Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Volume 71
Number 12
United States
Department of Justice
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Washington, DC 20535-0001
The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin Enforcement 11 continue to adhere to a code of ethics
and a code of conduct.
(ISSN-0014-5688) is published By J. Kevin Grant
monthly by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation, 935 Pennsylvania
Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. The constitutional constraints on the
20535-0001. Periodicals postage paid Supreme Court Cases
at Washington, D.C., and additional
mailing offices. Postmaster: Send
2001-2002 Term 16 use of force by law enforcement
require reasonableness.
address changes to Editor, FBI Law
Enforcement Bulletin, FBI Academy,
Madison Building, Room 209,
Quantico, VA 22135.
Editor
John E. Ott
Departments
Associate Editors
Cynthia L. Lewis
Bunny S. Morris
Art Director
8 Police Practice 25 2002 Subject Index
Denise Bennett Smith Investigations Involving
Assistant Art Director Public Housing Authorities 28 2002 Author Index
Stephanie L. Lowe
Staff Assistant
Linda W. Szumilo
15 Bulletin Reports
Corrections
This publication is produced by Drugs and Crime
members of the Law Enforcement
Communication Unit,
William T. Guyton, chief.
Internet Address
leb@fbiacademy.edu
Cover Photo
© brandXpictures
“S talkers are like naughty in facing the growing challenge of United States were stalked at some
third graders. They detecting and investigating such point during their lifetimes and
don’t care what kind of incidents. about 200,000 were victims each
attention they get, as long as it’s year. However, estimates based on
attention.”1 Individuals unfamiliar Statistics the first national study on stalking
with the phenomenon of stalkers Stereotypically linked by much presented in 1998 found that rates
and stalking often are surprised that of the general public with the “rich were substantially higher.2 This sur-
stalkers may value negative atten- and famous,” until very recently, vey of 8,000 women and 8,000 men
tion just as much as they do positive most information concerning stalk- concluded that, nationwide, 8.1 per-
attention. Why would anyone want ing came from media accounts cent of women have been stalked at
to have a relationship with another of incidents, individual case stud- some time during their lives and
person who does not want to be ies, or academic endeavors that fo- 1,006,970 are stalked annually.
involved? The answer to this ques- cused on one narrow facet of the These figures are 1.6 times and
tion can help law enforcement problem. In the early 1990s, the 5 times, respectively, higher
personnel understand stalking most often quoted figures showed than those expressed during the
situations more clearly and aid them that 5 percent of women in the early 1990s. In addition, this study
December 2002 / 1
revealed that 2.2 percent of men had into stalking by reviewing the grow- Every state in America, as well
experienced stalking during their ing literature on the topic, with spe- as the District of Columbia, have
lifetimes and that 370,990 become cial emphasis on profiling charac- passed antistalking legislation,6
victims each year. teristics of stalkers and the various whereas Canada commonly refers
The first national study also typologies and psychological moti- to stalking as “criminal harass-
shed some light on how common vations of such offenders. ment.”7 Because antistalking laws
stalking is compared with other vary from jurisdiction to jurisdic-
types of violence in the United Definition tion, law enforcement officers
States. In a 1-year period, the study Many different definitions of should familiarize themselves with
estimated that women were two stalking exist in the literature, the elements of the law in their spe-
times as likely to be physically as- with most defining the practice cific jurisdictions.8
saulted than stalked, but three as including a pattern of harassing In addition, federal laws, such
times more likely to be stalked than or menacing behaviors linked as the 1994 Violence Against
sexually assaulted. Thus, in terms with a threat.4 The first national Women Act and the Interstate
of frequency, stalking falls in be- study defined stalking as “...a Stalking Punishment and Preven-
tween the other two crimes,3 al- course of conduct directed at a spe- tion Act of 1996, may affect stalk-
though stalking situations may cific person that involves repeated ing cases. In some instances, stalk-
include one or both of these behav- visual or physical proximity; ing behaviors may violate federal
iors. Overall, however, despite the nonconsensual communication; law when offenders cross state lines
increasing importance of stalking, it verbal, written, or implied threats; to stalk a person or when they enter
remains a comparatively unexam- or a combination thereof that would or leave federal property or Indian
ined source of criminal behavior. cause fear in a reasonable person country for the purpose of stalking
Therefore, the law enforcement (with repeated meaning on two or someone. These relatively new
community may gain some insight more occasions).”5 pieces of legislation provide power-
ful tools to address these criminal
behaviors.
Behaviors
For many reasons, stalking be-
haviors are quite diverse. Stalkers
may ambush their targets, phone re-
peatedly, pursue or follow their tar-
gets, make obscene or threatening
phone calls, display weapons, tres-
pass, or vandalize property.9 They
may send numerous letters, deliver
unwanted gifts, or restrain or con-
fine the objects of their obsessions.
As a means of controlling the be-
havior of their targets, stalkers may
Dr. Wood, an associate Ms. Wood is the associate threaten to commit suicide or harm
professor, teaches prelaw and director of student rights and
responsibilities, Office of the
the victims, the victims’ families, or
terrorism courses in the
Department of Political Science Dean of Student Life, at the even the victims’ pets. Perpetrators
at the North Dakota State North Dakota State University may attempt to limit the amount of
University in Fargo. in Fargo. contact targets have with their
families and friends and may insist
“
authorities find it difficult to esti- had some form of a previous crimi-
mate how many individuals are vic- nal record, and, of those individu-
tims of cyber-stalking, although als, 31 percent had a prior convic-
they also note that the number of Many stalkers have tion for a violent offense. Also,
complaints concerning this type of a history of prior according to their targets, 72 per-
unwanted contact have increased stalking offenses, cent of the stalkers abused alcohol
in recent years. In addition, such or other drugs. Sixty-five percent of
cases prove hard to prosecute assaults, or the women reported physical abuse
successfully.10 substance abuse. during their relationships, with two-
In stalking cases, a precipitat- thirds (66 percent) stating that alco-
”
ing event occurs 80 percent of the hol or other drug use was the pre-
time.11 Such situations may include cipitating event for that violence.
the breakup of a relationship, the While this profile reveals some in-
loss of a job, the death of a parent, Offenders teresting information, it remains
or the onset of a serious illness. Generally, existing research important to remember that it re-
Stalkers may blame their victims, has focused on the psychological sulted from a study in a single state.
and their actions may result from perspectives of stalkers and has ig- According to the findings of the
anger associated with the initial nored their socioeconomic charac- first national stalking study, ap-
incident. teristics. One notable exception oc- proximately 87 percent of stalkers
Stalking ceases for a variety of curred in a study of 187 female were male.16 Men were identified as
reasons. The first national stalking victims of intimate relationship stalkers in 94 percent of cases in
study found that the victims (19 per- stalking in Pennsylvania.14 This which the complainants were
cent) or the stalkers (7 percent) study found that the stalkers ranged women and 60 percent of cases in
moved; the stalkers acquired new in age from 17 to 57 and described which the targets were men. In addi-
love interests (18 percent); the po- 57 percent as non-Hispanic whites, tion, approximately 77 percent of
lice warned them to stop (15 per- 37 percent as African-Americans, female complainants and 64 percent
cent); the victims talked to their and 6.5 percent as other racial mi- of males knew their stalkers. These
stalkers (10 percent); the authorities norities. Of the 100 stalkers whose researchers speculated that men
December 2002 / 3
may know their stalkers less often antisocial or psychopathic, how- signs of behavior that are sinister,
because of other considerations, ever, may not benefit from treat- disjointed, bizarre, or extremely un-
such as the involvement of gang ri- ment. In these cases, the stalkers reasonable.21
valries. They also found that homo- must be separated from their vic-
sexual men may be more at risk for tims for the stalking behaviors to Typologies
stalking. The greater risk may be cease. Clearly, the phenomenon of
due to unreturned sexual attraction When examining the lives of stalking represents a unique nexus
or bias toward homosexuals. stalkers, common themes have between psychiatry and psychology
Those persons who stalked men emerged from one researcher’s on the one hand and law enforce-
tended to be strangers or acquain- work often cited by other writers.20 ment on the other. “There is no
tances, rather than intimates, such These have included a fascination single profile of a stalker.... Stalkers
as former spouses, former boy or with assassins and assassinations exhibit a broad range of behaviors,
girlfriends, or former cohabiters. (e.g., the shooting of former presi- motivations, and psychological
This finding is important in devel- dent Ronald Reagan), death, sui- traits.”22 As a consequence, several
oping threat assessments because cide, obsessive love, a special or typologies have emerged from the
those persons who stalk strangers literature, each containing two to
are more likely to be psychotic, three categories, based typically on
“
while those who stalk sexual inti- some form of personality disorder.
mates are more inclined to abuse For example, research has found
alcohol or other drugs and have a that some stalkers have an “attach-
dependent personality disorder.17
In particular, law ment disorder,” stemming from
Other research also has found enforcement personnel abandonment in early childhood
that stalkers often are self-con- should look for signs and resulting in the inability to
scious and lack self-esteem. Many of behavior that are maintain normal relationships as
stalkers have menial jobs and tend sinister, disjointed, adults. In addition, many stalkers
to be unmarried and live alone. bizarre, or extremely have a narcissistic personality in
They frequently have a history of which individuals have an inflated
being unable to sustain relation-
unreasonable. sense of self-worth and a need for
ships, and they tend to use alcohol others to focus on them.23
”
more than nonstalkers. Many stalk- One of the best known classifi-
ers have a history of prior stalking cations comes from a review of 74
offenses, assaults, or substance cases in which researchers de-
abuse.18 common destiny, and weapons. In scribed stalkers as having erotoma-
Stalkers also may have mental addition, some stalkers excessively nia, love obsession, or simple
disorders that commonly include adhere to religious beliefs or prac- obsession. 24 Erotomania is the
not only substance dependence but tices and may believe that they strong, but mistaken, belief that the
also mood disorders and schizo- are “cosmically connected” with stalker’s object is in love with the
phrenia.19 Others may have person- their targets. Obviously, no single stalker. Although the exact label
ality disorders, such as narcissism, potential stalker will exhibit all may vary, a number of other re-
paranoia, antisocial personalities, of these themes. When noted by searchers also have discussed this
borderline personality disorders, law enforcement personnel in phenomenon.25 In many instances,
dependent disorders, or histrionic combination with other typical the victim does not know the stalker
personality disorders. If stalkers stalking behaviors, such themes and almost always occupies an el-
have a treatable psychiatric disor- should serve as potential warning evated station in life, making any
der, some may benefit from medica- signs. In particular, law enforce- true relationship between the two
tions or psychotherapy. Those truly ment personnel should look for very unlikely. Usually, the only
mental disorder affecting such powerlessness. These stalkers fre- professionals to identify, assess,
stalkers is the delusion concerning quently were in relationships with and manage the risks of target vio-
the object of their attentions. Gener- their objects when those associa- lence and its potential perpetra-
ally consisting of women who tar- tions deteriorated or terminated, tors.”27 Threats are not necessarily
get males, this group represents the generally had an emotional attach- predictive in the sense that indi-
least dangerous of the three catego- ment to their victims, and were un- viduals being stalked always will
ries and included slightly under 10 able to let the relationship end. If become victims of violence; how-
percent of those studied.26 they could not restore those ties, ever, threats obviously may require
The second group, the love ob- they may have sought retribution or further investigation.
sessional group, comprised ap- attempted to ensure that no one re- For example, one researcher
proximately 43 percent of the placed them in their objects’ affec- found that only about one-half of
sample. Ninety-seven percent of tions. Simple obsessional stalkers stalkers who threatened their vic-
those were male stalkers, often be- also were more likely to harm their tims actually acted on those
tween 30 and 40 years of age, with victims or their victims’ properties. threats.28 In addition, even though
their victims usually between 20 They also were willing to do what- 43 percent of men and 45 percent of
and 30 years of age. Generally, ever was necessary to achieve their women being stalked in that study
these stalkers became aware of their goals. Substance abuse also was received threats from their stalkers,
targets through the media and did common. Ninety-seven percent of interpersonal violence only oc-
not know their victims directly. this group made threats, while 30 curred on average in 20 to 25 per-
Twenty-five percent of these stalk- percent actually carried them out. cent of the cases. Violence took the
ers made threats to their objects, Such stalking instances may be form of grabbing, punching, strik-
while only 3 percent carried out more short-lived than those in the ing, or forcible fondling, but, reas-
those threats. other two categories. suringly, homicide occurred in less
Finally, the third group of stalk- than 2 percent of the stalking cases;
ers, those having a simple obses- Threat Assessment however, this researcher also found
sion, included approximately 47.5 Because stalking may precede that stalkers who had multiple stalk-
percent of those studied, 80 percent violent crimes against persons ing targets and who displayed seri-
of whom were male. Generally, or property, early recognition of ous antisocial behavior that was
they were socially immature and these phenomena may provide op- not related to their delusions may be
unable to develop lasting relation- portunities for early intervention to at a very high risk for committing
ships. The study found that such prevent subsequent violence. violence.
stalkers possibly exhibited traits “Threat assessment is the term used Researchers also have identi-
that could include extreme jeal- to describe the set of investigative fied other risk enhancers. For
ousy, insecurity, paranoia, and and operational techniques that example, one study of Hollywood
feelings of helplessness and can be used by law enforcement celebrities found that victims
December 2002 / 5
stalking and the extent to which
stalking may precede such episodes
of abuse. This research found that 1
in 6, or 16.5 percent, of domestic
violence crime reports contained
evidence that the suspect had
stalked the victim prior to the
present occurrence of domestic vio-
lence. Officers typically used
charges of harassment or violations
of restraining orders, even though
evidence existed in the case files
to support requesting stalking
charges.33
This research suggested that
criminal codes concerning stalking
© Mark C. Ide
may offer one valuable, yet
were more at risk when stalkers violating protection orders, access underused, avenue to address stalk-
corresponded with them for over 1 to the victim or the victim’s family, ing behaviors in domestic violence
year; sought face-to-face contact; known depression or suicidal ten- cases. When victims present com-
formed detailed, plausible plans; dencies, and histories of stalking plaints of harassing and threatening
stated specific times, dates, and victimizations, mental illness, or behaviors, officers always should
places that contact would occur; drug use.30 Other indicators of high- ask whether these behaviors have
telephoned and wrote their victims; risk stalkers may include present or occurred previously, so as to de-
and sent them letters originating past threats to kill the victim or oth- velop the pattern of behaviors nec-
from more than one location.29 In ers and a high degree of obsession, essary to sustain stalking charges. If
their correspondence with their tar- possessiveness, or jealousy.31 officers ask these questions in all
gets, 36 percent of the stalkers re- In contrast, other researchers cases involving potential charges of
ferred to other celebrities. This has found certain factors that were not harassment, terroristic threats, and
important consequences for those predictive, despite common be- violations of restraining orders, it is
investigating such crimes. When liefs.32 Generally, they did not find possible that, in some situations, in-
one target is identified, careful in- stalkers who communicated anony- terventions could help prevent later
vestigation may identify others mously more dangerous than those domestic violence.
stalked by the same individual, ei- who signed their communications.
ther contemporaneously or in previ- Also, no link existed between stalk- Conclusion
ous instances. Criminal record ers who harassed their targets with The phenomenon of stalking is
checks may help disclose whether or without accompanying threats. a complex one. Throughout the
the stalker has engaged in similar Finally, no predictive value neces- United States and Canada, law en-
behaviors in the past. sarily existed in distinguishing be- forcement officials and researchers
Still, other characteristics of tween those stalkers who threatened are intensifying their examinations
stalkers also may indicate a high their victims and those stalkers who of the various forms of stalking and
risk for injury to their stalking tar- approached their targets. its related criminal behaviors. Re-
gets. These include the possession/ Recent research in Colorado cent studies have revealed that
use of weapons, past instances of suggested that law enforcement of- stalking is more widespread than
violence or hostage taking, a ficers may not recognize the link previous research of the early 1990s
disregard for the consequences of between domestic violence and indicated.
“
23
Supra note 11.
sessment of threats made by perpe- 24
Michael A. Zona, Kaushal K. Sharma,
trators. Law enforcement and other and John Lane, “A Comparative Study of
governmental authorities need to Erotomaniac and Obsessional Subjects in a
closely monitor these events as they ...the phenomenon Forensic Sample,” Journal of Forensic
encounter stalking, assess the threat of stalking represents Sciences 38, no. 4 (1996): 894.
25
Supra note 6, Robert Lloyd-Goldstein,
that it presents, and develop their a unique nexus “De Clerambault On-Line: A Survey of
responses. between psychiatry Erotomania and Stalking from the Old World to
the World Wide Web,” 196; Judith Meyers,
and psychology on the “Cultural Factors in Erotomania and Obses-
Endnotes one hand and law sional Following,” 213; and Glen Skoler, “The
Archetypes and Psychodynamics of Stalkings,”
1
Jane E. Brody, “Do’s and Don’ts for
Thwarting Stalker,” The New York Times,
enforcement on 96.
August 25, 1998, sec. F, p. 7. the other. 26
Supra note 24, 897 and 901.
27
2
Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, U.S. Robert A. Fein, Bryan Vossekuil, and
”
Department of Justice, National Institute of Gwen A. Holden, U.S. Department of Justice,
Justice and Centers for Disease Control and National Institute of Justice, Threat Assessment:
Prevention, Stalking in America: Findings from An Approach to Prevent Targeted Violence
the National Violence Against Women Survey, (Washington, DC, 1995), 2.
28
NCJ 169592 (Washington, DC, April 1998), 3. 13
Willie L. Williams, John Lane, and Supra note 19, 182.
29
3
Ibid., 4. Michael A. Zona, “Stalking: Successful Supra note 20 (Dietz et al), 192-193, 195,
4
“Simpson Case May Represent Pattern,” Intervention Strategies,” Police Chief, February and 207-208.
30
The New York Times, in Fargo (North Dakota) 1996, 26. Doreen R. Orion, I Know You Really Love
Forum, June 19, 1994, sec. A, p. 6. 14
Mary P. Brewster, U.S. Department of Me: A Psychiatrists’s Journal of Erotomania,
5
Supra note 2, 2. Justice, National Institute of Justice, An Stalking, and Obsessive Love (New York, NY:
6
J. Reid Meloy, ed., The Psychology of Exploration of the Experiences and Needs of Macmillan, 1997), 199-203, 211, and 218-219.
31
Stalking: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives Former Intimate Stalking Victims (Washington, Office of the Attorney General, Domestic
(San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Harcourt DC, June 1998), 5-6. Violence in North Dakota—1998 (Bismarck,
Brace & Company, 1998), 2. 15
According to one law enforcement source, ND: Bureau of Criminal Investigation, 2000),
7
Rebecca Kong, “Criminal Harassment in stalkers have above-average intelligence. FBI 27.
32
Canada,” Statistics Canada 46 (1997): 29. Special Agent James A. Wright quoted in Supra note 20 (Dietz et al), 205-206.
33
8
U.S. law enforcement officers may refer to William Sherman, “Stalking: The Nightmare Patricia Tjaden and Nancy Thoennes, The
the National Center for Victims of Crime’s Web That Never Ends,” Cosmopolitan, April 1994, Role of Stalking in Domestic Violence Crime
site at http://www.ncvc.org/src/legislation/ 200. Reports Generated by the Colorado Springs
statestk.htm to find their local stalking 16
Supra note 2, 5-7. Police Department, presented to the National
legislation, view Canada’s criminal harassment 17
Supra note 11. Institute of Justice, December 1999, ii.
(stalking) law at http://www.wwlia.org/ca- 18
Ann W. Burgess, Timothy Baker,
stalk.htm, and, for an overview of stalking laws, Deborah Greening, Carol R. Hartman, Allen G.
see U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Burgess, John E. Douglas, and Richard
Justice Programs, Office for Victims of Crime, Halloran, “Stalking Behaviors Within Domestic
December 2002 / 7
Police Practice
© brandXpictures
An Officer’s Guide
for Investigations Involving
Public Housing Authorities
By Keith Graves
December 2002 / 9
• PHAs may terminate residency if the household officers, and a police officer should meet with PHA
member is engaged in alcohol abuse or a pattern staff members as well.
of abuse that results in a safety threat and inter-
feres with the peaceful enjoyment of the CONCLUSION
premises. During police investigations, officers may find
• PHAs may terminate residency if they determine that perpetrators of the crime live in public housing or
that a household member furnishes false or are part of the Section 8 program. Officers often deal
misleading information regarding illegal drug use with public housing/Section 8 tenants on a repeat
or alcohol abuse. basis.
Therefore, a strong relationship between the local
LAW ENFORCEMENT APPROACH public housing authority and the police department
Law enforcement agencies should create a formal can benefit both agencies and prevent incidents from
relationship with their local PHAs. They should becoming a continuing problem. Through mutual
identify the PHA’s director and assign one officer support, agencies can work together at decreasing
who has knowledge of crime in public or Section 8 crime in public housing.
housing to contact the PHA. Both the department and
For additional information, contact Officer Graves at
the PHA should explain their policies and procedures 925-371-4900 or Kgraves@ci.livermore.ca.us.
and agree on a schedule for regular communication.
To define both the PHA’s and police department’s Officer Graves serves with the Livermore, California, Police
Department and currently is a commissioner for the
responsibilities and limits, the department should
Livermore Housing Authority’s Board of Directors.
request that the PHA have roll call briefings for its
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operate in an efficient and profes-
sional manner without expressing
personal views and emotions. To
accomplish this, law enforcement
personnel must have a strict and un-
wavering adherence to a code of
ethics and a code of conduct.
Law enforcement officers are
professionals; they work in a skilled
occupational group whose prime
consideration constitutes providing
a service that benefits the public.
Because law enforcement is a pro-
fession, ethics and ethical conduct
play an important role. Ethics and
ethical standards involve doing the
right thing at the right time in the
right way2 for the right reason.3
With this in mind, the International
Association of Chiefs of Police
(IACP) established a code of ethics
to govern the conduct of its mem-
Ethics and bers. This code of ethics, originally
written in 1957, was revised at the
M any people consider the Socrates’ discussions concerning mously voted to adopt the new
U.S. justice system, ethics in The Republic. codes.4
comprised of various or- U.S. citizens have a set of val-
ganizations, such as the U.S. Mar- Ethical Standards ues and norms that they expect all
shals Service, the U.S. Immigration As society has evolved, the law enforcement (local, state, and
and Naturalization Service, and the questions and concerns that involve federal) to practice. To follow these
FBI, as one of the best criminal jus- ethics and ethical behavior have norms and to gain respect, law en-
tice systems in the world. Neverthe- grown more difficult to address. forcement personnel must remain
less, the system still has concerns Ethical standards have become both ethical and conduct themselves ac-
that it deals with on a regular basis, more complex and scrutinized by cordingly at all times, both on and
such as ethics and ethical conduct. the public than at any other time in off duty. The law enforcement code
The topic of ethics and ethical history. Therefore, law enforce- of ethics and the police code of con-
behavior has existed for centuries. ment personnel must carry out tasks duct represent the basis for ethical
Many people believe that Socrates assigned to them while the rules and behavior in law enforcement. In ad-
was the first philosopher to delve laws constantly change and their dition, these codes encourage law
into the issue of ethics, specifically freedom to perform the necessary enforcement’s classification as a
the ethical treatment of problems in tasks becomes obstructed. Citizens profession. However, these codes
government. 1 Plato documented expect law enforcement officials to simply constitute words. For them
December 2002 / 11
“
ethical mandates law enforcement
officers use to perform their duties.
These guidelines include acting im-
Society judges partially; exercising discretion; us-
ethical behavior ing only necessary force; and main-
by actions, not taining confidentiality, integrity,
words. and a professional image at all
times.
These codes are only pieces of
”
Mr. Grant serves in the FBI’s Contract Administration Office, Criminal Justice
Information Services Division, Clarksburg, West Virginia.
paper with words printed on them.
Society judges ethical behavior by
actions, not words. These docu-
ments provide the guidelines for
law enforcement personnel to con-
duct ethical investigations, use only
the force necessary to apprehend an
to be effective, law enforcement of- Prospective law enforcement offic- individual, and avoid conflicts of
ficials and their leaders must ers offer the oath to the state in interest and corruption. These ethi-
consider them as the bible for law exchange for the employment they cal statements, along with appropri-
enforcement. Law enforcement receive.7 This oath remains morally ate training and strong leadership,
personnel must not only believe in binding throughout the officer’s en- encourage law enforcement officers
the codes but also follow them and tire length of service in law enforce- to become members of an ethical
display conduct that supports them. ment. The code of ethics states that profession.8
Thus, law enforcement officers the officer’s fundamental duties are
must live the code.5 to serve the community; safeguard Corruption
Any criminal justice system lives and property; protect the inno- Corruption represents one ethi-
represents an apparatus society uses cent against deception, the weak cal issue facing law enforcement
to enforce the standards of conduct against oppression or intimidation, officers. Police corruption is the
necessary to protect individuals and and the peaceful against violence or lack of police integrity.9 It also con-
communities.6 The laws of this na- disorder; and respect the constitu- stitutes one of the most significant
tion, designed to protect and defend tional rights of all to liberty, equal- obstacles to positive police-public
the public, provide the framework ity, and justice. The code of ethics relations in today’s society. Police
for a democratic society. Law en- also states that officers must keep corruption includes acts of brutal-
forcement officials must perform their private lives unsullied and rec- ity, excessive force, inefficiency,
their duties according to these laws. ognize the badge as a symbol of and, among others, the use of public
Law enforcement personnel must public faith and trust. The next to office for private gain. Eight cor-
have guidelines to perform their du- last paragraph states, “I know that I ruption issues face law enforcement
ties to act in an ethical manner and alone am responsible for my own personnel daily. These issues are
to enforce specific standards of con- standard of professional perfor- the—
duct. These guidelines exist in the mance and will take every reason- 1) acceptance of gratuities;
form of the law enforcement code able opportunity to enhance and im-
of ethics and the police code of prove my level of knowledge and 2) association with known
conduct. competence.” criminals without a
The law enforcement code of The police code of conduct supervisor’s knowledge or
ethics is used as an oath of office works in conjunction with the law consent;
during the graduation ceremony for enforcement code of ethics. 3) disclosure or furnishing of
many law enforcement personnel. The code of conduct consists of confidential information, files,
“
the commanding officer; behavior.14
5) falsification of affidavits, Law enforcement officers can-
warrants, or other official All law not allow themselves to incur favors
reports; enforcement or become indebted to anyone. As
6) harassment of, taking action personnel must public servants, they owe their ser-
against, or failing to take set the ethical vices to society. To eliminate cor-
proper action against any example.... ruption, society must change offi-
person due to race, sex, creed, cers’ beliefs and, more important,
”
religion, national origin, or their actions. However, administra-
sexual orientation; tors can take significant steps by
Corruption exists at all levels of ensuring that quality leadership ex-
7) sexual or ethnic harassment
law enforcement, and it must be ists, screening applicants com-
of citizens, coworkers, or
controlled. One expert lists four pletely, training personnel (newly
subordinates; and
methods for controlling corruption hired officers should go through
8) failure to protect the in law enforcement agencies.13 stages of training, such as an initial
rights of citizens and to follow training program, field training,
1) Strong leadership: The
laws, policy, and court deci- and, finally, in-service training15),
department’s leadership must
sions regarding those rights giving them guidelines, providing
lead by example and avoid any
with reference to probable them with honorable work, and en-
questionable conduct.
cause, arrest, evidence, interro- couraging them to be team players.
gation, collection/protection 2) Changes in the selection By taking these steps, law enforce-
and report preparation/ and socialization of new ment organizations can eliminate
submission.10 officers: Departments must the conditions that lead to corrup-
Several studies have classified complete extensive back- tion within their agencies.
corrupt situations into three ground investigations to retain
different groups.11 Individual cor- qualified candidates and Conclusion
ruption exists when a few corrupt ensure that they receive To flourish as a democratic
individual officers work in a complete training, which society, the United States must
department that actively discour- should include a field training continue to have one of the best
ages corruption. Organizational officer spending time with the criminal justice systems in the
corruption represents illegal and new officer. world. Philosophers, educators,
unprofessional acts common in a 3) Changes in departmental citizens, and law enforcement per-
department in which both officers organization and operational sonnel have discussed, and will
and administrators are involved procedures: The department’s continue to address, the topic of eth-
together in a widespread and leadership should establish ics and ethical conduct. The world
December 2002 / 13
continuously changes, which brings society. Ethics do not come from a 5
6
Supra note 2.
President’s Commission on Law
different and more complex ethical piece of paper, but from within. All
Enforcement and Administrative Justice, The
questions. To adapt to these law enforcement personnel must set Challenge of Crime in a Free Society
changes, law enforcement officials the ethical example; therefore, not (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing
must continue to emphasize the im- only will law enforcement become Office, 1967).
7
William C. Heffernan and Timothy Stroup,
portance of ethical standards. Only a more ethical profession but, per-
Police Ethics: Hard Choices in Law Enforce-
through sound hiring practices, haps, society will become more ment (New York, NY: John Jay Press, 1985).
proper training, ethical leadership, ethical as well. 8
For additional information on police
and a written code of ethics will leadership, see Paul Hansen, “Developing
Police Leadership,” FBI Law Enforcement
the U.S. criminal justice system Endnotes Bulletin, October 1991, 4-8.
prosper. 1
Peter Madsen and Jay M. Shafritz, 9
Hubert Williams, “Maintaining Police
“The mark of a civilization is Essentials of Government Ethics (New York, Integrity: Municipal Police of the United
how well its policemen have NY: Penguin, 1991). States,” Police Studies, Spring 1986, 27-33.
10
2
David A. Hansen, Police Ethics (Chicago, Paul Myron, “Crooks or Cops: We Can’t
breathed and absorbed the spirit of
IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1973). Be Both,” Police Chief, January 1992, 23-28.
liberty…. Police are the guardians 3
This infers that people will take the correct 11
Supra note 9.
of our civil liberties…. They have action for altruistic reasons, not just because 12
Supra note 9.
an unequal opportunity to show the they are forced or because someone is watching 13
14
Supra note 9.
them. Supra note 9, 32.
downtrodden and the momentarily 15
4
International Association of Chiefs of Susan Braunstein and Mitchell Tyre,
despairing how to cope in a free Police, “The Evolution of the Law Enforcement “Building a More Ethical Police Department,”
country.” 16 They are teachers Code of Ethics,” Police Chief, January 1992, Police Chief, January 1992, 30-34.
who must help set the example for 14-17. 16
Supra note 7.
The Bulletin’s
E-mail Address
Corrections
Capital Punishment 2000 presents statistics on a
number of topics related to capital punishment, such
as the number of prisoners under the death sentence
as of December 31, 2000, and the number of persons
executed in 2000. Tables in this annual Bureau of
Justice Statistics (BJS) bulletin depict data on capital
offenses by state and federal death penalty laws,
methods of execution, offender demographics (e.g.,
sex, race, education, marital status), and time be-
tween imposition of death sentence and execution.
Additionally, the bulletin summarizes the movement
of prisoners into and out of death sentence status
during 2000, provides preliminary data on executions
in 2001, and presents historical tables on
executions since 1930 and death sen-
tencing since 1973. This 16-page BJS
Drugs and Crime bulletin (NCJ 190598) is available
electronically at http://
MDMA (Ecstasy) summarizes current informa- www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/
tion on the effects, prevalence, trafficking, and cp00.htm or contact the National Crimi-
production of the designer drug MDMA (3,4- nal Justice Reference Service at
methylenedioxymethamphetamine). MDMA, also 800-851-3420.
known as “ecstasy,” is used predominantly at all-
night dance parties known as “raves,” but its use is
moving to such other settings as private homes, high
schools, college dorms, and shopping malls. This
Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) Bulletin Reports is an edited collection
fact sheet also discusses current legislation and law of criminal justice studies, reports, and
enforcement efforts designed to curb the use of project findings. Send your material for
MDMA. According to a 2001 study from the consideration to: FBI Law Enforcement
University of Michigan, 11.7 percent of high school Bulletin, Room 209, Madison Building,
seniors had tried MDMA at least once. This fact FBI Academy, Quantico, VA 22135.
(NOTE: The material in this section is
sheet (NCJ 188745) is available electronically at intended to be strictly an information
http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/ source and should not be considered an
pdf/ncj188745.pdf or contact the National Criminal endorsement by the FBI for any product
Justice Reference Service at 800-851-3420. or service.)
December 2002 / 15
Legal Digest
© Corbis
I n its most recent term, the Su- SEARCH AND remote area of Arizona on an un-
preme Court of the United SEIZURES ISSUES paved road frequently used by
States decided several cases of smugglers. He was traveling in a
significance to law enforcement. United States v. Arvizu minivan with a woman and three
The cases included several deci- 534 U.S. 266 (2002) children. The position of the chil-
sions regarding Fourth Amendment In United States v. Arvizu, dren in the back seat suggested to
issues; one concerning Eighth the U.S. Supreme Court rejected the agent that their legs were resting
Amendment cruel and unusual pun- an attempt by the Court of Appeals on some cargo on the floor. When
ishment; and several important de- for the Ninth Circuit to “describe Arvizu observed the agent, he im-
cisions regarding the Americans and delimit” factors that can be used mediately slowed the vehicle and
with Disabilities Act. This article to determine “reasonable suspi- avoided eye contact. When the
includes a synopsis of these cases. cion.” The Supreme Court reaf- agent began following his vehicle,
Local and state agencies must en- firmed its earlier decisions requir- the children in the back seat began
sure that their own state laws and ing a determination of “reasonable waving in an “abnormal pattern” as
constitutions do not provide greater suspicion” be based on a totality of if they were following instructions.
protections than the U.S. constitu- circumstances. A registration check indicated
tional and statutory standards dis- Arvizu was observed by a that Arvizu’s vehicle was registered
cussed in this article. border patrol agent traveling in a to an address in an area that was
December 2002 / 17
and with or without probable cause
or reasonable suspicion. Shortly af-
ter Knights was placed on proba-
tion, an arson fire occurred in
equipment owned by the Pacific
Gas & Electric Company (PG) and
Pacific Bell. Suspicion centered on
Knights because PG previously
had filed a theft of services com-
plaint against Knights and termi-
nated his electric service. After
some investigation, detectives,
who were aware of the consent to
search condition in Knights’
probation agreement, decided to
search Knights’ apartment. The
parties agreed that at the time of
believe that they were required to at random, to ask questions, and to the search, detectives had reason-
answer their questions. In addition, request their consent to searches for able suspicion to believe that
there was no application of force, drugs and weapons, without advis- Knights had committed the arson.
no overwhelming show of force, ing them of their right to refuse to They sought no warrant authorizing
and no brandishing of weapons or cooperate or to give consent. the search, relying instead on the
intimidating movements. The aisle probation condition. A search of
was left free so that passengers Knights’ apartment revealed evi-
could exit, and passengers were ad- dence of arson.
dressed one by one, in a polite, quiet Knights was indicted for sev-
voice. No commands were given. eral federal crimes. He moved to
Nothing was said to suggest to rea- suppress the evidence. The federal
sonable individuals that they were district court granted the motion.
barred from leaving the bus or oth- The Court of Appeals for the Ninth
erwise terminating the encounter. Circuit affirmed the lower court’s
The fact that the encounter occurred decision. The circuit court held
on a bus did not transform standard that the search condition in
police questioning of citizens into Knights’ probation order must be
an illegal seizure. Under these cir- read as limited to searches for pro-
cumstances, reasonable people bationary purposes and must stop
would believe that they were free to short of criminal investigation
leave or to end the encounter. Con- searches.
sequently, no seizure occurred. United States v. Knights The U.S. Supreme Court re-
The Court again rejected the 534 U.S. 112 (2001) versed. The Court never reached the
suggestion that police officers must Knights was convicted of a issue of whether or not Knights had
inform citizens of their right to state drug offense and sentenced by waived his Fourth Amendment
refuse when seeking permission to a California court to probation. The rights (i.e., consented to the search)
conduct a warrantless consent terms of his probation included the by agreeing to the search condition
search. The Court found that the condition that Knights submit to a as part of his probation. Instead, the
Fourth Amendment allows police search by police at anytime, with or Court concluded that the search of
officers to approach bus passengers without a search or arrest warrant, this probationer’s apartment, based
December 2002 / 19
subdued, handcuffed, placed in leg THE AMERICANS suit did not make them available.
irons, and transported back to WITH DISABILITIES ACT However, the Supreme Court did
prison. Despite the clear lack of a not disturb the $1 million award
threat from Hope, the guards know- Barnes, et al. v. Gorman meant to compensate Gorman for
ingly subjected him to a substantial 122 S. Ct. 2097 (2002) his actual losses.
risk of physical harm, unnecessary Barnes v. Gorman presented Law enforcement agencies
pain, exposure to the sun, prolonged the Supreme Court with the issue of should realize that they may be li-
thirst and taunting, and no access to whether punitive damages can be able to disabled individuals when
a bathroom—all unnecessary dis- awarded in a private suit brought those agencies are not adequately
comfort and humiliation. under the Americans with Disabili- prepared to handle disabled indi-
The Court decided that the of- ties Act (ADA) and the Rehabilita- viduals. The ADA prohibits dis-
ficers were not entitled to qualified tion Act. crimination against the disabled by
immunity. The Court found that In May 1992, Kansas City po- public entities, and the Rehabilita-
these violations of the Eighth lice arrested Jeffrey Gorman. tion Act prohibits discrimination
Amendment were clearly estab- Gorman is confined to a wheelchair against the disabled by recipients of
lished because a reasonable officer and lacks voluntary control over his federal funding. While punitive
would have known that using a lower torso. His condition forces damages are not recoverable, the
hitching post as Hope alleged was him to wear a catheter attached to a failure of a police agency to prop-
unlawful. The Court noted that the urine bag around his waist. The po- erly prepare to deal with the dis-
obvious cruelty inherent in their lice put him in a van that was not abled can be very costly.
conduct should have given the equipped for a wheelchair. The of-
guards notice that their treatment of ficers removed him from the wheel-
Hope was unconstitutional. The chair and strapped him to a narrow
Court also identified previous bind- bench in the rear of the van. During
ing circuit precedent, relevant Ala- the ride, Gorman fell to the floor,
bama Department of Corrections rupturing his urine bag and injuring
regulation, and prior U.S. Depart- his shoulder and back. He subse-
ment of Justice admonitions that quently suffered from serious medi-
should have alerted the officers to cal problems, including a bladder
the unlawfulness of these practices. infection, serious lower back pain,
and uncontrollable spasms in his
paralyzed areas.
Gorman brought a civil suit
against, among others, the chief of
police and the officer who drove the
van. He alleged that he had been U.S. Airways, Inc. v. Barnett
discriminated against on the basis 122 S. Ct. 1516 (2002)
of his disability. The trial jury In this case, the Supreme Court
found the defendants liable to addressed the issue of the impact
Gorman and awarded him $1 mil- of the reasonable accommodation
lion in compensatory damages and requirement of the Americans
$1.2 million in punitive damages. with Disabilities Act (ADA) on a
The Supreme Court ruled that the seniority system. Barnett was a lug-
punitive damages awarded to gage handler with U.S. Airways
Gorman were inappropriate be- who injured his back and was no
cause the statutes relied on for his longer able to lift luggage. He was
December 2002 / 21
lives.” In addition, the Court em-
phasized that a mere medical diag-
nosis of an impairment is not suffi-
cient to claim ADA protection.
Claimants must offer evidence that
the impairment impacts them per-
sonally in a substantial way, mean-
ing each claim must be decided on a
case-by-case basis because the im-
pact of impairments varies from
person to person.
This case is limited to analysis
of only one major life activity—
performing manual tasks. However,
it is important for several reasons.
The Court spoke with a single
© Corbis
voice; it was a unanimous opinion.
suffered from a physical impair- was not wrongfully terminated for The Court’s opinion clearly demon-
ment, it did not substantially limit the reason set out by the district strated its intention and interpreted
any major life activity. The district court. the language of the ADA in a way to
court also denied her wrongful ter- The U.S. Supreme Court re- ensure that its protections extend
mination claim. Because she was versed the Sixth Circuit and con- only to those whose impairments
under doctors’ orders not to work at cluded that Ms. Williams was not truly substantially limit a major life
all when she was fired, she was not disabled as defined by the ADA. activity. The ADA means what it
a “qualified person” under the ADA The Supreme Court agreed with says. Limitations upon life activi-
because she could not perform the both lower courts that Ms. Williams ties must be “substantial,” meaning
essential functions of the job. Ms. suffered from a physical impair- that they must relate to or proceed
Williams appealed. ment. However, as the Court noted, from “the essence of a thing.” Life
The Court of Appeals for the to qualify for ADA protection, her activities impacted must be “ma-
Sixth Circuit reversed. It held that impairment must limit a major life jor,” meaning that they must be “of
Ms. Williams was disabled at the activity and that limitation must be central importance to daily life.”
time of her request for accom- substantial. The Court agreed that
modation because her physical im- performing manual tasks is a major
pairment prevented her from doing life activity. The Court disagreed
a class of manual activities affect- that Ms. Williams’ impairment sub-
ing her ability to perform tasks at stantially limited her in the major
work. The Sixth Circuit ignored life activity of performing manual
evidence that Ms. Williams could tasks.
tend to her personal hygiene and do The Court held that to be sub-
personal and household chores, say- stantially limited in the major life
ing it was not relevant to its deter- activity of performing manual
mination that she was substantially tasks, an individual must have an
limited in her ability to perform the impairment that “prevents or se-
range of manual tasks associated verely restricts the individual from
with an assembly line job. The cir- doing activities that are of central
cuit court agreed, however, that she importance to most peoples’ daily
December 2002 / 23
Court noted that the EEOC was not accommodation. Consequently, it is court granted summary judgment
a party to any arbitration agreement. lawful for employers to refuse to for Chevron, saying it acted reason-
The EEOC has statutory authority hire people with disabilities if their ably by relying on its doctors’ medi-
to pursue these various remedies, disabilities cannot be accommo- cal advice. The case was appealed
and nothing in the FAA restricts this dated and they pose a direct threat to the Court of Appeals for the
public agency’s authority. to other workers. Ninth Circuit.
The legislation says nothing The circuit court decided that
about employers’ refusals to hire the EEOC regulation, recognizing
persons with disabilities because the threat-to-self defense, was be-
their performance of the jobs would yond the EEOC’s rule-making
pose a danger to their own health power under the ADA and reversed
and safety. However, the EEOC the district court’s decision in favor
promulgated a regulation that per- of Chevron. The Supreme Court
mitted employers to refuse to hire agreed to hear the case.
for just that reason. This case chal- A unanimous Supreme Court
lenged that EEOC regulation. disagreed with the Ninth Circuit
Mario Echazabal worked for an and upheld the EEOC regulation.
independent contractor at a Chev- The Court reviewed the language
ron Oil refinery. Twice he applied and history of the ADA and decided
for jobs with Chevron, and twice that Congress had not definitively
Chevron offered him a job condi- spoken on the issue of threats to
tioned upon the results of medical workers’ own health, making it rea-
Chevron, U.S.A. Inc. v. Echazabal tests. Both medical tests showed sonable for the EEOC to do so. The
122 S. Ct. 2045 (2002) liver abnormality or damage caused Court noted that the regulation is
The Americans with Disabili- by Hepatitis C. Both of Chevron’s reasonable because employers rea-
ties Act (ADA) defines many conditional employment offers sonably must fear running afoul of
employment practices that are dis- were withdrawn because company Occupational Safety and Health
criminatory and, therefore, viola- doctors said that his condition Administration (OSHA) standards
tions of the act. Among those dis- would be aggravated by exposure to and lawsuits if they hire persons
criminatory acts is the use of toxic chemicals at the refinery. Af- who may be put at risk by perform-
qualification standards that tend to ter the second exam, Chevron asked ing their jobs. In addition, the Court
screen out those with disabilities. Echazabal’s employer to reassign disagreed with Echazabal’s argu-
However, the act provides an affir- him away from harmful chemicals ment that the regulation perpetuates
mative defense for employers who at the plant or to remove him from the workplace paternalism that
use such qualifications. It permits the refinery altogether. The con- the ADA was meant to eliminate.
employers to use standards that tractor laid him off. Echazabal sued By demanding particularized proof
screen out those with disabilities if Chevron, claiming that Chevron of the dangers that disabled em-
they are shown to be job related and violated the ADA by refusing to ployees would likely face in the
consistent with business necessity. hire him or let him continue work- workplace, the regulation elimi-
The same section provides that ing at the plant because of his liver nates the possibility that employers
qualification standards may include disorder, a disability. will make decisions based upon
a requirement that individuals not In federal district court, Chev- stereotypes.
pose a direct threat to the health or ron defended itself by arguing that
safety of others in the workplace hiring Echazabal would pose a di- Instructors in the Legal Instruction Unit
if the individual cannot perform rect threat to his own health, citing at the FBI Academy prepared this
the job safely with reasonable the EEOC regulation. The district article.
December 2002 / 25
“Hunting Terrorists Using Stephen J. Romano,
Confidential Informant Re- September, p. 14.
ward Programs,” Douglas A. “Fleet Management: Vehicle
Kash, April, p. 26. Rotation Criteria,” Curtis W.
“Inferring Probable Cause: Exley, August, p. 1.
Obtaining a Search Warrant “Hostage/Barricade Manage-
for a Suspect’s Home Without ment: A Hidden Conflict
Direct Information that Within Law Enforcement,”
Evidence Is Inside,” Edward Gregory M. Vecchi,
Hendrie, February, p. 23. May, p. 1.
“Investigating International “The Manageable Future:
Terrorism Overseas: Constitu- Envisioning the End State,”
tional Considerations,” Charles S. Heal, January, p. 1.
Michael J. Bulzomi, July,
p. 25. “Managing the Stress of Organi-
zational Change,” James D.
“Providing Consular Rights Sewell, March, p. 14.
Warnings to Foreign
Nationals,” M. Wesley Clark, “The Selection and Training of
March, p. 22. a Crisis Negotiation Team,”
Offenders,” Sharon S. Smith Chuck Regini, November,
“Statements Compelled from p. 1.
and Roger W. Shuy, April, Law Enforcement Employ-
p. 16. ees,” Michael E. Brooks, MEDIA RELATIONS
“World Destruction: A Cultural June, p. 26.
Analysis of a Threat “Making the Most of Press
“Supreme Court Cases: 2000- Interviews,” Dennis Staszak,
Communiqué,” Mitchell R. 2001 Term,” FBI Academy,
Hammer, September, p. 8. May, p. 19.
Legal Instruction Unit, Janu-
ary, p. 22.
LEGAL ISSUES
“Supreme Court Cases: 2001-
“The Americans with Disabili-
2002 Term,” FBI Academy,
ties Act: The Continuing
Legal Instruction Unit, Decem-
Search for Meaning,” Thomas
ber, p. 16.
D. Colbridge, August, p. 27.
“Use-of-Force Policies and
“Article IV Prosecutions,”
Training: A Reasoned Ap-
Ernest J. Duran, June, p. 20.
proach,” Thomas D.
“Consent Searches: Factors Petrowski, October, p. 25.
Courts Consider in Determin-
“Use of Force Policies and
ing Voluntariness,” Jayme
Training: A Reasoned Ap-
Walker Holcomb, May, p. 25.
proach (Part Two),” Thomas
“Constitutional Rights to Coun- D. Petrowski, November,
sel During Interrogation: p. 25.
Comparing Rights Under the
Fifth and Sixth Amendments,” MANAGEMENT
Kimberly A. Crawford, “Communication Survival
September, p. 28. Skills for Managers,”
December 2002 / 27
2002 Author Index
A Brubaker, Larry C., retired
Adams, Susan H., Special Special Agent, FBI, Minne-
Agent, FBI Academy, apolis, Minnesota, “Deadly
Quantico, Virginia, “Criminal Force: A 20-Year Study of
Confessions: Overcoming Fatal Encounters,” April, p. 6
the Challenges,” November, Bulzomi, Michael J., Special
p. 9. Agent, FBI Academy,
Airey, Joseph, Special Agent, Quantico, Virginia, “Investi-
FBI, Denver, Colorado, gating International Terrorism
“Special Event Safety and Overseas: Constitutional
Security: Protecting the World Considerations,” July, p. 25.
Alpine Ski Championships,”
April, p. 1. C
Alexander, Daniel, Assistant Clark, M. Wesley, Senior
Chief, Boca Raton, Florida, Attorney, DEA, “Providing
Police Department, “Policing Consular Rights Warnings to
and the Global Paradox,” Foreign Nationals,” March,
June, p. 6. p. 22.
Artwohl, Alexis, retired police Clifford, Michael P., Special
“Force Continuums: A Liability psychologist, Las Vegas, Agent, FBI, Chantilly, Vir-
to Law Enforcement?” Nevada, “Perceptual and ginia, “Communications
George T. Williams, June, Memory Distortion During Assistance for Law Enforce-
p. 14. Officer-Involved Shootings,” ment Act (CALEA),” August,
“High-Speed Police Pursuits: October, p. 18. p. 11.
Dangers, Dynamics, and Risk
Reduction,” John Hill, July, B
p. 14. Bonello, Elizabeth M., Detec-
“Physical Fitness in Law En- tive, Lansing, Michigan,
forcement: Follow the Yellow Police Department, “Citizen
Brick Road,” Patti Ebling, Police Academies: Do They
October, p. 1. Do More Than Entertain?”
“The Relationship Between November, p. 19.
Multicultural Training for Boswell, Richard T., Deputy,
Police and Effective Law Bedford County, Virginia,
Enforcement,” Gary R. Sheriff’s Office, “The Police
Coderoni, November, Response to Medical Crime
p. 16. Scenes,” September, p. 17.
“Safety Awareness for Public- Brooks, Michael E., Special
Contact Employees,” Agent, FBI Academy,
Jacqueline B. Wheeler and Quantico, Virginia, “State-
Christopher M. Lando, ments Compelled from Law
October, p. 8. Enforcement Employees,”
June, p. 26.
December 2002 / 29
DNA Analysis: A Different Physical Battle Ends, the
Crime-Solving Tool,” August, Psychological Battle Begins,”
p. 16. January, p. 18.
J L
James-Mesloh, Jennifer, former Lando, Christopher M., Special
public relations practitioner, Agent, FBI, Asheville, North
University of Central Florida, Carolina, “Safety Awareness
Orlando, “Bulletproof Dogs: for Public-Contact Employ-
The Canine Ballistic Vest ees,” October, p. 8.
Phenomenon,” October, p. 14. Larsen, James, Captain, Planta-
Jordan, Lamar, Assistant Profes- tion, Florida, Police Depart-
sor, Southern Utah University, ment, “STOP CRIME: Sys-
Cedar City, “Law Enforcement tematic Tracking Operation
and the Elderly: A Concern for Program Community Report-
the 21st Century,” May, p. 20. ing Incidents More Effec-
tively,” November, p. 6.
K
Kash, Douglas A., Senior M
Direct Information that Attorney, DEA, Arlington, Maloney, Mike, Captain, Chico,
Evidence Is Inside,” February, Virginia, “Hunting Terrorists California, Police Department,
p. 23. Using Confidential Informant “The Impact of Community
Hill, John, Instructor, University Reward Programs,” April, Growth on the Staffing and
of Phoenix, Arizona, “High- p. 26. Structure of a Midsized Police
Speed Police Pursuits: Dan- Klein, Michael, Chief, Sand Department,” January, p. 8.
gers, Dynamics, and Risk City, California, Police
Reduction,” July, p. 14. Department, “Law
Holcomb, Jayme Walker, Chief, Enforcement’s Response to
Legal Instruction Section, People with Mental Illness,”
DEA, Quantico, Virginia, February, p. 11.
“Consent Searches: Factors Kruger, Karen J., Assistant
Courts Consider in Determin- Attorney General of Maryland,
ing Voluntariness,” May, Baltimore, “Collecting Statis-
p. 25. tics in Response to Racial
Hunter, Michael J., Lieutenant, Profiling Allegations,” May, p.
Ohio State Highway Patrol, 8; and “Dealing with Domestic
“Freedom,” September, Violence in Law Enforcement
p. 24. Relationships,” July, p. 1.
Kureczka, Arthur W., Program
I Manager and Counselor,
Isenberg, Alice R., Forensic Connecticut-based private
Analyst, FBI, Washington, employee assistance provider,
D.C., “Forensic Mitochondrial “Surviving Assaults: After the
December 2002 / 31
Language Analysis for Identi- W
fying and Assessing Offend- Wheeler, Jacqueline B., First
ers,” April, p. 16. Sergeant, Prince William
Sorby, Trevin R., Sergeant, County, Virginia, Police
Prince William County, Department, “Citizen Firearm
Virginia, Police Department, Safety Program,” April, p. 22;
“Citizen Firearm Safety and “Safety Awareness for
Program,” April, p. 22. Public-Contact Employees,”
Staszak, Dennis, Special Agent, October, p. 8.
FBI Academy, Quantico, White, Mike, Chief,
Virginia, “Making the Most Monroeville, Ohio, Police
of Press Interviews,” May, Department, “The Problem
p. 19. with Gratuities,” July, p. 20.
Williams, George T., Director of
T Training, private training
Tilton, James E., Detective institute, Bellingham, Wash-
Sergeant, Nassau County, New ington, “Force Continuums: A
York, Police Department, Liability to Law Enforce-
“Making Ethical Decisions: A “Adventures in Public Speak- ment?” June, p. 14.
Practical Model,” May, p. 14. ing: A Guide for the Beginning Wilson, Craig R., Sergeant,
Instructor or Public Speaker,” Santa Cruz, California,
Schafer, Joseph A., Instructor, February, p. 15.
Southern Illinois University, Sheriff’s Office, “Police and
Carbondale, “Citizen Police Tunkel, Ronald F., Special the Sexual Assault Examina-
Academies: Do They Do More Agent, Bureau of Alcohol, tion,” January, p. 14.
Than Entertain?” November, Tobacco and Firearms, FBI Wood, Nona L., Associate
p. 19. Academy, Quantico, Virginia, Director of Student Rights and
“Bomb Threat Assessments,” Responsibilities, Office of the
Sewell, James D., Regional October, p. 6.
Director, Florida Department Dean of Student Life, North
of Law Enforcement, “Manag- Dakota State University,
V
ing the Stress of Organiza- Fargo, “Stalking the Stalker,”
Valltos, Nicholas G., retired December, p. 1.
tional Change,” March, p. 14.
Major, Prince Georges’
Shuy, Roger W., retired profes- Wood, Robert A., Associate
County, Maryland, Police
sor, Georgetown University, Professor, Department of
Department, “Dealing with
Washington, D.C., “Forensic Political Science, North
Domestic Violence in Law
Psycholinguistics: Using Dakota State University,
Enforcement Relationships,”
Language Analysis for Identi- Fargo, “Stalking the Stalker,”
July, p. 1.
fying and Assessing Offend- December, p. 1.
Vecchi, Gregory M., Special
ers,” April, p. 16.
Agent, FBI, Miami, Florida,
Smith, Sharon S., Special Agent, “Hostage/Barricade Manage-
FBI Academy, Quantico, ment: A Hidden Conflict
Virginia, “Forensic Within Law Enforcement,”
Psycholinguistics: Using May, p. 1.
Official Business
Penalty for Private Use $300
Patch Call
The patch of the Kissimmee, Florida, Police De- The Kansas Bureau of Investigation (KBI) was
partment symbolizes the agency’s community-oriented created in 1939, as depicted on its patch. Dedication,
policing philosophy and encompasses its logo of “The service, and integrity describe the KBI’s mission and
Positive Difference.” It displays an officer kneeling to motivating force behind its employees. The yellow and
address a young child, who represents future leader- gold background colors signify Kansas wheat and reflect
ship. The colors behind the officer and child symbolize the state’s agricultural heritage. The patch’s endless blue
sunrise and sunset, which reflect hope and optimism circle and scales represent justice, the red symbolizes
and peace and tranquility, respectively. The back- valor, and the white stands for truth. The large six-
ground colors of red, white, and blue depict those of the pointed star in the foreground denotes the authority of
American flag. the Kansas sheriff, which was originally granted to KBI
special agents and the six smaller stars represent the
state’s motto “To the stars through difficulties.”ulties.”