Linear Integrated Circuits Unit2 Raghudathesh VTU

Op-Amps-AC Amplifiers
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (VTU) - 10EC46

UNIT - 2
Op-Amps as AC Amplifiers: Capacitor coupled Voltage Follower, High input impedance

Capacitor coupled Voltage Follower, Capacitor coupled Non-inverting Amplifiers, High input
impedance - Capacitor coupled Non-inverting Amplifiers, Capacitor coupled Inverting
amplifiers, setting the upper cut-off frequency, Capacitor coupled Difference amplifier, Use of a
single polarity power supply.
7 Hours
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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Operational Amplifiers and Linear ICs, David A. Bell, 2 nd edition, PHI/Pearson, 2004.
2. Linear Integrated Circuits, D. Roy Choudhury and Shail B. Jain, 2 nd edition, Reprint 2006,
New Age International.
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Special Thanks To:

Faculty (Chronological):
Students:
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BY:
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Prof
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577004
Cell: +917411459249
Mail: datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Website: raghudathesh.weebly.com
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
Introduction:
Op-Amp can be used as both AC and DC Amplifiers.
The Op-Amp circuit which is used to amplifying AC signals are called as AC amplifiers.
Operational amplifier circuits can readily be capacitor coupled at the input and output so
that they operate only as ac amplifiers.
Capacitors must not be allowed to interrupt the bias current paths to the op-amp
input terminals.
While designing such AC amplifiers, the low and high frequency limits must be taken
care of.
Since capacitors have their highest impedances at the lowest signal frequency, all
coupling capacitor values must be calculated at the desired lower cutoff frequency
(f1).
The impedance of coupling capacitors at (f1) is usually determined as one-tenth of the
resistance in series with them.
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The largest capacitor in the circuit is normally selected to determine (f1) and in this case
the capacitive impedance is made equal to the series-connected resistance.
Ex. Application: Audio input which has well defined range of frequencies and any signal
outside this range must be rejected.
Impedance equalization at the two inputs, is not essential as it will only result in DC
shift at the output.
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output.
All AC and DC amplifiers have a RC lowpass or high pass circuits at the input and
Figure 2.1: Response of Highpass and Lowpass Filter
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
Capacitor Coupled Voltage Follower:

The voltage follower is a unity gain buffer amplifier.
An AC Coupled voltage follower is as shown in the figure 2.2 below. The amplifier
couples both input and output through high pass filter.
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Figure 2.2: Capacitor Coupled Voltage Follower
For AC amplifiers it is necessary that the input DC bias currents should not interrupted
by the coupling capacitors at the inputs hence, resistance R1 is connected between noninverting terminal and the ground which carries the input bias current IB.
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A resistor equal to R1 might he included in series with the inverting terminal to equalize
the IBRB voltage drop and thus minimize the out-put offset voltage. However, in the case
of a circuit with its output capacitor-coupled, small DC offset output voltages are
unimportant because they are blocked by the capacitor.
Design:
Involves calculations of R1, C1 and C2.
To ensure minimum power dissipation and minimum current drawn from the
power supply, larger value resistors are used and is given by,
AG
------- (1)
The input impedance of non-inverting voltage follower is very very large which is
in parallel with the resistance R1, hence circuit input impedance Zin is given as,
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Asst Professor
------- (2)
Here
is very very large which is in parallel with the resistance R1.Thus,
Since
parallel combination is smaller than the smallest than R1 and is almost equal to
R1.
------- (3)
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Load resistor RL normally has a lower resistance than R1.

Capacitor value is inversely proportional to the resistance in series with it, and C2
is selected usually larger than C1.
At the circuit low 3 dB frequency (fl), the impedance of C1 should be much
smaller than Zin as the signal voltage gets divide across XC1 and Zin as shown
below.
Figure 2.3: signal voltage gets divide across X C1 and Z in
C1 is calculated as,
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------ (4)
From equation (3) and expanding XC1
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Asst Professor
--------- (5)
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As shown in figure 2.4 below, the circuit output voltage Vo is divided across XC2
and RL to give the load voltage VL.
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Figure 2.3: output voltage gets divide across XC2 and RL
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The equation for VL is
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When XC2 = RL, then
Apply log on both sides we get,
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Asst Professor
------- (6)
----------- (7)
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The circuit low 3 dB frequency (f1) occurs when XC2 = RL. Therefore, C2 is
calculated from
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The above design approach gives the smallest possible capacitor values. When
selecting standard value components, the next larger standard size should be
chosen to give capacitive impedances slightly smaller than calculated.
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High Zin Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Follower:

The input impedance of the capacitor-coupled voltage follower is set by the value of
resistor R1 is not very large and has much smaller input impedance than the directcoupled voltage follower.
To use voltage follower as buffer it is necessary that the input impedance should be very
large.
Figure 2.4 shows a method by which the input impedance of the capacitor-coupled
voltage follower can be substantially increased.
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Figure 2.4: High input impedance capacitor-coupled voltage follower
Capacitor C2 is connected between inverting input terminal and junction point of R1 and
R2.
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For AC purpose, C2 acts as an AC short circuit so that Vo is developed across R2.

Voltage developed across R1 is given as,
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Asst Professor
------- (1)
Current i1 is given as,
From equation (1) we get
Input impedance is given by,
------- (2)
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Since M (open loop gain) is very large, this modified circuit has very very high input
impedance.
This method is called as bootstrapping of biasing resistance.
Design Steps:
The resistors R1 and R2 are treated to be single resistors and its value is obtained
as
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With R1 = R2
Selection of C1 ideally can be done same as the basic capacitor coupled voltage
follower. Due to effect of stray capacitance, XC1 is selected as
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Asst Professor
To keep feedback voltage same as output voltage Vo which is equal to input

voltage vi at the lowest operating frequency
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The capacitor C3 is given as,
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As R1 = R2 = R(max)/2 thus,
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
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Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier:

Figure 2.5 below shows the circuit for capacitor-coupled non-inverting amplifier
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Figure 2.5: Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier
In the above figure the input is connected to the non-inverting terminal by coupling it to a
input capacitor. Thus, to provide a path for DC input bias current, the non-inverting
terminal is grounded through resistance R1.
The output is capacitor coupled through capacitor C2. As amplifier is used for AC
Quantity, the DC offset voltage present at the output if any is not significant.
To ensure minimum power dissipation and minimum current drawn from the power
supply, larger value resistors are used and is given by,
The input impedance of non-inverting amplifier is very very large which is in parallel
with the resistance R1, hence circuit input impedance Zin is given as,
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Here
Since
is very very large which is in parallel with the resistance R1.Thus, parallel
combination is smaller than the smallest than R1 and is almost equal to R1.
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
From Potential divider logic the resistor values R2 and R3 are determined using V i, Vo, I2.
By convention we select I2 much larger than IB(max) by about 100 times.
From the concept of virtual ground, Vin = VA = VB thus
Using the concept of closed loop voltage gain Av output voltage is given as
As Vo appears across (R2 + R3) hence,
At the circuit low 3 dB frequency (fl), the impedance of C1 should be much smaller than
Zin as the signal voltage gets divide across XC1 and Zin as shown below.
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Figure 2.6: signal voltage gets divide across X C1 and Z in
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Asst Professor
As Zin = R1 and expanding XC1
The circuit low 3 dB frequency (f1) occurs when XC2 = RL. Therefore, C2 is calculated
from
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High Zin, Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier:

The input impedance of the capacitor-coupled non-inverting amplifier is set by the value
of resistor R1 is not very large and needed to be increased in much application.
Improvement in input impedance Zin is done by modifying the circuit as below
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------ (1)
Within the operating bandwidth, the capacitor C2 act as short circuit. Using potential
divider rule the voltage across resistor R3 is given as
------- (2)
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Input impedance Zin for the above circuit is given as,
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Figure 2.7: High Z in Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier
Thus, from above equation we see that the feedback voltage is attenuated by a factor of,
------ (3)
Thus substituting equation (3) in (2) we get,

------- (4)
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Voltage drop across resistor R1 is due the current i1 flowing through it is given as,
RAGHUDATHESH G P
From the figure we see that V1 is voltage applied across both the input terminal of the opamp,
The output voltage is given as,
Substituting equation (7) in (5) we get,
-------- (9)
Substituting equation (9) in (1) we get,
------ (8)
Current i1 is determined as,
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----- (7)
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------- (6)
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------ (5)
-------- (10)
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
As open loop gain (M) is very large the modified circuit has large input impedance.
This method is called as bootstrapping of biasing resistance.
Design Steps:
The resistors R1 and R2 are treated to be single resistors and its value is obtained
as
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In the pass-band the gain of non-inverting amplifier is
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The value of resistor R2 and R3 for high Zin circuit are determined exactly as for a
direct-coupled non-inverting amplifier. For equal IBRB,
Usually,
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With R1 = R3
Above is applicable for bipolar op-amps only. For BiFET op-amps must be equal
to
and R2 = 1M.
Capacitor value C1 is chosen as 1000pF to be much larger than stray capacitances.
At lower 3dB frequency fL the gain of the amplifier is given wrt pass band as
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Asst Professor
--------- (11)
At frequency fL the gain of the amplifier considering impedance is given as,
------- (12)
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Considering only real terms we get,
Since Av >> 1 the above equation is written as,
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In pass-band the gain is dependant only on resistive terms hence,
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Since Av >> 1 the above equation is written as,

------- (13)
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Substitute equations (12) and (13) in (11) we get,
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
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Capacitor-Coupled Inverting Amplifier:
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Figure 2.7 below shows the circuit for capacitor-coupled inverting amplifier
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As XC3 is equal to R3/10 hence, Capacitor C3 is given as,
Figure 2.7: Capacitor-Coupled Inverting Amplifier
In the above circuit the bias current to the op-amp inverting input terminal flows via
resistor R2, so coupling capacitor C1 does not interrupt the input bias current.
No resistor is included in series with the non-inverting input terminal, because a small
DC offset is not important with a capacitor-coupled output.
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Asst Professor
If it is desired to equalize the IBRB voltage drops, the resistance in series with the noninverting input should equal R2 because R1 is not part of the bias current path at the
inverting input terminal.
Design:
From the concept of virtual ground,
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As Vo appears across (R2) hence,
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calculated from
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
Setting the Upper Cutoff Frequency:

The highest signal frequency that can be processed by an op-amp circuit depends on the
op-amp selected like 741, LF353 etc.
Consider an application where very low frequency signals are to be amplified and
unwanted higher frequency noise voltages are to be excluded.
In the above application, the circuit voltage gain should be made to fall off just above the
highest desired signal frequency.
This can be achieved by connecting a feedback capacitor Cf from the op-amp output to its
inverting input terminal as shown in figure 2.8 (a) and (b) below
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Figure 2.8 (a): Inverting Amplifier
Figure 2.8 (b): Non-Inverting Amplifier
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Voltage gain for inverting amplifier is given as,
Magnitude of AV is given as,
Say if XCf = R2 then,
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Asst Professor
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
The above equation indicates that the gain is 3 dB below the normal voltage gain (R2/R1).
Hence, upper cut-off frequency f2 can be set at a desired value by selecting Cf which
makes XCf = R2 at the required frequency.
For the case of non-inverting amplifier the result derived from inverting amplifier is
equally applicable provided that to implement such circuit upper cut-off frequency of opamp must be much higher than the desired maximum frequency for the circuit.
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Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier or Subtractor:
Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier is as shown in figure 2.9 as shown below
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Figure 2.9: Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier
We employ superposition theorem to solve the circuit
Case1: let V1 be operational and V2 be grounded. Output be represented as Vo1 as shown

in figure 2.10 below
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------ (1)
The output voltage is given as
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Looking in to the above figure we see that it is a inverting amplifier configuration, hence
gain is given as
Figure 2.10: op-amp configured as a difference amplifier with V1 Operational
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--------- (2)
Case2: let V2 be operational and V1 be grounded. Output be represented as Vo2 as shown

in figure 1.34 below
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Figure 2.11: op-amp configured as a difference amplifier with V2 Operational
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------ (3)
The output voltage is given as
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Looking in to the above figure we see that it is a non-inverting amplifier configuration,

hence gain is given as
The voltage VA is given by Ohms law as,
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Asst Professor
Substituting VA in Vo2 we get,

------- (4)
Adding both the outputs we get,
Now Say we select the resistances R1 = R3 and R2 = R4 in such case above equation is
reduced to,
Now say if R2 = R1 in this case the output is the difference value of 2 input voltages.
Resistance R2 is given as
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-------- (6)
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------- (5)
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If upper cut-off frequency is to be set, then the capacitors must be connected across
resistors R2 and R4 as shown in figure 2.12 below
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Figure 2.12: Setting Upper cut-off Frequency for Difference Amplifier
For the case of upper cut-off frequency capacitor Cf1 is determined as,
For the case of upper cut-off frequency capacitor Cf2 is determined as,
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Here,
f2 = desired upper cut-off frequency
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Use of Single Polarity Supply:

Most of the operational amplifiers are designed to be used with dual supply such that the
magnitudes of both positive and negative supply voltages with respect to ground are
equal.
If we neglect the offset voltage, output voltage is zero when input signal is zero. The DC
reference value of the resulting output is also zero and the maximum output voltage
possible is slightly less than the positive and negative supply voltage.
Instead of using bipolar power supply, the operational amplifiers can be externally biased
using a single supply voltage also.
The above case is possible if an additional coupling capacitor is used to remove unwanted
DC levels. As such a capacitor blocks DC, the offset voltage and DC level in the output
has hardly any effect on the operation of the amplifier.
Hence single supply biasing is possible only in case of AC amplifiers.

The operational amplifier using a single supply biasing, must be able to produce both
negative going and positive going signals.
For the above purpose an AC level is purposely inserted, in such a single supply biasing.
The operational amplifier's quiescent DC output voltage is set to one half of the single
positive supply i.e. 1/2 Vcc, in single supply biasing. This ensures that the positive output
swing equals the negative.
The DC level of 1/2 Vcc is inserted by using a voltage divider network at the noninverting input terminal. The resistance values of a divider are made equal so that the
output across one resistance is half the supply voltage, +Vcc.
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Voltage Divider Using Single Polarity Supply:

Capacitor coupled op-amp circuits can be easily adapted to use a single polarity supply
voltage because the capacitors block the DC bias voltages at input and output.
A capacitor coupled voltage follower circuit using a single-polarity supply is illustrated in

figure 2.13 below
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Figure 2.13: capacitor coupled voltage follower using single polarity supply
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Thus, with an 18 V supply, the positive supply terminal is +9 V with respect to the bias
level at the input and output terminals, and the negative supply terminal is -9 V with
respect to those terminals.
The voltage drop across each resistor is usually selected as V cc/2; although it could be
above or below this point within the specified input voltage range for the op-amp.
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If the op-amp data sheet lists the minimum supply voltage as 9 V, then a minimum of 18
V should be used in a single-polarity supply situation. Also, the specified maximum
supply voltage should not be exceeded.
The potential divider (R1 and R2) sets the bias voltage at the non-inverting input terminal
as approximately Vcc/2. This means that the DC levels of the output terminal and the
inverting input are also at Vcc/2.
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Design Steps:
Current I2 is selected larger than IB thus,
As voltage drop across each resistor is usually selected as Vcc/2 hence each
resistor value is given as,
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The input capacitor C1 at input side is given as,
Thus the input impedance becomes,
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Expanding XC1
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calculated from
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
High Input Impedance Voltage Follower Using a Single-Polarity Supply:

Figure 2.14 shows a high input impedance voltage follower using a single-polarity supply
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Figure 2.14: High Input Impedance Voltage Follower Using a Single-Polarity Supply
In the above circuit the resistors R1 and R2 provides a potential of V cc/2 which is applied
to non-inverting input via resistor R3, which is used to provide a bias current path.
The capacitor bootstraps R3 making input impedance very large and is given as
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As voltage drop across each resistor is usually selected as Vcc/2 hence each resistor value
is given as,
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As input impedance Zin is very large and resistors (R1||R2) are in series with with C2 it is
given as,
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Capacitor Coupled Non-Inverting Amplifier Using a Single-Polarity Supply:

Figure 2.15 shows the circuit of a capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier using a
single-polarity supply.
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Figure 2.15: capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier using a single-polarity supply
In the above circuit Potential divider R1 and R2 used to set the bias voltage at
approximately Vcc/2.
The bottom of resistor R4 is capacitor-coupled to ground via capacitor C3. If this point
was directly grounded, the DC voltage at the op-amp output terminal would tend toward
AV(bias level at the non-inverting input), or AVVcc/2. This would saturate the output at
approximately Vcc - 1 V.
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
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With C3 in the circuit as shown in figure 2.15, and R3 connecting the inverting input
terminal to the output, the op-amp behaves as a DC voltage follower.
The DC voltage level at the op-amp output terminal is then the same as that at the noninverting input terminal (V cc/2).
For ac voltages, C3 behaves as a short circuit, so that the AC voltage gain A V is given as
Design Steps:
Current I2 & I4 is selected larger than IB thus,
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AC voltage Gain is given as
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From the concept of virtual ground, Vin = VA = VB thus
As Vo appears across (R3 + R4) hence,
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Thus the input impedance becomes,
The input capacitor C1 at input side is given as,
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Expanding XC1
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calculated from
Capacitor C3 should be selected to have impedance very much smaller than R4 at

the low 3 dB frequency of the circuit for a fixed load.
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For variable load:
Figure 2.16 shows a high input impedance Capacitor-Coupled Non-Inverting Amplifier

using a single-polarity supply
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High Input Impedance Capacitor-Coupled Non-Inverting Amplifier Using a

Single-Polarity Supply:
Figure 2.16: High Input Impedance Capacitor-Coupled Non-Inverting Amplifier Using a Single-Polarity Supply
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The above circuit is very similar to the high input impedance voltage follower circuit as
discussed above but the only difference is that resistor R4 is included in the non-inverting
amplifier circuit to give a voltage gain greater than 1 and is given as
The resistor R3 is included to increase the input impedance by providing feedback

through the capacitor C2.
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As voltage drop across each resistor is usually selected as Vcc/2 hence each resistor value
is given as,
Resistor R4 is calculated using the voltage gain equation as above

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from
As C2 is in series with the resistor combination R1||R2 it is calculated as,
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Capacitor Coupled Inverting Amplifier Using a Single-Polarity Supply:

The circuit of an inverting amplifier using a single-polarity supply is shown in figure.
2.17 below
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Figure 2.17: capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier using a single-polarity supply
In the above circuit Potential divider R3 and R4 used to set the bias voltage at
approximately Vcc/2.
The DC voltage level of the output and the inverting input terminal will then also be
Vcc/2.
Design Steps:
The potential divider is designed by first selecting a current (I 4) which is much
greater than the current flowing out of the potential divider (I B)
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As Vo appears across (R2) hence,
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calculated from
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VTU Questions:
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1. Draw a neat circuit diagram of a capacitor coupled voltage follower and explain its
operation with necessary design steps. December 2015 (08 Marks), December 2014 (07
Marks), June 2013 (06 Marks), December 2012 (10 Marks)
2. Design a high impedance capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier to have a low cutoff
frequency of 200Hz. The input and output voltages are to be 16mV and 4V respectively
and minimum load resistance is 10k. select R2 = 1 M and C1 = 0.1F. December
2015 (06 Marks)
3. Explain how the upper cutoff frequency can be set for inverting amplifier with the help of
neat circuit diagram and also explain design steps. December 2015 (06 Marks),
December 2014 (06 Marks), June 2013 (06 Marks), June 2014 (07 Marks)
4. Design a capacitor coupled inverting amplifier using IC741. Op-amp to have a voltage
gain of 75 output voltage amplitude of 3 V and a single frequency range of 20 Hz to 12
kHz. The load resistance is 470 . December 2014 (06 Marks)
5. Sketch a neat circuit diagram of a high Z in capacitor coupled voltage follower and explain
its operation with necessary design steps. June 2014 (08 Marks)
6. A capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier using IC741 op-amp has Av = 100 and Vo =
5 V. The load resistance is 10 k and the lower cut-off frequency is to be 100 Hz. Design
a suitable circuit. June 2014 (08 Marks), June 2013(06 Marks)
7. Explain inverting AC amplifier with neat diagram and mention its design steps using only
single-supply op-amp. June 2014 (06 Marks), December 2013 (08 Marks)
8. Sketch a neat circuit diagram of a high Zin capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier.
Briefly explain its operation and show that the input impedance is very high compared to
capacitor coupled non-inverting amplifier. December 2013 (08 Marks)
9. Design a high Zin capacitor coupled voltage follower using op-amp having lower cut-off
frequency of 50 Hz and maximum input bias current of 500 nA. The load resistance is 3.9
k. If the open-loop gain is 2x105. Find the value of input impedance. Consider M(min) =
50,000. December 2013 (06 Marks)
10. Draw a neat circuit diagram and design steps for a Capacitor coupled inverting amplifier.
June 2013 (08 Marks)
11. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the design of high impedance capacitor coupled noninverting amplifier. December 2012 (10 Marks)
12. Design a capacitor coupled voltage follower using a 741 op-amp. The lower cut-off
frequency for the circuit is to be 50 Hz and the load resistance is R L = 3.9 k. June 2014
(07 Marks)
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13. Explain the use of a single polarity supply for capacitor coupled non- inverting amplifier
with circuit diagram using op-amp. June 2014 (06 Marks)
14. Explain the realization of a CC voltage follower for AC amplifier applications, discussing
cut-off frequency design concept. June 2015 (06 Marks)
15. Design a BIFET op-amp based high Zin CC non-inverting amplifier for a lower cut-off
frequency of 120 Hz. Given Vin = 20 mV, Vo = 5 V and RL-min = 10 k. June 2015 (08
Marks)
16. Explain the concept and construction of a CC inverting amplifier using a single polarity
supply (+ Vcc). June 2015 (08 Marks)
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Department of ECE
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RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
AG
H
U
AT
ES
Department of ECE
Page No - 42
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
AG
H
U
AT
ES
Department of ECE
Page No - 43
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
AG
H
U
AT
ES
Department of ECE
Page No - 44
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Professor
AG
H
U
AT
ES
Department of ECE
Page No - 45

Linear Integrated Circuits Unit2 Raghudathesh VTU

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Op-Amps-AC Amplifiers

LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (VTU) - 10EC46

Op-Amps as AC Amplifiers: Capacitor coupled Voltage Follower, High input impedance

Special Thanks To:

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Figure 2.1: Response of Highpass and Lowpass Filter

Capacitor Coupled Voltage Follower:

Figure 2.2: Capacitor Coupled Voltage Follower

Load resistor RL normally has a lower resistance than R1.

Figure 2.3: signal voltage gets divide across X C1 and Z in

From equation (3) and expanding XC1

Figure 2.3: output voltage gets divide across XC2 and RL

The equation for VL is

When XC2 = RL, then

Apply log on both sides we get,

High Zin Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Follower:

Figure 2.4: High input impedance capacitor-coupled voltage follower

For AC purpose, C2 acts as an AC short circuit so that Vo is developed across R2.

Current i1 is given as,

From equation (1) we get

Input impedance is given by,

This method is called as bootstrapping of biasing resistance.

To keep feedback voltage same as output voltage Vo which is equal to input

The capacitor C3 is given as,

Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier:

Figure 2.5: Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier

From the concept of virtual ground, Vin = VA = VB thus

As Vo appears across (R2 + R3) hence,

Figure 2.6: signal voltage gets divide across X C1 and Z in

As Zin = R1 and expanding XC1

High Zin, Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier:

Improvement in input impedance Zin is done by modifying the circuit as below

Input impedance Zin for the above circuit is given as,

Figure 2.7: High Z in Capacitor-Coupled Non-inverting Amplifier

Thus substituting equation (3) in (2) we get,

The output voltage is given as,

Substituting equation (7) in (5) we get,

Substituting equation (9) in (1) we get,

Current i1 is determined as,

In the pass-band the gain of non-inverting amplifier is

At frequency fL the gain of the amplifier considering impedance is given as,

Considering only real terms we get,

Since Av >> 1 the above equation is written as,

In pass-band the gain is dependant only on resistive terms hence,

Since Av >> 1 the above equation is written as,

Substitute equations (12) and (13) in (11) we get,

Capacitor-Coupled Inverting Amplifier:

As XC3 is equal to R3/10 hence, Capacitor C3 is given as,

Figure 2.7: Capacitor-Coupled Inverting Amplifier

As Vo appears across (R2) hence,

As Zin = R1 and expanding XC1

Setting the Upper Cutoff Frequency:

Figure 2.8 (a): Inverting Amplifier

Figure 2.8 (b): Non-Inverting Amplifier

Voltage gain for inverting amplifier is given as,

Magnitude of AV is given as,

Say if XCf = R2 then,

Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier or Subtractor:

Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier is as shown in figure 2.9 as shown below

Figure 2.9: Capacitor Coupled Difference Amplifier

We employ superposition theorem to solve the circuit

Case1: let V1 be operational and V2 be grounded. Output be represented as Vo1 as shown

The output voltage is given as

Figure 2.10: op-amp configured as a difference amplifier with V1 Operational