Project of Construction of Building and

Auto Cadr
I instructed in my Assignment. Like basement , 1st floor and 2nd
floor. 1st of all I started from.
Location and Environment
I have design a House plan measurement are as..
Front width 40-9 , Back: 70, Total walls are personal
Total squire feet are : 2852.5 sft of this building, it means 10
Marlas 132 Sft, I live in Punjab, Division Faisalabad and
District Toba Tek singh tehsil Gojra, I live in Gojra, in my city we
used measurement as 272 Sft = 1 Marlas, this building that am
going to design my self imaginary complete home designing in
drafting work. In this desiging i mentioned North position on
right back cornor of my plot, and Easth position mentioned in
front of same side, South and West respectively front left side
as south and back left side mentioned as West. This my plot
that I am going to desing siturated in commercial area. Every
facilites available here, such as (Mosque, School, Park,
grounds and wide roads in front side and back side. In this
Colony main road width is 40 ft, and other that in colony are 25
ft to 30 ft wide.
Home Designing
I have draw aproximatly 17 drawings in this assignment.
Various material and documents help me, like books internet
and others. I have dsigned my whole drwaings in AutoCAD
2006. The designed drwaings are as under..

1. Index Plan
2. Site Plan
3. Excavation Method
4. Landscape Plan
5. Single Line Plan
6. Foundation Designing
7. Basement
8. 1st Floor
9. 2nd Floor
10. Furniture Layout
11. Electric Layout
12. Sui Gas Layout
13. Water supply Drawing
14. Sewerage System Drawing
15. Front Elevation Detail
16. Back Elevation Detail
17. Section at A.A
Substructure Designing
The part of building that is downward from P.L and we can not
seen is called Substructure.
Excavation
1st of a all excavated the selected plot with kassi through labor.
Total height of excavation is 3-0.
Concrete Mat
The ratio of concrete is 1:3:6, material use in course
Aggregate sand. Material use in fine aggregate crushes 1/2.
Bricks work in Foundation up to D.P.C

First class bricks use in foundation. Ratio of Mortar use in

foundation is (1:4)
RCC Beam in Foundation
RCC Beam Thickness is 9. Four steel bars are used in RCC
Beam (Size: 1/2).
Detail specifications of Damp Proof Course
We spread DPC up to floor level, for this we use various
method that a Head of depart or Engineer instruct. In common
concrete surface thickness is 2 this surface use as a DPC.
The ratio of DPC is (1:2:4).
Material (A)
In DPC the crush that is used in concrete less than . The
crush made by hard Stone. Before use wash it properly, in this
concrete sand that are used should be thick. This sand should
be saving from Clay and Organic matters. The size of its grain
should be 3/16. Before use this should be clear from every
type of waste. The cement that is used in should be Port Land,
and water that is used in this material should be Clean.
Mixing (B)
For DPC the concrete prepared by the volume of
measurement of various ingredients. According to volume size
Cement bags weight should be 125 ft3 in weight 50 kg. For
preparation of this mixture first of all design a plat form and
Course aggregate spread over it. All materials like (Cement,
Sand) will be mixed over it with water, and this all materials will
be shaking three time. Water proofing agent in %age 3-5%

Poodle or any other material will be use with the instruction of

Engineer.
Preparation of Base (C)
Before use DPC we ready the walls surface. On the plinth
level last layer (Course) of bricks will be on edge and except
this last layer will be Flat and the frog of bricks should be down
word. Up side of bricks should be clean with iron hairs brush
and also filled with water
Laying (D)
According to DPC the thickness of superstructure will be
suggested, for its alignment straight edge will be used or
suggested thickness made Steel mould will be used inside.
Doors and other opened area DPC will not use. After Laying
DPC in the side of length and width will be level properly and
compress it. In whole length not any joint will be represent. If
work stop due to any cause we should stop on doors or other
points. After lying the surface of bricks should be rubbed with
steel brush for better bricks joint with DPC.
Curing (F)
After DPC laying for 7 days all DPC should be Curing. And the
all work should be started after 12hrs and Bricks work should
be start after 48hrs but Curing should be start for 7 days.
Detailed Specifications of First Class Brick Work
In 1st class buildings the 1st class bricks are used. In 1st class
bricks work the detail of material, brick work, joints, curing and
scaffolding standard are use.

 Material (A)
For the 1st class brick work the brick should be 1st class. These
all bricks should be same in shape and size. The corners and
edge of bricks should be sharp, if we cullied 2 bricks the nice
sound should be produce. The surface of these bricks should
be clean and clear no any Crack or crush should be on these
bricks, any type of salt or other material should not be appear
on the surface of bricks. After 24hrs remaining in water these
brick absorb only 20% water, and compression strength
should be not less than 100kg / cm3 (1375 pond / cubic inch)
in the first class brick work fresh Portland Cement will be used.
For first class brick work the sand that is used should be
coarse, clean and sharp sided. In this sand any other type of
organic matters should not be involve. In brick work the water
that will be use in mortar should be clean, in this water any
type of oil or other matters should not be involve this should be
clean water from the every type. After this in the water acidity
and alkalinity also should be in normal extinct.
Mortar (B)
In the 1st class brick work should be use with cement, this
mortar ingredients ratio should be selected by the related
engineer, for the mixture preparation a box will be design. The
size of this box should be 1 x 1 x 1.25 ft that is same size with
a cement bag. The volume of a cement size is 0.035 cubic
meter the volume of the sand count in dry condition, if the
sand is wet the bulking of sand should be keep in mind. The
quantity of sand should be used more than selected quantity. If
we use more than selected value the related engineer will
allow then we can use more quantity of sand. The ratio of

cement, sand and water this ratio of each thing related

engineer will select. Mortar quantity should be only in that
state that we can use in 30 mints.

JOINTING BRICKWORK AS PART OF THE

BRICKLAYING PROCESS
Brickwork joints generally vary in thickness between 8
and 15 mm. This thickness also depends upon the
desired architectural image of a wall and the
variation
in the dimensions of the bricks chosen. The joint
comprises 20% to 25% of the total wall surface.
In 1993, analyses of damage in relation to the quality
of the
joints in brickwork (in some cases less than 10 years
old)
resulted in the SBR-CUR publication "The quality of
joints in brickwork."
In addition to the introduction of hardness classes for
joints and the quality levels to be realised for
mechanically compacted joints, it was also
recommended that brickwork be jointed by smoothing
and lightly compacting the joints as part of the
bricklaying process.
The entirely mistaken assumption is often made that it is
possible to make brickwork waterproof by pointing the
joints later after the bricklaying process has been finished.
This is far from the truth. After all, a joint is still a porous
filling between the bricks.
This mistaken assumption is often made in connection with
half-brick masonry work in garages and storage sheds where

the joints are raked out on both sides, as a result of which the
remaining thickness of the mortar layer between the bricks is
sometimes barely 6 cm. The assumption that the joint applied
later will ensure that the brickwork remains waterproof is
frequently proved wrong in such cases.
In particular for brickwork where recessed joints are desired,
jointing the brickwork by smoothing and lightly compacting
the joints as part of the bricklaying process is to be preferred
rather than pointing the joints at a later stage.
When using bricks that have only a very weak
tendency to absorb water (class IW1 according to
table 4 of BRL 1007), it is recommended that the
brickwork be jointed by smoothing and lightly
compacting the joints as part of the bricklaying
process.
If traditional joints are pointed in this
type of brickwork, the fact that the
pointing mortal is slightly damp means
that it will bond only weakly to the
surface of the brick and practically the
only bond that will be formed is with
the underlying bricklaying mortar.
The bricklaying process itself should be carried out using an
ample supply of mortar so that the vertical joints as well as
bed joints are amply filled with mortar. The bricklayer then
finishes the joints by raking out the excess mortar and
finishing them off with bricklaying mortar.
A special roller jointer has been developed especially
for this purpose, which makes it possible to strike the

brickwork joints and recess them to a constant depth

(between 5 mm and 15 mm).
Flush joints cannot be realised with this technique.
By using special profiles, it is also possible to give the
joint a special outward appearance. The surface of
the mortar in the joint is also compacted somewhat by
this process. As a result, the bricklaying mortar forms
a monolithic entity between the bricks.
If brickwork is jointed in this fashion, joint bonding will always
be good. The quality of brickwork jointed in this fashion is
therefore high. However, this jointing technique does require a
different technical skill of the bricklayer.
Manufacturers of prefab mortars have developed special
jointing mortars for this purpose, which allow one to have
more control over the exact time when the joints are
finished without the stability of the mortar being impaired
while it is being worked with or compacted. The choice of
this prefabricated jointing mortar should be adjusted to
the category in which the brick falls in terms of initial
water absorption. These mortars are also available in
various colours.
There is a trend towards making brickwork that is jointed in
this fashion without vertical joints. The vertical joints are
then not filled with bricklaying mortar and have a
theoretical width of 2 mm. This type of brickwork
emphasises the horizontal lines of the design, particularly if

the jointing process also results in recessed joints.

In some cases, after the bricks are laid out in an ample
bed of mortar, the joints are simply raked out to the desired
depth, after which the brickwork is brushed off with a hard
broom. A point to remember in this regard is that the
vertical joints and bed joints must be raked out to the same
depth and width. This method is suitable only for recessed
joints.

Soak bricks
Bricks should be soaked in water before use for a period that is
sufficient for the water to just penetrate the entire depth of bricks.
The period of soaking is generally at least six hours. The period of
soaking can be determined by a simple field test at site. The bricks
are soaked in water for different periods and then broken to find the
extent of water penetration. The least period that corresponds to
complete soaking will be one allowed for. If the bricks are soaked for
the required time in water that is frequently changed, the soluble salts
in the brick are bleached out and subsequent efflorescence reduced.
Wetting of bricks assists in removing the dirt, sand and dust from
them.
English Bond:
English bond (also known as Ancient Bond) requires quarter bond
work in its construction of a course of stretcher bricks and a course of
header bricks laid alternately. It is the strongest brickwork bond. It is
however, one of the most expensive because of the labour time. The
Victorians, when building many of their classical gardens, introduced
a variation on

English Bond, called English Garden Wall Bond which introduces the
course of headers in between five courses of stretchers. This
maintains the strength, looks attractive and is cheaper and quicker to
build.
It can be seen from the diagram that English bond requires closures
on each course to maintain the bond. This type of closure, a brick cut
down the middle of its length, is called a Queen Closer.

Laying bricks
term you probably have heard of before: face brick. There are three
basic parts to recognize. They are called the face or front, the top or
bottom, and the ends (figure 1). Depending on how the brick is going
to be used, each of the three parts of the brick can be laid in two
positions. The illustrations below show the six basic bricklaying
positions.
The pattern that brick is laid in is actually called the "Bond." We are
going to lay our brick in a pattern called
running bond (also referred to as half bond). Figure 8 shows a wall
laid up in running bond.
Each row of brick is called a "course" and walls are usually the result
of a duplication of two courses, the first (or layout) course and the
alternate course. The alternate courses will have half bricks on the
ends.
The folks at the masonry supply yard can advise you on the type of
brick to be used on your project. Standard brick will cost
approximately 30 to 45 each, depending upon what you select and
where you live.

These prices probably shock you, as they still do me. Keeping a tight
control on the amount of brick necessary for a specific project is your
only hedge against waste, and, thankfully, the math involved is very
simple.
There are seven standard-sized brick in one square foot. Multiply the
length of your project by the height to get the number of square feet,
then multiply this by seven. For example: If your project is going to
be 15' long and 8' high you will need 840 bricks.
15' long x 8' high =120 square feet
120 square feet x 7 = 840 bricks
Now that you know how to select the number of brick that you need,
we have to look at the other key material you need to lay the brick:
the mortar. Mortar is made from masonry cement (a combination of
Portland cement and hydrated mason's lime), fine mason sand (also
known as fine aggregate), and clean water. The ratio is three parts
sand to one part masonry cement and enough water to make a
consistency very much like that of soft custard. When large quantities
of brick are going to be used, the mason orders masonry cement in
70-pound bags, and sand by the ton or cubic yard.
Purchased this way, the masonry cement costs about $6.70 a bag and
the sand costs approximately $26 per cubic yard or about $18 per ton.
Depending on where you live, these prices can fluctuate. For smaller
projects (300 bricks or less), I would suggest buying premixed
mortar, which has the cementious materials and sand already mixed
together in one bag. All you have to do is add water. When a quantity
of mortar is made, it is called a "batch." A 70-pound bag of masonry
cement (by volume I cubic foot) requires 3 cubic feet of sand (16
rounded shovelfuls) and depending on the dampness of the sand, 4
1/2 to 6 gallons of water.

PORTLAND CEMENT PLASTER/ACRYLIC FINISH

Scope:

Guide specifications for the minimum requirements for the system

and application of portland cement plaster (stucco) with an acrylic
finish. The contractor shall provide all materials, labor and
equipment necessary to complete this system of portland cement
plaster as shown on drawings and/or as described herein. Flashing,
caulking, sealants, sealers, shall be furnished and installed by others.
Standards:
Workmanship and installation shall be performed per:
A.Northwest Wall & Ceiling Bureau Standards
B.ASTM C-1063 installations of lathing and furring for portland
cement plaster.
C.ASTM C-926 application of portland cement plaster.
D.Where products and or systems are specified they shall be
installed in accordance with the Building Codes and/or
manufacturers requirements.
Qualifications:
Applicator and/or contractor must be qualified in the workmanship
of plastering. Must be able to show completed work of equal scope.
Submittals: The applicator and/or contractor shall be prepared and
may be required to supply mock-up finish samples.
A.Do not proceed with lathing or plastering until all products
and/or finish samples are approved, if required.

Be prepared for a pre-job meeting with the architect, owner, general

contractor, and the Northwest Wall & Ceiling Bureau, if required,
before the start of lathing and plastering procedures.
Materials: To be delivered to job in original containers with labels
intact and legible.
A.Storage and protection of all products are the responsibility of
the contractor performing the scope of the work.
Job Conditions/Environmental Requirements for cement plaster.
A.Cold Weather
1. Do not use frozen material.
2. Do not apply cement plaster to frozen surfaces or surfaces
containing frost.
3. Do not mix materials or apply cement plaster when ambient
temperature is less than 35 degrees F./1.6 degrees C.
B.Hot Weather
1. Protect cement plaster from uneven and excessive
evaporation during hot, windy, and dry weather.
2. Moist curing after each coat of cement plaster with water if
ambient temperature is more than 75 degrees/24 degrees C.
Moist cure for 48 hours after application of coats.
3. Hot, or dry, or windy weather the cement plaster should be
moistened down and then covered with a single sheet of
polyethylene plastic.
4. Moist curing is required at the start and end of work day.
5. Humidity higher than 75%. Moist curing not required.

Double Back method - whereby the scratched and brown coats are
applied and cured as one system is approved.
A.The second coat (brown) should be applied as soon as the first
coat is rigid.
Job conJHions/environmental requirements for acrylic finish
A.Do not use acrylic finish materials if they have been frozen.
B.Do not apply acrylic finish when ambient temperature is less
than 40 degrees F/4.4 degrees C.
C.Do not apply acrylic finish unless the temperature has been 40
degrees F./4.4 degrees C for at least 24 hours before the
application.
D.Cold Weather: If heating and tenting is required to perform the
application of the acrylic finish coat, it is not the responsibility
of the acrylic finish contractor to provide it.
E. Do not apply finish coat when there s any form of precipitation.
F. Protect cement plaster from all forms of precipitation during the
application and the setting/curing period of finish coat. Ensure
that the finish is fully set prior to removing protective covering.
G.Do not apply finish coat to base coat of cement plaster if sun is
directly on the wall surface and temperature is 75 degrees F /24
degress C. Work in shade whenever possible.
Control Joints:
A.It is not required to cut lath behind control points if flanges of
control joint is designed to get a good key of the cement plaster.
B.Panels should be relatively square.

C.No area should exceed 18 lineal feet in length without a control

joint.
D.Install control joints for surface areas of approximately 150
square feet.
E. Where dissimilar back-up materials join.
F. Control joints are recommended at surface penetrations,
(windows, doors, etc) and at areas of structural stress.
Materials/Products
Building Paper
A.Federal Specifications UU-B-790A, Style 2, Grade D, 60 minute
water resistance.
Lath:
A.Expanded Metal Lath
B.Woven Wire Lath: 17 gauge 1 1/2" mesh
C.Welded Wire Lath: 16 gauge
D.Rib Lath
Accessories
A.Shapes used as grounds, sized and dimensioned to provide for
required plaster thickness.
B.All accessories manufactured of galvanized steel, zinc,
aluminum, or plastic materials.
C.Configuration of casing beads and control joints to provide lip
flange and/or embedment section.
D.Corner beads to be P.V.C. or welded wire.

E. Standard trim items: control joints, casing beads, exterior corner

beads, and base screeds.
Plaster Material
1. Portland Cement: ASTM C150 Type I or II
2. Portland Cement & Pozzolanic "Fly Ash": ASTM C 150 &
ASTM C618
3. Masonry Cement: ASTM C91
4. Lime: ASTM C206-Type S
5. Sand: ASTM C144, type used for cement plaster.
6. Water: Clear and free from substances harmful to plaster.
7. 1/2" chopped fiber glass strands.
8. Additives: may be added per manufacturers recommendations
for the aid of pumping, curing, and bonding.
Mix General
A.Accurate proportions of materials for each batch. Measuring
devices of known volume for all materials.
B.Size batches for complete use within maximum of one hour after
mixing.
C.Withhold 10 mixing of water until mixing is almost complete
then add as needed to produce necessary consistency. Keep
water to a minimum.
Mix proportions by volume.
Selection of either A, B, or C mix only. Do not inter-mix these three
sections or change volume proportions of these sections.

A.1 Portland Cement

1 Masonry Cement
1 1/2 - 2 1/2 Ibs. of 1/2" Chopped Fiberglass
4 - 5 Sand
Sand
B.1 Portland Cement
1/2 Lime
1 1/2 - 2 1/2 Ibs. of 1/2" Chopped Fiberglass
3 1/2-4 1/2 Sand
Water
C.Type 1 P Portland Cement
1 Masonry Cement
1 1/2 - 2 1/2 Ibs. of 1/2" Chopped Fiberglass
4-5 Sand
Water
Acrylic Finish
A.Factory mixed 100 pure acrylic based integral color.
B.Manufacturer shall be approved by the Northwest Wall &
Ceiling Bureau.
Cement plaster directly over a concrete surface.
A.Concrete surface must be clean of dust, loose particles, oil, and
other foreign matter which would affect a bond of cement
plaster to concrete.
B.Apply a liquid bonding agent to concrete surface per
manufacturers standards.
C.Minimum thickness of cement plaster base coat 3/8", maximum
thickness 5/8".
D.Test bond of cement plaster to concrete surface.

E. Cement plaster must be applied with sufficient force (by hand or

machine) to develop full adhesion between plaster and the
substrate.
F. Cement plaster base coat must be rodded off to a true flat plane.
Even and level with screeds. Follow this by wood floating or
darbying the surface. Fill all voids and dress surface for acrylic
finish.
Cement plaster directly over masonry surface.
A.Masonry surfaces must have two coats of cement plaster.
B.Masonry surface to be clean and in condition for a direct bond of
cement plaster. Pre-wet the wall before plastering.
C.Cement plaster must be applied with sufficient force (by hand or
machine) to develop full adhesion between plaster and the
substrate.
D.Apply a 1/4"-3/8" cement plaster base coat. Let cure for 48
hours before applying second base coat. Rough surface for good
bond of second coat.
E. Apply second base coat so that total thickness of both coats is 1 /
2" to 3/4" thick.
F. Cement plaster base coat must be rodded off to a true flat plane.
Even and level with screeds. Follow this by wood floating or
darbying the surface. Fill all voids and dress surface for acrylic
finish.
Installation of Lath & Accessories.
1. All items to be attached so that they are level, plumb and true,
and create a proper screed and depth for the cement plaster.

2. Attach building paper, lath, and accessories per standards and

code.
Cement Plaster over Lath.
A.Total thickness of base coats to meet code requirements for fire
rated construction (minimum 7/8" thick for frame construction).
B.Examine wall surface to ensure proper application of lath and
accessories.
C.Nominal plaster base coat thickness:
1. First Coat "Scratch - 3/8"-1 /2"
2. Second Coat "Brown -3/8"-1/2"
D.Cement plaster must be applied with sufficient force (by hand or
machine) to develop full adhesion between plaster and the
substrate.
E. First Coat to completely embed lath. Cross rake slightly to
provide key for second base coat. Coat must be uniform in
thickness.
F. Second coat applied so that it meets the required total thickness
and it must be uniform in its thickness.
G.Second coat of cement plaster must be rodded to the desired
thickness and leveled to screeds. Rod off to a true flat plane.
Follow this by wood floating or darbying the surface. Fill all
voids and dress surface for acrylic finish.
H.Completed second coat of cement plaster base to cure for 10-14
days. See general conditions.
3.05 Acrylic Finish Coat:

A.Must be applied continuously and in one operation to the entire

wall area.
B.A wet edge must be maintained.
C.Finish to be applied so that there are no scaffold lines or other
marks due to the application.
D.The mixing and application must follow the manufacturers
recommendations.
E. Texture and color as selected by Architect and/or Owner.

CONCRETE
Concrete is the product of mixing, aggregate, cement and
water.
The setting of concrete is a chemical reaction between the
cement and the water, not a drying process.
This reaction is called hydration, it evolves heat as does any
chemical reaction, and the process is irreversible.
There is an initial set when the concrete will cease to be liquid
but have little strength (e.g. 6 to 24hrs. old), thereafter the
concrete will gradually gain strength over time until it achieves
the strength required.
Differing mix proportions and cement types will achieve
required strengths in differing time spans.
CONSTITUENTS OF CONCRETE
Cement, Aggregate and Water, (and sometimes additives).
Aggregate

Aggregates are usually distinguished between fine and coarse

aggregate.
Aggregates are classed as inert materials, such as washed
natural sand (fine); and natural gravel, which can be crushed to
produce the appropriate size and grading of aggregate, and
similarly crushed, quarried stone (coarse).
The aggregate must have a minimum inherent strength
requirement for structural concrete, the coarse aggregate must
not be weaker than the concrete paste.
All aggregate must be "clean", i.e. not contaminated with
organic matter or clay/silty soils and overburden during
extraction and storage.
Cement
Basically a material made by heating limestone and a suitable
clay to produce a clinker rich in calcium silicates.
This clinker is ground to produce a fine powder, this is cement.
By using different clinkers, grinding them to differing degrees of
fineness and the use of additives many different types of
cement are produced with varied properties in their use, e.g.
rapid hardening cement, sulphate resisting cement, etc..
Generally speaking the more cement in a mix the stronger
more durable the concrete produced will be, but this does have
to be related to other factors, primarily the amount of water
used in the mix, i.e. water/cement ratio.
Water
Water is an extremely important part of concrete, and drinking
quality water is usually required, or water from an approved
source free from impurities.

Additives
The most commonly used additive is a "foaming" agent to
produce air entrained concrete, mainly for carriageway
concrete, but also other exposed situations.
Another common use of an additive is to increase the
workability of concrete without adding extra water and thus
increasing the water/cement ratio and decreasing the strength
of the concrete.
TIME TAKEN TO PLACE CONCRETE AFTER BATCHING
From the time of adding water to the cement the chemical
reaction has begun and you only have a limited amount of time
to place and compact the concrete, this is usually specified as
90 minutes.
The delivery ticket of the load of concrete will be stamped with
the time of batching.
ADDITION OF WATER
given a set amount of cement and aggregate there is an
optimum amount of water to be added to produce a chemical
reaction to give the maximum obtainable strength, too little or
too much water will produce a weaker concrete.
Unfortunately as in all things, life is not that simple, and the
workability of the concrete has to be considered when placing
concrete, especially in difficult situations.
These situations can be areas of high density of reinforcing
bars, complicated formwork design, or where the concrete

needs to be suitable for pumping.

In these situations water content is increased to make the
concrete more workable, BUT this increase in water content is
calculated at the design stage and the cement content is
increased accordingly to retain the strength of the mix.
For every designed concrete mix with a specified strength
there is a set WATER:CEMENT RATIO which must be retained
in order to achieve the designed strength.
WATER SHOULD NEVER BE ADDED TO CONCRETE,
ESPECIALLY ON SITE, WITHOUT THE CONSIDERATION OF
ALL THE ABOVE POINTS,
AND THE APPROVAL OF THE ENGINEER
CONCRETE WORKABILITY
An on site simple test for determining workability is the SLUMP
TEST.
This consists of a conical mould 300mm. high, with an opening
at the top of 100mm. diam., and at the bottom of 200mm.
dam..
The mould is filled with concrete in 4 layers and rodded to
remove air voids, with the smaller orifice uppermost.
The "slump" is the difference in height between the height of
the mould and the height of the concrete column with the
mould removed.
The workability of the concrete will depend upon the situation
into which the concrete is being placed.
Low workability, i.e. stiff concrete, is needed for carriageway
concrete which is laid by a "paving train".

High workability concrete is needed in situations of high

density of reinforcing steel to enable the concrete to flow
around all the reinforcing without leaving any voids.
SPECIFYING CONCRETE STRENGTH
The strength/grade of concrete is specified and measured in
newtons/sq. mm., meganewtons/sq. meter or even
megapascals, in fact the numerical figure will be the same in
each case.
E.g. strength of 20 newtons/sq.mm. is the same as 20
meganewtons/sq.metre.
The strength/grade of concrete is normally specified by stating
the strength you wish the concrete to achieve after a period of
28 days.
The specifications governing the design, use and testing of
concrete have undergone tremendous changes in the lat few
years, I will not go into this topic on this page other than to say
you may like to be aware of the introduction of,
BS 8500-1:2002:Concrete - Complementary British Standard
to BS EN 206-1
Part 1 : Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier
BS 8500-2:2002:Concrete - Complementary British Standard
to BS EN 206-1
Part 2 : Specification for constituent materials and concrete
These are British Standards that have been published to help

you understand, the current standard for concrete, which is,

BS EN 206 - 1 : Concrete : Part 1 : Specification, performance,
production and conformity
and it is likely that you will need the help of BS 8500, even then
it may prove difficult to understand BS EN 206. It is not a "user
friendly" document.
MEASURING CONCRETE STRENGTH
The strength is measured by crushing concrete cubes to failure
and recording this strength.
Concrete cubes are made from fresh concrete sampled at the
time of pouring by placing correctly sampled concrete into a
steel mould and compacting to remove air voids.
The concrete is allowed an initial "set" period of 24 hours, the
mould is then stripped and the cube is cured in water at a
temperature of 20 deg.c for 28 days prior to crushing.
If you wish to strike shuttering before 28 days, extra cubes will
be required to determine that the in-situ concrete has achieved
the appropriate strength at the time you wish to strike the
shuttering.
This is usually an arrangement agreed by the contractor, the
concrete supplier and the engineer.
SAMPLE CONCRETE MIXES, FOR GUIDANCE ONLY (but
you will be able to understand them)
Below are a number of different types of concrete mixes

showing batch weights and cement contents when a particular

source of clean crushed river gravel and sand where used, so
they are only an indication of concrete composition and will not
be suitable for all aggregates / sand / cement.
I have included this item because of what I believe is the lack
of basic concrete information that is readily available to young
engineers and engineering technicians wishing to improve their
working knowledge of concrete.
These mixes are in fact concrete mixes produced to comply
with the Specification for Road and Bridge works of 1963, i.e.
still current in 1969 to 1972 while I was working on the M6 Link
for Owen Williams and Partners.
Back in this period, when I was beginning my career in
highways materials, specifications and British Standards were
written in such a way that basic information regarding concrete
could be obtained from them, and they were my original
learning tool.
It is my opinion that this is no longer the situation with current
specifications and standards hence the publication of BS 8500,
Parts 1 & 2, and I would not regard these as particular user
friendly for a "beginner".
Basic concrete mixes are basic concrete mixes, and these are
examples of basic concrete mixes.
I know things have moved on, and there are now many types
of cement, admixtures and fibres that produce enhanced
concrete for particular uses, and that you do need to take into
account the density of the aggregates, and the workability of
the produced concrete, the source/chemical composition of the
aggregate, etc., etc..

But remember this is "The Idiot's Guide to Highways

Maintenance", and this is some basic information to assist
those who want to know a little bit more about concrete for
basic on site uses, and possibly minor structures.
For most uses you will be buying your ready mixed concrete
from an established supplier to an appropriate, modern,
specification, but it does not hurt to have some knowledge of
what you are buying and how it was produced.
I have used the original broad descriptions (e.g. A) used in
this specification to describe the types of concrete, each type
having a particular use with regard to required strength,
workability and cost to produce.
These mixes were used in the Longford Viaduct and the Bed
worth Viaduct, and the many other large structures on Contract
11, and the last time I looked they were all still standing, so I
have confidence to reproduce them here.
NOTE : I have quoted the quantities in LBS. and GALLONS
(the original measures) as well as converting them to metric
quantities, and S.I. units for strength, although I remain with
meganewtons not megapascals, they are the same figures.
If you do wish to use these quantities as a basis for
determining your own batching weights, you MUST note that
these figures will only give you a cubic yard of mixed concrete
NOT a cubic metre, and if the density of your aggregates are
different to the aggregates used in these mixes you may get
slightly less or slightly more than a cubic yard.
To save you looking it up, 1 cubic yard of concrete = 0.7646

cubic metres.
As with any new concrete mix you must take cubes and crush
them at appropriate dates to determine the real strength of the
concrete you have designed / produced, only then can you
consider using it in the works /structure, and you should expect
to attain the Preliminary strengths in your trials to ensure the
Works strength for normal production.
The cement used in these "standard" mixes was OPC
(Ordinary Portland cement), and the strengths quoted are for
150mm. (6 inch) cubes crushed at 28 days.
And do not forget to weigh your cubes and determine the
density, as density is a good indication of a well designed
concrete, and if you have crushed as many concrete cubes as
I have, you will have noted that for each "mix", cube making
and curing being constant, the cubes with the highest density
will give the highest strengths.
Surface Dry Batch Weights for a number of Classes of
Concrete
Strength (Mn
- lbs/in) Ceme

Aggregate

Agg. /
Concr
Sand
nt
Ceme Water/Ce
ete
(kgs/l 20m 40m
(kgs/l
nt ment Ratio
Class Prelimin Wor
bs) m.- m.ary
ks bs)
20m Ratio
5mm.
m.

29.0
38.5 /
/ 327 / 408 / 975 /
5600 420 720 900 2150
0

4.25

0.52

26.0
34.5 /
/ 281 / 458 / 975 /
5000 375 620 1010 2150
0

5.1

0.49

20.5
27.5 /
/ 218 / 517 / 975 /
4000 300 480 1140 2150
0

6.85

0.62

168 / 472 / 454 / 630 /

9.3
370 1040 1000 1390

0.78

E1

N/A

N/A

41.5
52.0 /
/ 340 / 395 / 975 /
7500 600 750 870 2150
0

4.1

0.51

5.7

0.45

10m
m.5mm.

41.5
52.0 /
/ 371 / 1279 / 840 /
7500 600 820 2820 1850
0

The amount of "free" water added to the above aggregate is

based on the water cement ration and the moisture contents of
the aggregates, especially the sand.
That is why batching weights are initially given as "surface dry",
you then determine the total amount of "free" water by applying
the water cement ration to the quantity of cement.
E.g. the water cement ratio for the concrete mix below is 0.45,
water
cement

= 0.45

Therefore:- weight of water = weight of cement x 0.45 =

371 x 0.45 kgs. = 167kgs./litres (near enough for the
purposes of demonstration)
To better indicate this I include below a reproduction of a
batching chart for Y concrete used at a concrete batching
plant, i.e. as the moisture content of the aggregate, usually the
sand, increases the added water decreases.
However at times of heavy rainfall and with smaller aggregate
the coarse aggregate can retain sufficient water that it needs to
be taken into account, especially with high strength concrete.
This indicates the importance of knowing the moisture content
of the sand in the stockpiles, and often in the different levels of
the stockpile.

Sand
Moisture
Content %

10mm.
Crushed
Gravel

Sand

Added
"free" Water

Cement

840kgs. /
1850lbs.

1271kgs. /
2801lbs.

168litres /
36.5galls

371kgs. /
820lbs.

"

1284kgs. /
2830lbs.

155litres /
34.0galls.

"

"

1297kgs. /
2860lbs.

141litres /
31.0galls.

"

"

1309kgs. /
2885lbs.

130litres /
28.5galls.

"

"

1320kgs. /
2910lbs

118litres /
26.0galls.

"

"

1334kgs. /
2940lbs.

105litres /
23.0galls.

"

"

1347kgs. /
2970lbs.

91litres /
20.0galls.

"

"

1359kgs. /
2995lbs.

77litres /
17.0galls.

"

"

1372kgs. /
3025lbs.

66litres /
14.5galls.

"

"

1383kgs. /
3050lbs.

52litres /
11.5galls.

"

10

"

1397kgs. /
3080lbs.

40litres /
9.0galls.

"

LINTELS
Step 1: Wall Construction
What is the wall construction?

Cavity Wall
Timber Frame
External solid wall
Internal partition or load bearing wall

Step 2: Structural opening

How wide is the structural opening?
a.

Measure the size of the structural opening i.e. the

open space between the walls where the
door/window frame is fitted
b. Add 150mm minimum to each end

Step 3: Load on Lintel

What load is to be supported by the lintel?
Types of load include:

Roof trusses
Floor joists
Masonry
Combination of the above
If you are unsure of the imposed load, call Catnic
Technical Services on: 029 2033 7900

Step 4: Select your Lintel

Once you have:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Wall construction
Outer leaf e.g. 102mm
Cavity e.g. 60mm
Inner leaf e.g. 100mm
Lintel length e.g. 2100mm
Load e.g. 15kN

You can choose what type of lintel to use.

Beam
Definition: A supporting member that transfers weight from one
location to another.
A structural member, usually horizontal, whose main function is
to carry loads transverse to its longitudinal axis.
A structural member, usually horizontal and narrow in
proportion to its depth, which supports superimposed loads
primarily by its internal resistance to bending. The bending
effect at any point in a beam is found by calculating the
bending moment. The principal structural materials for beams
are: steel, light alloy, timber, reinforced concrete, priestesss
concrete or composite materials.
Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also
be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to
an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are
transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer
the force to adjacent structural compression members. In light
frame construction the joists rest on the beam.

Types of beams
Beams are characterized by their profile (the shape of their
cross-section), their length, and their material. In
contemporary construction, beams are typically made
of steel, reinforced concrete, or wood. One of the most
common types of steel beam is the I-beam or wide-flange
beam (also known as a "universal beam" or, for stouter
sections, a "universal column"). This is commonly used in
steel-frame buildings and bridges. Other common beam
profiles are the C-channel, the hollow structural section beam,
the pipe, and the angle.
Beams are also described by how they are supported.
Supports restrict lateral and/or rotational movements so as to
satisfy stability conditions as well as to limit the deformations to
a certain allowance. A simple beam is supported by a pin
support at one end and a roller support at the other end. A
beam with a laterally and rotationally fixed support at one end
with no support at the other end is called a cantilever beam. A
beam simply supported at two points and having one end or
both ends extended beyond the supports is called an
overhanging beam.
Structural characteristics
Moment of inertia
Main article: Moment of inertia
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis
describes how difficult it is to change its angular motion about
that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass
the object has overall, but how far each bit of mass is from the
axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the more rotational
inertia the object has, and the more force is required to change
its rotation rate.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and universal

beam (B). The universal beam flange sections are three times
further apart than the solid beam's upper and lower halves.
The second moment of inertia of the universal beam is nine
times that of the square beam of equal cross section (universal
beam web ignored for simplification)
Stress in beams
compressive tensile

shear stresses

Internally, beams experience

,
and
as a
result of the loads applied to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the
beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting
in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the beam is slightly
stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. The same original length
of the middle of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as
the radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and defines
the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the beam is exposed

reinforced concrete

to shear stress. There are some

beams in which the concrete
is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are

priestesses concrete

known as
beams, and are fabricated to produce a
compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel
tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has
cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial
loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the
moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly used on highway bridges.

The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler

Bernoulli beam equation. Other mathematical methods for
determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual
work" and the "slope deflection method". Engineers are
interested in determining deflections because the beam may
be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass. Beam
deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly
sagging beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be
avoided. A stiffer beam (high modulus of elasticity and
high second moment of area) produces less deflection.
Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces
(internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on
the beam support) include the "moment distribution method",
the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.
General shapes
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular
cross sections, but the most efficient cross section for a simply
supported beam is an I or H section. Because of the parallel
axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away
from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam
increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.
An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of
bending: up and down looking at the profile as an I. If the
beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less
efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a
box (a square shell) however the most efficient shape for
bending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for
unidirectional bending, the I or wide flange beam is superior.
[citation needed]

Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area

(volume of beam per length) subjected to the same loading
conditions, the beam deflects less.
Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes, are also
used in construction when there are special requirements.

DelDOT Bridge Design Manual

May 2005 Culvert, Rigid Frame and Arch Design 7-1
Chapter Seven
Culvert, Rigid Frame and Arch Design
INTRODUCTION
Culverts are typically rectangular,
circular, or elliptical pipe structures which
are buried and designed when flowing full
to be submerged and under hydraulic
pressure. They are usually used to drain tax
ditches or small streams. Most large
culverts are constructed with headwalls,
wingwalls, cutoff walls, and scour aprons.
See Figure 7-1 for a typical culvert. This
chapter will discuss various types of
culverts that are used by DelDOT. For

related issues see Chapters 3, 5, and 6.

Types of culverts used in Delaware
include pipes, boxes, rigid frames, and
arches. Culverts can be constructed of
concrete, steel, aluminum, or high-density
polyethylene. Most small culverts in
Delaware are constructed with round or
elliptical pipes. Only culverts or a series of
culverts with a total opening size of 20 ft2
[1.86 m2] or greater are classified as bridges
in Delaware. Culverts with total opening
sizes smaller than 20 ft2 [1.86 m2] are not
included in the Departments bridge
inventory. For openings larger than 20 ft2
[1.86 m2], box culverts, rigid frames, or
arches are usually required. Culverts of 20
ft2 [1.86 m2] or greater require load ratings
per Chapter Four.
The use of boxes or arches vs. larger or
multiple pipes is based on a number of
factors, including hydraulic efficiency,

compaction around the structure, height of

fill required, and total width of multiple
cells. In most cases, a three-sided frame or
arch is preferred to provide a natural stream
bottom and low-flow channel. However,
these require scour protection. A typical
culvert with a natural stream bottom and
scour protection is shown in Figure 7-1. For
the flat topography typical of most of
Delaware, taller culverts are unsuitable. In
these conditions, elliptical pipes, arch pipes,
or boxes may be desirable. In any case,
culverts should be designed to economically
meet the hydraulic and environmental
demand of the location.
GENERAL POLICY
Culverts shall be designed to meet the
current and future hydraulic and
transportation needs of the location. All
culverts shall be constructed of concrete
under Interstate, US, and Delaware routes.

Designers may consider using structural

plate or polyethylene culverts to
reinforce/reline deteriorated culverts in lieu
of replacement.
This section will discuss the
Departments policy related to culvert
hydraulics, foundations, wingwalls, cutoff
walls, scour aprons, etc.
DelDOT Bridge Design Manual
Culvert, Rigid Frame and Arch Design 7-2 May 2005
Figure 7-1a
Box Culvert Example - Section
DelDOT Bridge Design Manual
May 2005 Culvert, Rigid Frame and Arch Design 7-3
Figure 7-1b
Box Culvert Example - Elevation
DelDOT Bridge Design Manual
Culvert, Rigid Frame and Arch Design 7-4 May 2005
CULVERT HYDRAULICS
Refer to Chapter Three of this manual.
FOUNDATION DESIGN

Sub-surface investigations shall be

conducted and analyzed to determine
allowable load bearing capacity. Subsurface
investigations and design shall be
carried out in accordance with Chapter 6.
Coarse aggregate for foundation
stabilization may be placed under culverts,
typically 1 ft [300 mm] thick. The coarse
aggregate shall extend a minimum 1.5 ft
[450 mm] beyond all sides of the culvert.
At least 3 ft [0.9 m] shall be provided
between multiple round, elliptical, and pipe
arch culverts to allow for proper
compaction. This spacing may be reduced if
flowable fill is used. Due to the high corner
pressure of pipe arches, special bedding
material shall be specified, such as
compacted borrow type C.
Requirements for excavation, backfill,
and bedding are contained in the DelDOT
Standard Specifications, Section 207,

Excavation and Backfilling for Structures.

Backfill shall meet the requirements of
borrow type C or borrow type B in wet
conditions.
HEADWALLS
Headwalls for pipes consist of an entire
retaining wall structure around the inlet and
outlet of the pipe, including the footing.
Headwalls shall be considered on larger
pipes for hydraulic efficiency, stability, and
reduced need for right-of-way acquisition.
For a Reinforced Concrete Box (RCB),
headwalls refer to that portion of the
structure mounted on top of the box at the
outlet and inlet to contain the earth on the
top and around the culvert.
Where warranted, headwalls shall have
concrete traffic barriers mounted on top of
them.
CONCRETE ARCHES
Concrete arches are typically used to

accommodate long span and low rise site

requirements. Typical concrete arch spans
range from 30 to 50 feet [9 to 15 m].
Concrete arches are used to span streams
and seasonal waterways where a natural
streambed is desirable and preferred for
environmental or aesthetic reasons.
All new concrete arches are precast.
Extensions of existing arches may be cast in
place.
MATERIALS
All concrete for the precast portion of
concrete arches will meet f'c equals 5,000
psi [35 MPa]. All other concrete will meet
f'c equals 4,500 psi [30 MPa].
Reinforcing steel meeting the
requirements for AASHTO M31, Grade 60
[M31M, Grade 420], shall be specified. The
minimum size of reinforcing bar for CIP
concrete is #5 [16] bar. Welded wire fabric
is permitted for reinforcing concrete arches

with approval of the Bridge Design

Engineer.
All reinforcing steel shall be protected
with fusion-bonded epoxy. Epoxy coating
conforming with AASHTO M284 [M284M]
shall be specified.
DESIGN
Refer to Section 5, Concrete Structures,
and Section 12, Buried Structures and
Tunnel Liners, in the AASHTO
Specifications. The design procedures in
Section 5 apply for design of concrete
arches where soil interaction is not
DelDOT Bridge Design Manual
considered. Soil interaction is considered
only where the arch is poured
monolithically with the footing. In this case,
use the procedures in Section 12.
Two mats of steel are used in concrete
arches. Concrete arches should be damp proofed
before backfilling.

THICKNESS
The minimum thickness for concrete
arches is 8 in [200 mm].
CONCRETE COVER
The minimum cover over reinforcing
steel is 2 in [50 mm] on the top and bottom
of the arch.
PRECAST PROPRIETARY STRUCTURES
Precast proprietary structures may be
proposed by contractors as alternatives to
Department-prepared designs of rigid frame
or concrete arches. Proprietary structures
may be considered on a case-by-case basis
and must meet the following requirements
for approval:
designed using the same AASHTO
methods used by the Department;
provide structural load rating using
accepted methods;
meet the specified minimum concrete
strengths;

 furnish documentation of the structural

strength of the structure including actual
test results;
provide documentation of long-term
service to show durability; and
provide connection between units.
STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES
Designers may select from a variety of
manufacturers available. Shapes include
elliptical arches of various radii, pipe, pipe arch,
and ellipse. Size and shape shall be
based on hydraulic and site requirements.
Geometry, materials, Mannings n value,
and plate gauge shall be based on
availability and manufacturers design
charts. Designers shall refer to
manufacturers design charts when
preparing the plans.
The bottom is typically depressed to
allow for natural filling. Structural plate
pipe culverts shall be designed with

headwalls, and those constructed with

bottom plates shall have cutoff walls.
Backfill shall meet manufacturers
recommendations or DelDOT Standard
Specifications. Foundation design shall
follow the requirements of Chapter Six of
this manual, and measures shall be taken to
protect the footing from scour.
The contractor shall submit shop
drawings and calculations sealed by a
professional engineer for Department
approval. All erection and backfill shall be
in accordance with the manufacturers shop
drawings.

POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC PIPES

High density polyethylene plastic (HDPE)
pipe is acceptable for use on Department
projects. Please refer to Department
guidelines for installation requirements.
MATERIAL

Material properties and specifications

shall be in accordance with AASHTO
Specifications, Section 12.
DESIGN
Structural design of HDPE pipe shall be
in accordance with AASHTO Specifications,
Section 12. Earth loads and live loads shall
be in accordance with AASHTO

Introduction
Buildings and structures are provided on major hazard plant for
a number of purposes. Buildings may serve to simply protect
the plant or control systems from weather conditions or may be
provided as accommodation or shelter. More importantly they
may be part of the overall containment strategy i.e. to prevent,
control or mitigate major accident events. Other structures are
provided as support for plant either within buildings or
externally. Failures of buildings and structures closely
associated with major hazards plant may directly impinge upon
the plant itself thus initiating a hazardous event. It is therefore
clearly important that buildings and structures are designed to
withstand all foreseeable loadings and operational extremes
throughout the life of the plant.

General principles
Buildings and structures should be designed to sound
engineering principles in accordance with appropriate design
codes and fit for purpose. Considerations should be:

Extreme weather e.g. wind loadings, snow loadings,

flooding;

Seismic activity;

Fire, especially where flammable substances are held;

Explosions overpressures from plant excursions;

Corrosion effects from local atmospheric conditions;

Ventilation to contain and deal with releases;

Special requirements e.g. warehouses, control rooms;

Emergency ingress and egress;

Impact from vehicles and dropped loads from lifting

equipment;

Thermal expansion;

Positioning of non-process buildings.

Structural design of buildings to withstand natural events
Buildings should be designed in accordance with BS
6399 when considering extreme weather. Part 2 provides
advice on design for Wind Loadings and Part 3 for Imposed
Roof Loads. There is a strong probabilistic element in the
design methods in that it is not possible to define the precise
loads to which the building or plant structure may be subjected.
BS 6399 is only appropriate if the response of the structure can
be considered to be static; structures with a dynamic response
are not covered within the scope.
Historical meteorological data for the plants location which is
required to form the basis of the criteria for design should be
obtained from the UK Meteorological Office. Other relevant

codes are BS 8100 for Lattice Towers and Masts and Shore
Protection Manual.
Design of non-standard structures and buildings will require
special consideration, including structural analysis calculations
as appropriate.
Plants should be provided with adequate storm water drains to
deal with potential flooding. As with other extreme weather
situations, the starting point is to consider historical
meteorological data. Some regions will be far more vulnerable
to flooding and particular attention should be paid to this
aspect in positioning safety critical plant, equipment and
control systems to allow safe shutdown. Design methods for
dealing with storm water are described in Contain liquid spills
and improve safety with a flooded storm water sewer, Mason
and Arnold, Chemical Engineering 91, 105. The design should
include catchment basins correctly sized to ensure that
contaminated water is not released to the environment. There
are two possible systems i.e. a gravity flow system and a fully
flooded system. In gravity flow systems the lines are designed
to run about three-quarters full at a slope of about 0.6 to 0.8%
to a catch basin with a sand trap and liquid seal. In the fully
flooded system a dam is placed at the entrance to the
collection sump which causes the sewer to become fully
flooded. The advantage of this system is that it prevents the
passage of flammable vapors and burning liquids along the
sewer.
A further most important aspect to consider when designing
buildings to cope with flooding is the possibility that tanks may
float when subject to buoyancy forces. This will be particularly
important where tanks are within wells or deep bunds and may
bring about catastrophic failure of the tank and associated pipe

work with subsequent releases of hazardous substances to the

environment and possible domino effects.
In general, the UK is a low risk area for earthquakes and it is
almost always possible to dismiss the risk from such events on
frequency grounds. Where it is considered that the
consequences of catastrophic plant failure is of such
magnitude that it may not be tolerated at the estimated
frequency then the approach taken for the Nuclear Industry as
outlined in the HSE document Nuclear Safety. Safety
Assessment Principles for Nuclear Reactors, 1979 may be
appropriate. Earthquake-resistant design involves the
consideration of the complete design including ground
conditions. Design methods are given in Uniform Building
Code, International Conference of Building Officials, USA 1991
of detailed dynamic analysis based upon the design basis
earthquake or DD ENV 1998 Euro code: Design provisions for
Earthquake Resistant Structures (Draft) may be used.
Structural design of buildings to withstand plant excursions
Buildings and structures should be designed to withstand fires
and explosions, if their failure causes additional hazards or
domino effects. Methods of Fire Protection are discussed in the
Technical Measures Document on Active / Passive Fire
Protection. In general, where structures are required to provide
fire resistance for a period of time in the event of fire, water
spray or insulating coatings can be applied.
Buildings and structures are vulnerable to overpressures,
shock or blast waves and missiles generated by explosions.
These may be:

Flash fires/deflagrations;
Vapour Cloud Explosions (VCEs);
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions (BLEVEs);

Pressure bursts;
Exothermic reactions.

Experimentally, normally designed plants have withstood

overpressures of about 0.3 bar (5 psig).
Where the design basis for safety relies upon the building or
structure remaining intact following significant
explosions/overpressure then appropriate design methods
should be used. Design for such events is often carried out by
considering the equivalent static pressure exerted by the blast.
However it is preferable to use dynamic structural analysis. It is
important to use a blast profile that accurately reflects the
event being considered. Condensed phase explosives (TNT)
blast profiles that are readily available are not representative of
profiles for vapour cloud explosions etc. Design methods often
include allowing for some measures of explosion relief via
fragile roofs or walls which allow venting to a safe place so as
not to injure people or damage neighbouring property. This is
particularly relevant to warehouses storing drums/cylinders of
flammable substances (see HS(G)51 Storage of flammable
liquids in containers).
Relevant design codes include The design of structures to
resist explosions TM5 1300 , Protective Construction Design
Manual , ESL-TR-87-57 and Fundamentals of Protective
Design (conventional weapons), TM5-855.
Missiles may be classified as primary or secondary. Primary
missiles are generated from explosions or overpressures within
vessels or pipes causing their fragmentation whereas
secondary missiles are generated as objects pick up energy
from a blast wave. Consideration should be given to
eliminating possible secondary missiles such as loose
equipment, light fittings etc in the design of buildings
vulnerable to blasts.

There are various methods available to determine the effects of

missiles upon buildings and structures and design barricades
to protect more vulnerable plant. Some simple empirical
methods such as that provided in The Design of Barricades,
for Hazardous Pressure Systems, CV Moore, Nuclear Eng.
Des. 5, 81 1967 and High Pressure Safety Code, Cox BG,
Saville G, High Press Technology Assoc. 1975 and more
complex models such as Explosions Hazards and Evaluation,
WE Baker et al , Elsevier, Amsterdam 1983. Factors that need
to be determined are the size, initial velocity, angle of
departure, flight trajectory and the target vulnerability.
For occupied buildings, a methodology is presented in the
recent CIA/CISHEC guidance CIA Guidance for the location
and design of occupied building on chemical manufacturing
sites. Further details are given in the Technical Measures
Document on Control Room Design.
Piping containing hazardous fluids should be protected from
damage by external mechanical impacts such as those
imposed by explosions and missiles. Pipe supports and
bridges should be designed with sufficient mechanical strength
for the loads exerted on them. This is considered further in the
Technical Measures Document on Design Codes - Pipework.
Maintenance of buildings (damage to plant)
Falling masonry and steelwork can initiate major accidents by
damaging plant, it is therefore important that buildings and
structures are maintained to a high degree of integrity. Regular
inspections should be carried out by a competent person and
systems should be in place to ensure that any remedial work
required is undertaken promptly. See also Technical Measures
Document on Inspection / Non-Destructive Testing (NDT).

Structural design of Bunds

Bunds are an essential secondary containment for hazardous
liquids, particularly where there are large quantities stored or in
process. (see Technical Measures Document on Secondary
Containment). Materials of construction should be capable of
withstanding the mechanical and thermal shock that occurs on
catastrophic failure of the primary containment. Bunds are
generally fabricated from brick/mortar or concrete but where
liquids are being stored above their boiling point additional
insulation, e.g. vermiculite mortar, may be added as cladding to
reduce the evaporation rate. Such materials provide adequate
chemical resistance to most liquids. However, where surfaces
may be exposed to strong acids for longer periods, acid
resistant coatings such as phenolic resins should be used.
Care must be taken in the design of the bund wall to withstand
the dynamic loads upon bund walls when a large liquid release
occurs. Previous practices have been to design bunds to
withstand only the hydrostatic load within the tank from which it
is released. It has been estimated that the dynamic load at the
base of the bund wall may be six times this hydrostatic
pressure.
Where bunds are particularly deep, consideration will need to
be given to buoyancy forces when filling with liquid. which may
cause catastrophic failure of the tank and associated pipe
work.
Further consideration of the design of bunds is included in the
Technical Measures Document on Secondary Containment.
Drainage/spillages
Buildings and structures should be designed to deal with
flammable and toxic liquid spillages. It is normal to provide 3

separate effluent systems i.e. open drainage channels/sewers

for clean storm water run-off, a closed domestic sewer and a
closed sewer for aqueous effluent. The requirement for storm
water drains is covered above.
Aqueous effluent systems should be designed to prevent
spread of hazardous liquids and vapors around the site. This is
particularly important for volatile and/or non-water miscible
flammable substances which may find sources of ignition some
distance from the origin of the spill. Run-off from plant areas
should be directed to interceptors or sumps which may provide
separation of non-water miscible substances and sampling
prior to discharge. Consideration should be given to:

Neutralization prior to discharge;

Discharge to drums or standby tanks for disposal or reuse;
Level measurement/alarms to detect spillages;
Cleaning of sumps to prevent build up of solids;
Protection against freezing;
The use of appropriate materials of construction for
sumps, floors and drainage channels.

In most instances standard materials of construction i.e.

concrete, brickwork will be adequate. However where strong
acids are likely to be present for prolonged periods,
consideration should be given to the use of acid resistant
coatings. This should be extended to protection of structural
steelwork that may be exposed to corrosive liquids and vapors.