thermostats, industrial control
equipment and scientific and medical equipment. Defence services use embedded software to
guide missiles and detect aircrafts communication satellites, medical instruments and deep space
probes would have been nearly impossible without these systems. Embedded systems cover such
as broad range of products that generalization is difficult.
Here are some broad categories:
Aerospace and Defence Electronics (ADE)

Consumer/Internet applications
Data Communications
Digital imaging
Medical electronic Mobile data infrastructures
1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
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Embedded
System
Software
Hardware
ALP
C
VB
Processor
Peripherals
memory
Etc.,
Fig 1.1 Block Diagram Of Embedded Systems

Software deals with the languages like ALP, C, and VB etc., and Hardware deals with
Processors, Peripherals, and Memory.
Memory:
It is used to store data or address.
Peripherals:
These are the external devices connected
Processor:
It is an IC which is used to perform some task
Processors are classified into four types like:
Micro Processor (p)
Micro controller (c)
Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
The project automatic auditorium auditorium control system using microcontroller is an

interesting project which uses AT89S52 microcontroller. this system switches on the light only in
the darkness. PIR sensor is used to recognise the movement or motion. If the movement is
identified in the room, then the light will be automatically switched on else it will be off.
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The PIR sensors also senses the temperature of the room. If the room
temperature is high then the Fans will be switched on else it will be off. This sensation of
temperature will be done by using thermistor. This thermistor is placed in the PIR sensor. It
senses the temperature and swich on the fan. Thermistor reads the temperature value to the ADC.
Then it coverts the analog signal to digital signal.
The operation of the appliances (light or fan) will be done by using the
driver circuit. Depending upon the recognisation by the PIR sensor the driver circuit will switch
on and off the fan and light. The buzzer is used to indicate us that whether the fans and light are
on or off.
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BLOCK DIAGRAM
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Fig 1.2 : Block diagram of PIR sensor
CHAPTER 2
MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52
2.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF 8051
In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8 bit microcontroller called 8051. This
microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and
four ports all on a single chip. At the time it was also referred as A SYSTEM ON A CHIP
AT89S52:
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of
in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density
nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction
set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or
by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-grammer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with
in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful
microcontroller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many, embedded
control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash,
256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters,
a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and
clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero
frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the
CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling
all other chip functions until the next interrupt
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Fig 2.1 Diagram of 8051 Microcontroller
Fig 2.2: Diagram of an entire computer on a single chip
8031 has 128 bytes of RAM, two timers and 6 interrupts.

8051 has 4K ROM, 128 bytes of RAM, two timers and 6 interrupts.
8052 has 8K ROM, 256 bytes of RAM, three timers and 8 interrupts.
Of the three microcontrollers, 8051 is the most preferable. Microcontroller supports both
serial and parallel communication.
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In the concerned project 8052 microcontroller is used. Here microcontroller used is

AT89S52, which is manufactured by ATMEL laboratories.
The 8051 is the name of a big family of microcontrollers. The device which we are going to use
along this tutorial is the 'AT89S52' which is a typical 8051 microcontroller manufactured by
Atmel. Note that this part doesn't aim to explain the functioning of the different components of
a 89S52 microcontroller, but rather to give you a general idea of the organization of the chip and
the available features, which shall be explained in detail along this tutorial.
The block diagram provided by Atmel in their datasheet showing the architecture the 89S52
device can seem very complicated, and since we are going to use the C high level language to
program
it,
simpler
architecture
can
be
represented
as
the
figure
1.2.A.
This figures shows the main features and components that the designer can interact with. You can
notice that the 89S52 has 4 different ports, each one having 8 Input/output lines providing a total
of 32 I/O lines. Those ports can be used to output DATA and orders do other devices, or to read
the state of a sensor, or a switch. Most of the ports of the 89S52 have 'dual function' meaning that
they can be used for two different functions: the fist one is to perform input/output operations
and the second one is used to implement special features of the microcontroller like counting
external pulses, interrupting the execution of the program according to external events,
performing serial data transfer or connecting the chip to a computer to update the software.
2.2 NECESSITY OF MICROCONTROLLERS:
Microprocessors brought the concept of programmable devices and made many
applications of intelligent equipment. Most applications, which do not need large amount of data
and program memory, tended to be costly.
The microprocessor system had to satisfy the data and program requirements so,
sufficient RAM and ROM are used to satisfy most applications .The peripheral control
equipment also had to be satisfied. Therefore, almost all-peripheral chips were used in the
design. Because of these additional peripherals cost will be comparatively high.
An example:
8085 chip needs:
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An Address latch for separating address from multiplex address and data.32-KB RAM and
32-KB ROM to be able to satisfy most applications. As also Timer / Counter, Parallel
programmable port, Serial port, and Interrupt controller are needed for its efficient applications.
In comparison a typical Micro controller 8051 chip has all that the 8051 board has except
a reduced memory as follows.
4K bytes of ROM as compared to 32-KB, 128 Bytes of RAM as compared to 32-KB.
Bulky:
On comparing a board full of chips (Microprocessors) with one chip with all components
in it (Microcontroller).
Debugging:
Lots of Microprocessor circuitry and program to debug. In Micro controller there is no
Microprocessor circuitry to debug.
Slower Development time: As we have observed Microprocessors need a lot of debugging at
board level and at program level, where as, Micro controller do not have the excessive circuitry
and the built-in peripheral chips are easier to program for operation.
So peripheral devices like Timer/Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial
Communication Port, Interrupt controller and so on, which were most often used were integrated
with the Microprocessor to present the Micro controller .RAM and ROM also were integrated in
the same chip. The ROM size was anything from 256 bytes to 32Kb or more. RAM was
optimized to minimum of 64 bytes to 256 bytes or more.
Microprocessor has following instructions to perform:
1. Reading instructions or data from program memory ROM.
2. Interpreting the instruction and executing it.
3. Microprocessor Program is a collection of instructions stored in a Nonvolatile memory.
4. Read Data from I/O device
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5. Process the input read, as per the instructions read in program memory.
6. Read or write data to Data memory.
7. Write data to I/O device and output the result of processing to O/P device.
2.3 INTRODUCTION TO AT89S52
The system requirements and control specifications clearly rule out the use of 16, 32 or 64
bit micro controllers or microprocessors. Systems using these may be earlier to implement due to
large number of internal features. They are also faster and more reliable but, the above
application is satisfactorily served by 8-bit micro controller. Using an inexpensive 8-bit
Microcontroller will doom the 32-bit product failure in any competitive market place. Coming to
the question of why to use 89S52 of all the 8-bit Microcontroller available in the market the main
answer would be because it has 8kB Flash and 256 bytes of data RAM32 I/O lines, three 16-bit
timer/counters, a Eight-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip
oscillator, and clock circuitry.
In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The
Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next hardware reset. The Flash program memory supports both parallel
programming and in Serial In-System Programming (ISP). The 89S52 is also In-Application
Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be reconfigured even while the
application is running.
By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is
a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many
embedded control applications.
2.4 FEATURES
Compatible with MCS-51 Products

8K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
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Three-level Program Memory Lock

256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Programmable Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power-off Flag
Fast Programming Time
Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)
2.5 PIN DIAGRAM
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FIG-2.3 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89S52 IC

2.6 PIN DESCRIPTION
Pin Description
VCC
Supply voltage.
GND
Ground.
Port 0
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Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedance
inputs.Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed loworder address/data bus during
accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pullups. Port 0 also
receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program
verification.
External pullups are required during program verification.
Port 1
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be
configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2
trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the
low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
Table 2.1 : Alternate functions of port 1
Port 2
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Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by
the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order
address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data
memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong
internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2
also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and
verification.
Port 3
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various
special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table. Port 3 also receives some
control signals for Flash programming and verification.
Table 2.2 : Alternate functions of port 2
RST
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Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO
bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit
DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled. ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable (ALE) is
an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This
pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation,
ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external
timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to
external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location
8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the
pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in
external execution mode.
PSEN
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.
EA/VPP
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code
from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if
lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC
for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage
(VPP) during Flash programming.
XTAL1
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the
internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2
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Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.
FIG-2.4 Functional block diagram of micro controller

The 8052 Oscillator and Clock:
The heart of the 8051 circuitry that generates the clock pulses by which all the internal
all internal operations are synchronized. Pins XTAL1 And XTAL2 is provided for connecting a
resonant network to form an oscillator. Typically a quartz crystal and capacitors are employed.
The crystal frequency is the basic internal clock frequency of the microcontroller. The
manufacturers make 8051 designs that run at specific minimum and maximum frequencies
typically 1 to 16 MHz.
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Fig-2.5 Oscillator and timing circuit

MEMORIES
Types of memory:
The 8052 have three general types of memory. They are on-chip memory, external Code memory
and external Ram. On-Chip memory refers to physically existing memory on the micro controller
itself. External code memory is the code memory that resides off chip. This is often in the form
of an external EPROM. External RAM is the Ram that resides off chip. This often is in the form
of standard static RAM or flash RAM.
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a) Code memory
Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8052 programs that is to be run. This memory
is limited to 64K. Code memory may be found on-chip or off-chip. It is possible to have 8K of
code memory on-chip and 60K off chip memory simultaneously. If only off-chip memory is
available then there can be 64K of off chip ROM. This is controlled by pin provided as EA
b) Internal RAM
The 8052 have a bank of 256 bytes of internal RAM. The internal RAM is found on-chip.
So it is the fastest Ram available. And also it is most flexible in terms of reading and writing.
Internal Ram is volatile, so when 8051 is reset, this memory is cleared. 256 bytes of internal
memory are subdivided. The first 32 bytes are divided into 4 register banks. Each bank contains
8 registers. Internal RAM also contains 256 bits, which are addressed from 20h to 2Fh. These
bits are bit addressed i.e. each individual bit of a byte can be addressed by the user. They are
numbered 00h to FFh. The user may make use of these variables with commands such as SETB
and CLR.
Special Function registered memory:
Special function registers are the areas of memory that control specific functionality of
the 8052 micro controller.
a) Accumulator (0E0h) As its name suggests, it is used to accumulate the results of large no of
instructions. It can hold 8 bit values.
b) B registers (0F0h)
The B register is very similar to accumulator. It may hold 8-bit value. The b register is only used
by MUL AB and DIV AB instructions. In MUL AB the higher byte of the product gets stored in
B register. In div AB the quotient gets stored in B with the remainder in A.
c) Stack pointer (81h)
The stack pointer holds 8-bit value. This is used to indicate where the next value to be removed
from the stack should be taken from. When a value is to be pushed onto the stack, the 8052 first
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store the value of SP and then store the value at the resulting memory location. When a value is
to be popped from the stack, the 8052 returns the value from the memory location indicated by
SP and then decrements the value of SP.
d) Data pointer
The SFRs DPL and DPH work together work together to represent a 16-bit value called the data
pointer. The data pointer is used in operations regarding external RAM and some instructions
code memory. It is a 16-bit SFR and also an addressable SFR.
e) Program counter
The program counter is a 16 bit register, which contains the 2 byte address, which tells the 8052
where the next instruction to execute to be found in memory. When the 8052 is initialized PC
starts at 0000h. And is incremented each time an instruction is executes. It is not addressable
SFR.
f) PCON (power control, 87h)
The power control SFR is used to control the 8051s power control modes. Certain operation
modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a type of sleep mode which consumes much lee
power.
g) TCON (timer control, 88h)

The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051s two timers
operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a
flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are
located in TCON SFR. These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupt
flags are activated, which are set when an external interrupt occurs.
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h) TMOD (Timer Mode, 89h)

The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using
this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or 13 bit timer, 8-bit auto
reload timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may configure the timers to only count
when an external pin is activated or to count events that are indicated on an external pin.
i) TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h)

These two SFRs taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how
the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is
configurable is how and when they increment in value.
j) T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h)
These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how the
timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up..
k) P0 (Port 0, address 90h, bit addressable)
This is port 0 latch. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro controller.
Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0 of port 0 is pin
P0.0, bit 7 is pin p0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level.
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l) P1 (port 1, address 90h, bit addressable)

This is port latch1. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro
controller. Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0 of port 0
is pin P1.0, bit 7 is pin P1.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the
corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level
m) P2 (port 2, address 0A0h, bit addressable):
This is a port latch2. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro
n) P3 (port 3, address B0h, bit addressable)
This is a port latch3. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro
o) IE (interrupt enable, 0A8h):
The Interrupt Enable SFR is used to enable and disable specific interrupts. The low 7 bits
of the SFR are used to enable/disable the specific interrupts, where the MSB bit is used to enable
or disable all the interrupts. Thus, if the high bit of IE is 0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of
whether an individual interrupt is enabled by setting a lower bit.
p) IP (Interrupt Priority, 0B8h)

The interrupt priority SFR is used to specify the relative priority of each interrupt. On
8051, an interrupt maybe either low or high priority. An interrupt may interrupt interrupts. For
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e.g., if we configure all interrupts as low priority other than serial interrupt. The serial interrupt
always interrupts the system, even if another interrupt is currently executing. However, if a serial
interrupt is executing no other interrupt will be able to interrupt the serial interrupt routine since
the serial interrupt routine has the highest priority.
q) PSW (Program Status Word, 0D0h)

The program Status Word is used to store a number of important bits that are set and
cleared by 8052 instructions. The PSW SFR contains the carry flag, the auxiliary carry flag, the
parity flag and the overflow flag. Additionally, it also contains the register bank select flags,
which are used to select, which of the R register banks currently in use.
r) SBUF (Serial Buffer, 99h)

SBUF is used to hold data in serial communication. It is physically two registers. One is
writing only and is used to hold data to be transmitted out of 8052 via TXD. The other is read
only and holds received data from external sources via RXD. Both mutually exclusive registers
use address 99h.
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CHAPTER3
DESCRIPTION OF HARDWARE COMPONENTS
3.1 POWER SUPPLY
The power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices. A power supply can by
broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A d.c power
supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains fluctuations or load
variations is known as Regulated D.C Power Supply
For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:
Fig 3.1 : block diagram of power supply

3.1.1 Transformer
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from one
Electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.
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Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC.
Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in output
voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains
voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called
the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by
an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the
middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the
power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is
stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input)
coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
Fig 9 : Diagram of transformer
Fig 3.2 : Diagram of transformer

An Electrical Transformer
Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS
Power Out= Power In
VS X IS=VP X IP
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Vp
Np
primary
number
(input)
of
turns
on
voltage
primary
coil
Ip = primary (input) current

3.1.2 Rectifier
A circuit which is used to convert a.c to dc is known as RECTIFIER. The process of
conversion a.c to d.c is called rectification
TYPES OF RECTIFIERS:
Half wave Rectifier
Full wave rectifier
1. Centre tap full wave rectifier.
2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.
Table 3.1 Comparison of rectifier circuits:
Type of Rectifier
Parameter
Half wave
Full wave
Bridge
Number of diodes
1
PIV of diodes
Vm
D.C output voltage
Vdc,at
Vm/
0.318Vm
2Vm
2Vm/
0.636Vm
Vm
2Vm/
0.636Vm
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no-load
Ripple factor
1.21
0.482
0.482
2f
2f
0.406
0.812
0.812
0.287
0.693
0.812
Ripple
Frequency
Rectification
Efficiency
Transformer
Utilization
Factor(TUF)
RMS voltage Vrms
Vm/2
Vm/2
Vm/2
Full-wave Rectifier:
From the above comparison we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more advantages
than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave bridge rectifier circuit.
Bridge Rectifier: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve
full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in fig(a)
to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual
diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired
internally.
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Fig 3.3 : Diagram of full wave rectifier

Operation:
During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased while D1
and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is shown in the
fig (b) with dotted arrows.
Fig 3.4 : Operation of Full wave rectifier

During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward biased
while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow direction is
shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.
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Fig 3.5 : Operation of half wave rectifier

3.1.3 Filter
A Filter is a device which removes the a.c component of rectifier output
but allows the d.c component to reach the load
Capacitor Filter:
We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is 121% or
that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages of ripples is
not acceptable for most of the applications. Ripples can be removed by one of the following
methods of filtering.
(a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by pass for the ripples voltage though
it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the d.c.to appears the load.
(b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current (due to high
impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low resistance to d.c)
(c) Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter
section filter,
multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties mentioned in (a) and (b) above.
Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier and another with full wave
rectifier.
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Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC supply to
act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier
is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges as
it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the average DC voltage to
almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value).
To calculate the value of capacitor(C),
C = *3*f*r*Rl
Where,
f = supply frequency,
r = ripple factor,
Rl = load resistance
Note: In our circuit we are using 1000F. Hence large value of capacitor is placed to reduce
ripples and to improve the DC component.
3.1.4 Regulator:
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output
voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are
available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection
from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection'). Many of
the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power transistors, such as the 7805
+5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to use. You simply connect the
positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the
Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and then when you turn on the power,
you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.
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Fig 3.6: A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

78XX:
The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals. The
LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of applications.
When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78XX usually results in an
effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude, lower quiescent current.
The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263packages,
Features:
Output Current of 1.5A
Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%
Internal thermal overload protection
Internal Short-Circuit Limited
No External Component
Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V,12V, 15V, 18V, 24V
Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263
Direct Replacement for LM78XX
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3.2 PIR SENSOR

3.2.1 What is a PIR sensor?
PIR sensors allow you to sense motion, almost always used to detect whether a human has
moved in or out of the sensors range. They are small, inexpensive, low-power, easy to use and
don't wear out. For that reason they are commonly found in appliances and gadgets used in
homes or businesses. They are often referred to as PIR, "Passive Infrared", "Pyroelectric", or "IR
motion" sensors.
PIRs are basically made of a pyroelectric sensor (which you can see above as the round metal
can with a rectangular crystal in the center), which can detect levels of infrared radiation.
Everything emits some low level radiation, and the hotter something is, the more radiation is
emitted. The sensor in a motion detector is actually split in two halves. The reason for that is that
we are looking to detect motion (change) not average IR levels. The two halves are wired up so
that they cancel each other out. If one half sees more or less IR radiation than the other, the
output will swing high or low.
Along with the pyroelectic sensor is a bunch of supporting circuitry, resistors and capacitors. It
seems that most small hobbyist sensors use the BISS0001 ("Micro Power PIR Motion Detector
IC") , undoubtedly a very inexpensive chip. This chip takes the output of the sensor and does
some minor processing on it to emit a digital output pulse from the analog sensor.
For many basic projects or products that need to detect when a person has left or entered the
area, or has approached, PIR sensors are great. They are low power and low cost, pretty rugged,
have a wide lens range, and are easy to interface with. Note that PIRs won't tell you how many
people are around or how close they are to the sensor, the lens is often fixed to a certain sweep
and distance (although it can be hacked somewhere) and they are also sometimes set off by
house pets.
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Fig 3.7 : Diagram of PIR Sensor
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3.2.2 PIR Module
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Fig 3.8 : PIR module

3.2.3 Some basic stats
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These stats are for the PIR sensor in the Adafruit shop which is very much like the Parallax one .
Nearly all PIRs will have slightly different specifications, although they all pretty much work the
same. If there's a datasheet, you'll want to refer to it
Size: Rectangular
Price: $10.00 at the Adafruit shop
Output: Digital pulse high (3V) when triggered (motion detected) digital low when idle
(no motion detected). Pulse lengths are determined by resistors and capacitors on the
PCB and differ from sensor to sensor.

Sensitivity range: up to 20 feet (6 meters) 110 x 70 detection range
Power supply:3.3V - 5V input voltage,
BIS0001 Datasheet (the decoder chip used)
RE200B datasheet (most likely the PIR sensing element used)
NL11NH datasheet (equivalent lens used)
3.2.4 How does it work?

PIR sensors are more complicated than many of the other sensors explained in these tutorials
(like photocells, FSRs and tilt switches) because there are multiple variables that affect the
sensors input and output. To begin explaining how a basic sensor works, we'll use this rather nice
diagram (if anyone knows where it originates plz let me know).
The PIR sensor itself has two slots in it, each slot is made of a special material that is sensitive to
IR. The lens used here is not really doing much and so we see that the two slots can 'see' out past
some distance (basically the sensitivity of the sensor). When the sensor is idle, both slots detect
the same amount of IR, the ambient amount radiated from the room or walls or outdoors. When a
warm body like a human or animal passes by, it first intercepts one half of the PIR sensor, which
causes a positive differential change between the two halves. When the warm body leaves the
sensing area, the reverse happens, whereby the sensor generates a negative differential change.
These change pulses are what is detected.
The IR sensor itself is housed in a hermetically sealed metal can to improve
noise/temperature/humidity immunity. There is a window made of IR-transmissive material
(typically coated silicon since that is very easy to come by) that protects the sensing element.
Behind the window are the two balanced sensors.
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3.2.5 Lenses
PIR sensors are rather generic and for the most part vary only in price and sensitivity. Most of
the real magic happens with the optics. This is a pretty good idea for manufacturing: the PIR
sensor and circuitry is fixed and costs a few dollars. The lens costs only a few cents and can
change the breadth, range, sensing pattern, very easily.
In the diagram up top, the lens is just a piece of plastic, but that means that the detection area is
just two rectangles. Usually we'd like to have a detection area that is much larger. To do that, we
use a simple lens such as those found in a camera: they condenses a large area (such as a
landscape) into a small one (on film or a CCD sensor). For reasons that will be apparent soon, we
would like to make the PIR lenses small and thin and moldable from cheap plastic, even though
it may add distortion. For this reason the sensors are actually Fresnel lenses :
3.2.6 Testing PIR
Once you have your PIR wired up its a good idea to do a simple test to verify that it works the
way you expect. This test is also good for range testing. Simply connect 3-4 alkaline batteries
(make sure you have more than 3.5VDC out but less than 6V by checking with your multimeter!)
and connect ground to the - pin on your PIR. Power goes to the + pin. Then connect a basic red
LED (red LEDs have lower forward voltages than green or blue so they work better with only
the 3.3v output) and a 220 resistor (any value from 100 to 1.0K will do fine) to the out pin
as shown. Of course, the LED and resistor can swap locations as long as the LED is oriented
connection and connects between out and ground.
Now when the PIR detects motion, the output pin will go "high" to 3.3V and light up the
LED!
Once you have the breadboard wired up, insert batteries and wait 30-60 seconds for the PIR to
'stabilize'. During that time the LED may blink a little. Wait until the LED is off and then move
around in front of it, waving a hand, etc, to see the LED light up!
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3.3 TEMPERATURE SENSOR (LM35)

The LM35 sensor series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output
voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature.
Fig 3.9: Diagram of Temperature sensor (LM35)

3.3.1 LM35 Sensor Specification
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit LM35 temperature sensors, whose output
voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 sensor thus
has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not
required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade
scaling. The LM35 sensor does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide
typical accuracies of C at room temperature and C over a full -55 to +150C temperature
range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35's low
output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or
control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and
minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than
0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55 to +150C temperature range, while
the LM35C sensor is rated for a -40 to +110C range (-10 with improved accuracy). The LM35
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series is available packaged in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA,
and LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The LM35D sensor is also
available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 packag
3.3.2 LM35 Sensor Circuit Schematic
Fig 3.10 : LM35 Sensor circuit schematic

3.3.3 LM35 Sensor Pin outs and Packaging:
Fig 3.11: LM35 sensor pinouts and packaging

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3.3.4 LM35 Sensor Sources

There are several manufacturers of this popular part and each has LM35 sensor specs, datasheets
and other free LM35 downloads. This amplifier is available from the following manufacturers.
National Semiconductor
On Semiconductor
Texas Instruments
Fairchild Semiconductor
STMicroelectronics
Jameco Electronics
Analog Devices
3.3.5 LM35 Sensor Background and Applications

Most commonly-used electrical temperature sensors are difficult to apply. For example,
thermocouples have low output levels and require cold junction compensation. Thermistors are
nonlinear. In addition, the outputs of these sensors are not linearly proportional to any
temperature scale. Early monolithic sensors, such as the LM3911, LM134 and LM135, overcame
many of these difficulties, but their outputs are related to the Kelvin temperature scale rather than
the more popular Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Fortunately, in 1983 two I.C.s, the LM34
Precision Fahrenheit Temperature Sensor and the LM35 Precision Celsius Temperature Sensor,
were introduced. This application note will discuss the LM34, but with the proper scaling factors
can easily be adapted to the LM35.
The LM35/LM34 has an output of 10 mV/F with a typical nonlinearity of only 0.35F over a
50 to +300F temperature range, and is accurate to within 0.4F typically at room temperature
(77F). The LM34s low output impedance and linear output characteristic make interfacing with
readout or control circuitry easy. An inherent strength of the LM34 sensor over other currently
available temperature sensors is that it is not as susceptible to large errors in its output from low
level leakage currents. For instance, many monolithic temperature sensors have an output of only
1 A/K. This leads to a 1K error for only 1 -Ampere of leakage current. On the other hand,
the LM34 sensor may be operated as a current mode device providing 20 A/F of output
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current. The same 1 A of leakage current will cause an error in the LM34s output of only
0.05F (or 0.03K after scaling).
Low cost and high accuracy are maintained by performing trimming and calibration procedures
at the wafer level. The device may be operated with either single or dual supplies. With less than
70 A of current drain, the LM34 sensor has very little self-heating (less than 0.2F in still air),
and comes in a TO-46 metal can package, a SO-8 small outline package and a TO-92 plastic
package.
The LM35/LM34 is a versatile device which may be used for a wide variety of applications,
including oven controllers and remote temperature sensing. The device is easy to use (there are
only three terminals) and will be within 0.02F of a surface to which it is either glued or
cemented. The TO-46 package allows the user to solder the sensor to a metal surface, but in
doing so, the GND pin will be at the same potential as that metal. For applications where a
steady reading is desired despite small changes in temperature, the user can solder the TO-46
package to a thermal mass. Conversely, the thermal time constant may be decreased to speed up
response time by soldering the sensor to a small heat fin.
3.4: RELAY:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating
the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive
use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay
that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor.
Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device triggered by light to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments
still called "protection relays".
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3.4.1 Basic design and operation:
Fig 3.12: Basic operation and design of relay

Simple electromechanical relay
Fig 3.13: Diagram of simple electromechanical relay

Small relay as used in electronics
A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a
set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when
the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has
a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the
yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
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When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the
armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was
De-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if
the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce
noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already include a diode
inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and
resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-ofphase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made
with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation an opt
coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor.
3.4.2 Types
Latching relay
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Fig 3.14 Latching relay

Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates a
cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving
and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved
with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an
over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the
coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil
turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its
last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to make it change state.
Reed relay
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated
when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster
switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.
Fig 3.15: Reed relay

Mercury-wetted relay
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of their
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low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.
Polarized relay
A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could
first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current
that would operate the relay.
Machine tool relay
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normallyclosed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
Contactor relay
A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads.
Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps.
High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used
for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The
overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or
where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary
contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is
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de-energized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern.
Solid-state relay
Fig 3.16: Solid state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts
Fig 3.17 :Solid state relay which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle.
As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.
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Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.
Buchholz relay
A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas
is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.
Forced-guided contacts relay
A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that
when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one
set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able
to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status
of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
Overload protection relay
Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or
to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One
type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with
the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts
solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same
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environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is
provided.
Pole and throw:
Fig 3.18: Circuit symbols of relays

\Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.
Fig 3.19: The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:
Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact.
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Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizesmake before
break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.
The following designations are commonly encountered:
SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent
to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.
The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
3.4.3 Applications:
Relays are used to and for:
Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio
amplifiers,
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Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an

automobile,
Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays),
Fig:3.20 A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials,
for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is
often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions,
which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy
detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally
open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel.
The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions
for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic networks.
Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical elements in
digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to nuclear
radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
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Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts.
A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and
moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A
dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be
varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.
Relay application considerations:
Fig 3.21 A relay with two coils and many sets of contacts
A large relay with two coils and many sets of contacts, used in an old telephone switching
system.
Several 30-contact relays in "Connector" circuits in mid 20th century 1XB switch and
5XB switch telephone exchanges; cover removed on one

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many
different factors:
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Number and type of contacts normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

Contact sequence "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old
style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.

Rating of contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up
to 3000 amperes, alternating or direct current

Voltage rating of contacts typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V

Coil voltage machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few mill
amperes
Coil current
Package/enclosure open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits,

explosion proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board
assembly
Assembly Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB
post soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.

Mounting sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount,
enclosure for mounting on walls or equipment

Switching time where high speed is required
"Dry" contacts when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be
needed such as gold-plated contacts

Contact protection suppress arcing in very inductive circuits
Coil protection suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current
Isolation between coil circuit and contacts
Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance
Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration some relays used in aerospace
applications are designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more

Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons
Regulatory approvals
Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.
3.4.4 Advantages of relays:
Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
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Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
Relays can switch many contacts at once.
3.4.5 Disadvantages of relays:
Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.
Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
CHAPTER 4
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
4.1 PROGRAMMING FOR 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
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We are using embedded C programming language to program the microcontroller.

Need of C:
Compiler produces hex file that we download into ROM of microcontroller.
The size of hex file produced by compiler is one of the main concerns of microcontroller
programmers for two reasons:
Microcontroller has limited on -chip ROM

The code space for 8051 is limited to 64 KB
Programming in assembly language is tedious and time consuming. C is a high level
programming language that is portable across many hardware architectures.

Reasons for using Embedded C:
It is easier and less time consuming to write in C than assembly.

C is easier to modify and update.
You can use code available in function libraries.
C code is portable to other microcontrollers with little or no modification.
We use reg51.h as a header file as #include <reg51.h>. These files contain all the
definitions of the 80C51 registers. This file is included in your project and will be assembled
together with the compiled output of your C program.
4.1.1 EMBEDDED C COMPILER
ANSI C - Full featured and portable

Reliable - mature, field-proven technology
Multiple C optimization levels
An optimizing assembler
Full linker, with overlaying of local variables to minimize RAM usage
Comprehensive C library with all source code provided
Includes support for 24-bit and 32-bit IEEE floating point and 32-bit long data types
Mixed C and assembler programming
Unlimited number of source files
Listings showing generated assembler
Runs on multiple platforms: Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, Solaris
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We can compile, with assemble and link our embedded application a single step.
Optionally, the compiler may be run directly from the command line, allowing you to
compile, assemble and link using one command. This enables the compiler to be integrated into
third party development environments, such as Microchip's MPLAB IDE.
Simulator
Simulator is a machine that simulates an environment for the purpose of training.
Compiler
A compiler is a program that reads a program in one language, the source language and translates
into an equivalent program in another language, the target
Language
The translation process should also report the presence of errors in the source program.
4.2 KEIL VISION

KEIL
Software
Keil compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and compiled. After
compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped into the
microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler also supports C language code.
Steps To Write a C Program In Keil And Compile It
Install the Keil Software in the PC in any of the drives.
After installation, an icon will be created with the name Keil Vision3. Just drag this
icon onto the desktop so that it becomes easy whenever you try to write programs in keil.
Double click on this icon to start the keil compiler.
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A page opens with different options in it showing the project workspace at the leftmost
corner side, output window in the bottom and an ash coloured space for the program to be
written.
Now to start using the keil, click on the option project.
A small window opens showing the options like new project, import project, open project
etc. Click on New project.
A small window with the title bar Create new project opens. The window asks the user
to give the project name with which it should be created and the destination location. The
project can be created in any of the drives available. You can create a new folder and then a
new file or can create directly a new file.
After the file is saved in the given destination location, a window opens where a list of
vendors will be displayed and you have to select the device for the target you have created.
The most widely used vendor is Atmel. So click on Atmel and now the family of
microcontrollers manufactured by Atmel opens. You can select any one of the
microcontrollers according to the requirement.
When you click on any one of the microcontrollers, the features of that particular
microcontroller will be displayed on the right side of the page. The most appropriate
microcontroller with which most of the projects can be implemented is the AT89C51. Click
on this microcontroller and have a look at its features. Now click on OK to select this
microcontroller.
A small window opens asking whether to copy the startup code into the file you have
created just now. Just click on No to proceed further.
Now you can see the TARGET and SOURCE GROUP created in the project workspace.
Now click on File and in that New. A new page opens and you can start writing
program in it.
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After the program is completed, save it with any name but with the .asm extension. Save
the program in the file you have created earlier.
You can notice that after you save the program, the predefined keywords will be
highlighted in bold letters.
Now add this file to the target by giving a right click on the source group. A list of
options open and in that select Add files to the source group. Check for this file where you
have saved and add it.
Right click on the target and select the first option Options for target. A window opens
with different options like device, target, output etc. First click on target.
Since the set frequency of the microcontroller is 11.0592 MHz to interface with the PC,
just enter this frequency value in the Xtal (MHz) text area and put a tick on the Use on-chip
ROM. This is because the program what we write here in the keil will later be dumped into
the microcontroller and will be stored in the inbuilt ROM in the microcontroller.
Now click the option Output and give any name to the hex file to be created in the
Name of executable text area and put a tick to the Create HEX file option present in the
same window. The hex file can be created in any of the drives. You can change the folder by
clicking on Select folder for Objects.
Now to check whether the program you have written is errorless or not, click on the icon
exactly below the Open file icon which is nothing but Build Target icon. You can even use
the shortcut key F7 to compile the program written.
To check for the output, there are several windows like serial window, memory window,
project window etc. Depending on the program you have written, select the appropriate
window to see the output by entering into debug mode.
The icon with the letter d indicates the debug mode.
Click on this icon and now click on the option View and select the appropriate window
to check for the output.
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After this is done, click the icon debug again to come out of the debug mode.
The hex file created as shown earlier will be burned into the microcontroller ROM with
the help of software called FLASH.
Steps
Create a Project File
To create a new project file select from the Vision menu Project New Project. This
opens a standard Windows dialog that asks you for the new project file name.
We suggest that you use a separate folder for each project. You can simply use the icon
Create New Folder in this dialog to get a new empty folder. Then select this folder and enter the
file name for the new project, i.e. Project1. Vision creates a new project file with the name
PROJECT1.UV2 which contains a default target and file group name. You can see these names
in the Project Workspace Files.
Select a Device
When you create a new project Vision asks you to select a CPU for your project. The
Select Device dialog box shows the Vision device database. Just select the microcontroller you
use. We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ controller. This selection sets
necessary tool options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way the tool
configuration.
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Fig 4.1 select device

Once you have selected a CPU from the device database you can open the user manuals
for that device in the Project Workspace Books page. These user manuals are part of the Keil
Development Tools CD-ROM that should be present in your CD drive.
Fig: 4.2 select cd drive

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Create New Source Files
You may create a new source file with the menu option File New. This opens an empty
editor window where you can enter your source code. Vision enables the C color syntax
highlighting when you save your file with the dialog File Save As under a filename with the
extension *.C. We are saving our example file under the name MAIN.C.
Fig: 4.3 Create New Source Files
Add and Configure the Startup Code
The STARTUP.A51 file is the startup code for the most 8051 CPU variants. The startup
code clears the data memory and initializes hardware and reentrant stack pointers. In addition,
some 8051 derivatives require a CPU initialization code that needs to match the configuration of
your hardware design. For example, the Philips 8051RD+ offers you on-chip xdata RAM that
should be enabled in the startup code. Since you need to modify that file to match your target
hardware, you should copy the STARTUP.A51 file from the folder C:\KEIL\C51\LIB to your
project folder.
Group Project Files
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File group allow you to organize large projects. For the CPU startup code and other
system configuration files you may create a own file group in the Project Components,
Environment, Books dialog box. Use the New (Insert) button to create a file group named
System Files. In the project window you may drag and drop the STARTUP.A51 file to this new
file group.
Fig: 4.4 Group Project Files

Now, the Project Workspace Files lists all items of your project. To open a file for
editing, double click on the file name in the Project Workspace. You may need to configure the
startup STARTUP.A51 in the editor.
Set Tool Options for Target
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Vision lets you set options for your target hardware. The dialog Options for Target
opens via the toolbar icon or via the Project - Options for Target menu item. In the Target tab you
specify all relevant parameters of your target hardware and the on-chip components of the device
you have selected. The following the settings for our example are shown.
Fig: 4.5 Set Tool Options for Target
Build Project and Create a HEX File
Typical, the tool settings under Options Target are all you need to start a new
application. You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build
Target toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, Vision will display
errors and warning messages in the Output Window Build page. A double click on a message
line opens the source file on the correct location in a Vision editor window.
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Fig: 4.6 Build Project and Create a HEX File

Once you have successfully generated your application you can start debugging as
described under Testing Programs with the Vision Debugger.
Now you may modify existing source code or add new source files to the project. The
Build Target toolbar button translates only modified or new source files and generates the
executable file. Vision maintains a file dependency list and knows all include files used within
a source file. Even the tool options are saved in the file dependency list, so that Vision rebuilds
files only when needed. With the Rebuild Target command, all source files are translated,
regardless of modifications.
After you have tested your application, it might be required to create an Intel HEX file
and to download the application software into the physical device using a Flash programming
utility. Vision creates HEX files with each build process when Create HEX files under Options
for Target Output is enabled. The Merge32K Hex file option is available for Code Banking
Applications when you have selected the Extended Linker LX51. You may start your Flash
programming utility after the make process when you specify the program under the option Run
User Program #1.
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4.3 FLASH
FLASH is a PC tool for programming flash based microcontrollers from NXP using a
serial protocol while in the target hardware.
Features
Straightforward and intuitive user interface

Five simple steps to erasing and programming a device and setting any options desired
Programs Intel Hex Files
Automatic verifying after programming
Fills unused Flash to increase firmware security
Ability to automatically program checksums. Using the supplied checksum calculation
routine your firmware can easily verify the integrity of a Flash block, ensuring no
unauthorized or corrupted code can ever be executed

Program security bits
Check which Flash blocks are blank or in use with the ability to easily erase all blocks in
use
Read the device signature
Read any section of Flash and save as an Intel Hex File
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Reprogram the Boot Vector and Status Byte with the help of confirmation features that
prevent accidentally programming incorrect values

Display the contents of Flash in ASCII and Hexadecimal formats
Single-click access to the manual, Flash Magic home page and NXP Microcontrollers
home page
Ability to use high-speed serial communications on devices that support it. Flash Magic
calculates the highest baud rate that both the device and your PC can use and switches to
that baud rate transparently

Command Line interface allowing Flash Magic to be used in IDEs and Batch Files
Manual in PDF format
Supports half-duplex communications
Verify Hex Files previously programmed
Save and open settings
Able to control the DTR and RTS RS232 signals when connected to RST and /PSEN to
place the device into Boot ROM and Execute modes automatically. An example circuit
diagram is included in the Manual. Essential for ISP with target hardware that is hard to
access.
Able to send commands to place the device in Boot ROM mode, with support for
command line interfaces. The installation includes an example project for the Keil and
Resonance 8051 compilers that show how to build support for this feature into
applications.
Able to play any Wave file when finished programming.
Built in automated version checker - helps ensure you always have the latest version.
Powerful, flexible Just In Time Code feature. Write your own JIT Modules to generate
last minute code for programming. Uses include:

Serial number generation
Copy protection and copy authorization
Storing program date and time - manufacture date
Storing program operator and location
Lookup table generation
Language tables or language selection
Centralized record keeping
Obtaining latest firmware from the Corporate Web site or project intranet
Sponsored by NXP Semiconductors
Features automatically updating Internet links including links to related technical
documents, software updates, utilities and code examples, using Embedded Hints
technology
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Displays information about the selected Hex File, including the creation and modification
dates, flash memory used, percentage of the current device used.
4.4 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards may be covered in two topics namely
1) Technology
2) Design
Introduction to printed circuit boards:
It is called PCB in short printed circuit consists of conductive circuit pattern
Applied to one or both sides of an insulating base, depending upon that, it is called single sided
PCB or double-sided PCB.(SSB and DSB).
Conductor materials available are silver, brass, aluminium and copper. Copper is most
widely used. The thickness of conducting material depends upon the current carrying capacity of
circuit. Thus a thicker copper layer will have more current carrying capacity.
The printed circuit boards usually serves three distinct functions.
1) it provides mechanical support for the components mounted on it.
2) It provides necessary electrical interconnections.
3) It acts as heat sink that is provides a conduction path leading to removal of the heat
generated in the circuit.
Advantages of PCB:
1) When a number of identical assemblies are required. PCBs provide cost saving because
once a layout is approved there is no need to check the circuit every time.
2) For large equipments such as computers, the saving on checking connections or wires is
substantial.
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3) PCBs have controllable and predictable electrical and mechanical properties.

4) A more uniform product is produced because wiring errors are eliminated.
5) The distributed capacitances are constant from one production to another.
6) Soldering is done in one operation instead of connecting discrete components by wires.
7) The PCB construction lands itself for automatic assembly.
8) Spiral type of inductors may be printed.
9) Weight is less.
10) It has miniaturization potential.
11) It has reproducible performance.
12) All the signals are accessible for testing at any point along conductor track.
4.5. PCB Layout Design with Proteus
Generally we are listening the words PCBs, PCB layout, PCB designing, ect. But what is
PCB? Why we are using this PCB? We want to know about all these things as a electronic
engineer. PCB means Printed Circuit Board. This is a circuit board with printed copper layout
connections. These PCBs are two types. One is dotted PCB and another one is layout PCB.
The two examples are shown in below.
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Fig 4.7: Dotted PCB
Fig 4.8: Layout PCB
What is the main difference between the dotted PCB and layout PCB?
In dotted PCB board only dots are available. According to our requirement we can place
or insert the components in those holes and attach the components with wires and soldering lid.
In this dotted PCB we can make the circuit as out wish but it is very hard to design. There are so
many difficulties are there. Those are connecting the proper pins, avoiding shot connections and
etc. Coming to the layout PCB this is simple to design. First we select the our circuit and by
using different PCB designing softwares, design the layout of the circuit and by itching process
preparing the copper layout of our circuit and solder the components in the correct places. It is
simple to design, take less time to design, no shortages, looking nice and perfect.
Up to now we have discussed about types of PCBs and difference between the types. Now we
can discuss about PCB designing software. There are so many PCB designing softwares
available. Some are Express PCB, eagle PCB, PCB Elegance, free PCB, open circuit
design,zenith PCB and Proteus etc. Apart from remaining Proteus is different. Proteus is design
suit and PCB layout designing software. In Proteus we can design any circuit and simulate the
circuit and make PCB layout for that circuit.
Introduction to Proteus:
Proteus professional is a software combination of ISIS schematic capture program and ARES
PCB layout program. This is a powerful and integrated development environment. Tools in this
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suit are very easy to use and these tools are very useful in education and professional PCB
designing. As professional PCB designing software with integrated space based auto router, it
provides features such as fully featured schematic capture, highly configurable design rules,
interactive SPICE circuit simulator, extensive support for power planes, industry standard
CADCAM & ODB++ output and integrated 3D viewer.
Up to know we have discussed about the basics and software description. Now we are
entering into the designing section. Run the ISIS professional program by clicking the icon on
the desktop, then this splash screen will appear.
Next, a work space with interface buttons for designing circuit will appear as
shown in figure below. Note that there is a blue rectangular line in the workspace; make sure that
whole circuit is designed inside the rectangular space.
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CHAPTER 5
SOURCE CODE
#include<reg52.h>
sbit pir1=P2^7;
sbit pir2=P2^6;
sbit pir3=P2^5;
sbit pir4=P2^4;
sbit relay1=P3^7;
//bulb
sbit relay2=P3^6;
//fan
sbit temp=P1^0;
sbit led=P2^0;
void delay(unsigned int time)
// delay function
{
unsigned int i,j;
for(i=0;i<time;i++)
for(j=0;j<1275;j++);
}
void main()
{
pir1=pir2=pir3=pir4=0;
led=relay1=relay2=0;
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while(1)
{
led=1;
delay(100);
led=0;
delay(100);
led=1;
delay(100);
led=0;
delay(100);
if(pir1==1)
{
relay1=1;
led=1;
}
else if(pir2==1)
{
relay1=1;
led=1;
}
else if(pir3==1)
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{
relay1=1;
led=1;
}
else if(pir4==1)
{
relay1=1;
led=1;
}
else if(temp==1)
{
relay2=1;
led=1;
}
else
{
relay1=relay2=0;
led=0;
}
}
}
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CONCLUSION
The project PIR SENSOR BASED POWER SAVER FOR AUDITORIUM AND
CONFERENCE HALL has been successfully completed and tested with integration of the
features of every hardware component for its development. Presence of every block has been
reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit.
The project is built using very simple and easily available components making it
lightweight and portable. This helps for power saving and decreasing manual work purpose in
important areas.
We believe that our step is towards complete automation for different electrical loads in home and
industries.
Finally we conclude that this project application gives very good features and there is huge scope
for further research and development
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REFERENCE AND BIBILIOGRAPHY

Books
1. Kennedy, Electronic Communication Systems, McGraw-Hill Publ, 2001
2. D.Roy Chowdhury, Linear Integrated Circuits, New Age International (P) Ltd., 2003
3. Kenneth J.Ayala,The 8051 MicroController,Penram International, Second edition, 1997
4. Douglas V. Hall, Micro Processor and Interfacing, TMH, Second Edition.
5. A.K.Ray and K.M.Bhurchandi. Advanced Micro Processors and Peripherals, TMH,
2000.
6. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C , second
edition Muhammad Ali Mazidi., Janice Gillispie Mazidi, Rolin D. McKinlay
Websites
1. www.nationalsemicondutor.com
2. www.atmel.com
3. www.wikipedia.org
4. www.discovercircuits.com .
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PIR SENSOR BASED POWER SAVER FOR AUDITORIUM AND CONFERENCE HALL

Single functioned: An embedded system executes a specific program repeatedly. For

examples of being updated in such a manner.

implementations features, such as cost, size performance and power.

1.1 EMBEDDED HARDWARE

1.2 EMBEDDED SOFTWARE

Aerospace and Defence Electronics (ADE)

1.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Fig 1.1 Block Diagram Of Embedded Systems

It is used to store data or address.

These are the external devices connected

It is an IC which is used to perform some task

Processors are classified into four types like:

Micro Processor (p)

Micro controller (c)

Digital Signal Processor (DSP)

Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)

The project automatic auditorium auditorium control system using microcontroller is an

Fig 1.2 : Block diagram of PIR sensor

Fig 2.1 Diagram of 8051 Microcontroller

Fig 2.2: Diagram of an entire computer on a single chip

8031 has 128 bytes of RAM, two timers and 6 interrupts.

In the concerned project 8052 microcontroller is used. Here microcontroller used is

Compatible with MCS-51 Products

Three-level Program Memory Lock

2.5 PIN DIAGRAM

FIG-2.3 PIN DIAGRAM OF 89S52 IC

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

FIG-2.4 Functional block diagram of micro controller

Fig-2.5 Oscillator and timing circuit

g) TCON (timer control, 88h)

h) TMOD (Timer Mode, 89h)

i) TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h)

l) P1 (port 1, address 90h, bit addressable)

p) IP (Interrupt Priority, 0B8h)

q) PSW (Program Status Word, 0D0h)

r) SBUF (Serial Buffer, 99h)

Fig 3.1 : block diagram of power supply

Transformers waste very little power so the

Fig 3.2 : Diagram of transformer

Ip = primary (input) current

D.C output voltage

Fig 3.3 : Diagram of full wave rectifier

Fig 3.4 : Operation of Full wave rectifier

Fig 3.5 : Operation of half wave rectifier

Fig 3.6: A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

3.2 PIR SENSOR

Fig 3.7 : Diagram of PIR Sensor

3.2.2 PIR Module

Fig 3.8 : PIR module

PCB and differ from sensor to sensor.

3.2.4 How does it work?

3.3 TEMPERATURE SENSOR (LM35)

Fig 3.9: Diagram of Temperature sensor (LM35)

Fig 3.10 : LM35 Sensor circuit schematic

Fig 3.11: LM35 sensor pinouts and packaging

3.3.4 LM35 Sensor Sources

3.3.5 LM35 Sensor Background and Applications

3.4.1 Basic design and operation:

Fig 3.12: Basic operation and design of relay

Fig 3.13: Diagram of simple electromechanical relay

Fig 3.14 Latching relay

Fig 3.15: Reed relay