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1. Introduction
Global and regional context
It is a scientifically proven fact that low-lying coastal areas are
highly vulnerable to floods. Among these coastal areas, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change specifically identifies as hotspots the heavily urbanized megacities in the lowlying deltas of Asia (IPCC 2007 b), which are in acute state of
vulnerable appreciation. Among Asian countries, India with its
7,500 km long predominantly low-lying and densely populated
coastlineis particularly vulnerable. A recent global survey
identified Kolkata and Mumbai as among the top ten cities with
high exposure to flooding under the current climate change
forecasts (Nicholls et al. 2008).The study also shows that exposure will increase in the future; by 2070, Kolkata is expected to
lead the top 10 list in terms of population exposure. What sets
Kolkata apart when it comes to impacts associated with climate
change is its demographic setup and population growth.
There are indeed some wayward climatic shifts happening that
Kolkata is going through and it will be very evident in near future. A sea level of 0.27 m by 2050 was also added to the storm
surge for the A1FI and B1 climate change scenarios based on
current estimates. All these scenarios (without and with climate
change effects) were then modeled to assess the impact in
terms of the extent, magnitude, and duration of flooding (World
Bank, 2010).
Kolkata metropolitan area: KMA
The designated geographical area covered the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA), a continuous urban area stretching along
the east and west bank of the Hooghly River surrounded by
some rural areas lying as a ring around the conurbation and
acting as a protective green belt. KMA has an area of 1,851
square kilometers and consists of a complex set of administra-
tive entities comprising 3 municipal corporations (including Kolkata Municipal Corporation, or KMC), 38 other municipalities,
77 non municipal urban towns, 16 out growths, and 445 rural
areas (World Bank, 2010). KMC, the core of the city, lies along
the tidal reaches of the Hooghly and was once mostly a wetland
area. The elevation of KMA ranges from 1.5 to 11 meters above
sea level (masl). The elevation of KMC area ranges from 1.5 to 9
masl with an average of 6 masl (World Bank, 2010).
With a population of about 14.7 million (including 4.6 million in
KMC), KMA is one of the 30 largest megacities in the world
(United Nations, 2007). The average population density in KMA
is 7,950 people per km2; in KMC, it is 23,149 per km2. The average per-capita income in KMA in 200102 was $341 (at 199394
prices) (World Bank, 2010).
Kolkata metropolitan area and its slums
A uniquely special characteristic of KMA is its large slum population, comprising more than a third of the total population. These slums not only lack basic infrastructure and services, but are
also the hub of many informal manufacturing activities, some of
which involve highly toxic industries. Little oversight of such
activities is carried out by government agencies. These mixed
residential and commercial/industrial land uses in slums make
these areas highly vulnerable to extreme weather-related
events, especially flooding and pragmatic water scarcity. Potable
drinking water is extremely scarce in these slum areas. Rickety
infrastructure coupled with extreme mismanagement when it
comes to solid waste disposal and unwanted landfills. KMAs
slums is indeed worst suffer of frequent floods and water clogging. The main causes of flooding in KMA are intense precipitation, overtopping of the Hooghly River due to water inflow from
local precipitation as well as that from the catchment area, and
storm surge effects.
According to World Bank Megacity Report (2010) a list of pertinent factors which influence the climate paradigm in the region
is listed identified and written below:
Natural factors. Natural factors include flat topography and low
relief that cause riverine flooding and problems with drainage.
Developmental factors. Developmental factors include unplanned and unregulated urbanization; low capacity drainage;
sewerage infrastructure that has not kept pace with the growth
of the city or demand for services; siltation in available channels; obstructions caused by uncontrolled construction in the
natural flow of storm water; and reclamation of natural drainage
areas (marshlands).
Climate change factors. Climate change factors include an in- Ward 66: demographic profile
crease in the intensity of rainfall, sea level rise, and an increase
World Bank Report, 2010 on Asia Megacities has analytically
in storm surge caused by climate change effects.
identified the 9 most vulnerable wards that may need specific
According to the report flooding from intense precipitation was attention in designing adaptation strategies in Kolkata. And
modeled for three scenarios30-year, 50-year, and 100-year Ward 66 is one of them.
return period flood eventsassuming no climate change effects.
Ward 66 is having an area of 312.50 ha and total population is
The climate change effects were added to the 100-year flood
74041 (KEIP, 2005). The projected population growth for the
event using the A1FI and the B1 scenarios.
year 2035 is 84384. Ward 66 is located strategically and is surAssumptions about the impacts of climate change in Kolkata in rounded by Belighata Canal in the north and Railway line in the
2050 (Sugiyama 2008) included (a) a temperature increase of west, Rashbehari connector in the south and E.M. By Pass.
1.8C for the A1FI scenario and 1.2C for the B1 scenario; (b) a Ward 66 is internally divided into Mazdurpara, Dhapapara, Sefractional increase in the precipitation extremes of about 16 cond Lane and Azad Mohalla.
percent for the A1FI and 11 percent for the B1 scenarios; and (c)
Mazdurpara is socio-economically most backward of the lot. The
sea level rise of 0.27 m by 2050, which was added to the storm
problem of waste management is rampant and cross cutting
surge for the A1FI and B1 climate change scenarios based on
across the entire ward. In all of the sub divisions a pattern of
current estimates. All these scenarios (with and without climate
joint family living is very evident. Family members on average
change effects) were then modeled to assess the impact in
per house hold are around five and more. Majority of the poputerms of the extent, magnitude, and duration of flooding (World
lation is Muslim and they are engaged in diversified livelihood
Bank, 2010).
portfolio like leather factory workers, rickshaw pullers, rag pickThree separate models were used to capture the overall effect ers, scavengers, skilled labourers or construction workers etc. A
of natural, developmental, and climate change factors that lead portion of the of the population is immigrant from Sunderbans
to flooding in KMA. The models generated the increase in (India- Bangladesh), Easter Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
depth, duration, and extent of flooding in Kolkata due to cliWard 66: land use patterns and housing segregations
mate change effects. A separate vulnerability analysis was done
to assess the impact of flooding; this part of the analysis was Ward 66 has a unique land use pattern setup where the core
restricted to only the KMC area because of data limitations. The area of the ward comprises Azad Mohalla, Dhapapara and Sevulnerability analysis was based on three separate indices: (1) a cond Lane which were set up before Mazdurpara. The core area
flood vulnerability index based on the depth and duration of was developed because of immediate need of leather factory
flooding, (2) a land-use vulnerability index based on the nature workers in several small scale leather manufacturing units of the
of land use, and (3) a social vulnerability index based on the Topsia region. Inhabitants of Mazdurpara live in non-concrete
existing infrastructure and the socioeconomic characteristics of house just adjacent to the sewage canal on either side, but inthe population. Finally, the three separate indices were com- habitants of Dhapapara, Second Lane and Azad Mohalla are
bined to form a composite vulnerability index (World Bank, relatively better off than Mazdurpara, because they have con2010).
crete buildings to live.
2
Primary respondents have indeed identified solid waste management as one of the key areas which needed to be addressed by
the community to ensure sustainable development and community based adaptation approach. The problem of waste management has already surpassed the threshold level and community
is extremely help less because of this issue which needs urgent
and pragmatically earnest attention.
3. Study Objective
The specific objectives associated with the study are further categorized into (i) General Assessment, (ii) Women and Children
Assessment and (iii) Climate Factor.
first-hand
Assessment of lighting facilities in the household and assessment of cooking, water heating and appliances usage in the
household.
with climate change adaptation and communities coping mechA total of 7 focused group discussions were carried out, of
anism have been screened through extensive literature reviews.
which 120 of the participants were women and 15 children.
Formats about questioning on communities related to climate
Observation
change have been covered.
Field study
Research tools
Semi-structure interviews (SII)
order to ensure that any geographical and socio-cultural varia Key informant interviews (KII) individuals in the communi- tions were represented and accounted for, the study selected
ty who may have overall good slum-wise knowledge and/or the communities based on the following criteria:
particular information, insight or opinions about the topic Diversity
under study.
The study aimed to include both homogenous and mixed comComplete house hold interviews
munities in order to identify whether caste and ethnicity were a
Extensive house hold level interviews related to socio-economic factor in the level of women's participation and gender roles.
assessment, children vulnerabilities, women vulnerabilities, food However, the selected communities were Muslims by religion.
security and energy consumption patterns have been carried
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Target group
Participations
Limitation
The main limitations of the study are summarized below:
Methodological limitations
Opportunities to participate
In general, women have had more challenges than men in carrying out the roles that they were given in the day to day affairs
viz. house hold maintenance, reproductive roles and livelihood
opportunities. Issues such as illiteracy, physical strength, low self
-confidence and self-esteem and socio-cultural norms limited
the ability of women to fully carry out their responsibilities.
Barriers to participate
There is a trend of increasing participation by women and excluded groups in community-level activities and development
work and a growing awareness of the benefits of attending
meetings and being involved.
However, a number of factors were identified that limit or preDue to the selection constraint, it was not possible to sevent the involvement of women and excluded groups:
lect completely homogenous communities based on caste
Perceived costs and benefits
and ethnicity.
have been placed under its pertinent heading and category. The
findings are very exclusive and critical if CBOs plans to intervene
in the area of climate change adaptation especially in Urban
Slum context. There are so many latent attributes and findings
that surfaced during the study time period. The findings related
to food security, waste management, energy services and infrastructural setup are of paramount important when it comes to
devising any strategic programme implementation for climate
change adaptation for these community members.
Economic status
Access to information
Education
The gender parity in literacy rate between men and women is
definitely prominent in Ward 66. However, challenges remain,
such as the high dropout rate of girls in secondary school. In the
slum communities there were positive trends of girls attending
school, but still a high level of illiteracy among women is prevalent. The low level of literacy and education was cited often as a
reason for women not participating in meetings.
Intra-household and intra-family relations
Women have more influence in a nuclear household compared
to a joint household where they are living with their in-laws.
They are able to decide things jointly with their husbands and
have more decision-making power over what to cook and what
to buy, compared to if they live in a joint household.
Socio-economic assessment
General particulars
The general particulars of sample respondents can be stated as
follows, which are presented in Table 2. It broadly includes the
sex composition, family size, age structure, type of family and
religion distribution. Among the 200 sample respondents,
96.50% are males. Similarly age wise 35.00% of the respondents
belong to the age group above 26 -35 year and 32.50% respondents belongs to age group of 19-26 year. About 74.50% of
the respondents have Nuclear families and 25.50% belonged to
Joint family system. Religion group-wise 99.5% belonged to
Muslims and 0.5 % to Hindus. The respondents present a dynamic array of pattern which project definite diversity prevailing
in the study area.
Occupational diversity
Similarly in terms of primary occupation one notices in Table 3,
26.8% are somehow involved with leather related work (Leather
Strap Cutter 13.83% and Leather Factory Worker 12.97%), 2.31%
Businessmen, 5.76% are direct shop owners, 2.02% engaged in
Regular Employment, 13.83% are Daily Wage earners, 2.88%
are Rag pickers, 2.88% are Rickshaw-Pullers, 4.08% are Housemaids and remaining are engaged in various other occupations
such as various categories of artisans, petty traders, weavers,
construction workers, electricians, drivers etc.
8
Asset distribution
Nearly 71.50% of the household respondents have mobile phone
connections followed by 68% which owns television set. 14.50%
of the household respondents owns bicycle and 91.50% of
household respondents owns fans. One household actually owns
a fully functioning internet based computer system.
10
2.
3.
4.
5.
12
cant afford the sort of quality of care very much needed for the
same.
Household identified limiting factors which are causing stunted
development in children which are mainly external environment,
lack of financial power and lack of supportive physical and social
environment. Only 5% of household respondent agreed to do
something about this situation and ways to improve it. Children
suffering from heat stress in these slums and ailments could be
further classified as Respiratory Problems= 70 Children, Prickly
Heat= 198 Children, Dehydration= 173 Children, Lethargy=
182 Children, Irritation=169 Children, Loss of Appetite= 178
Children, and Skin Rashes= 103 Children.
Households responded to the question on children as active agents and how they perceive their children when they
will grow up whether they visualize them to be a collateral
(social and economic), how households aspire children to
overcome present scenario and lead a normal like and
households envisage children to grow as a socially responsible and active citizen (education and proper livelihood
security). 68 household respondents agreed to the fact that
they prioritize their children to overcome their present scenario
and lead a healthy and normal life.
Households are assessed for quality of parental supervision and
care with subjected to age group of the children, mainly on
attributes like personal hygiene-sanitation, food-drinking water
provisions and monitoring daily activity of child (schooling, tuitions, play etc.). Households responded accordingly on given set
of choices offered in semi structured interviews and household
level interviews. When a child crosses the age barrier of ten and
more household ceases to give the quality of care given by
them to their children and diminishes them slowly and lately.
Quality of care is very important for children, somehow the level of consistency is not retained as children grow in age and pos- Parents of infants in Ward 66 are not aware of Integrated Child
ture. Parents believe that a child above 12 years is well aware Development Services, but their numbers are slowly accruing.
and can take their own care and needed to be left alone, it occurs due to the fact that there are always financial pressure from
parents to manage day to day activities and sometimes they
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Climate change is definitely not gender neutral and its repercussion is definitely critical for women because of excessive physical labour, inconsistency in health factors, lack of financial liberty, lack of decision making power in the household and always
being treated as secondary and tertiary when it comes to priority rankings of household members.
More than 45% of women are found to be anemic and quite a
few also suffer from diseases like tuberculosis, low blood presTotal number of women interviewed is 256 including direct and
sure, kidney stones and tumours of various kinds.
indirect respondents. Among them 115 of women are under
weight and severely mal nourished.
Heat stress effect during summers are quite evident from the
figures, due to extreme temperature during the summers these women suffer from various health causalities like prickly
heat, breathing problems, dehydration, lethargy and loss of appetite. During summers, health wise these women are more
vulnerable during any other season throughout the year, and
thus make them target to anticipated disease like malaria, dengue, diarrhoea and others.
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not good and living inside them has its own multiplier effect of
anticipated risks.
As per Table 27 it is evident that more than 90% of the respondent households dispose waste in nearby proximity of
the house. The disposal pattern covers major delivery channels like disposing waste on designated alleys or lanes or in
between two buildings, disposing waste in identified landfill
areas by the community, disposing waste through proper collection of garbage vans etc.
Solid Waste Management (SWM) both at household level and
community level is severely lacking in these areas, literally
waste could be seen everywhere and anywhere. Local playing
fields have been converted into landfills and waste disposal
could be seen between buildings and alleys of Ward 66.
Here, 111 sample household respondents which account more
than 55% of the sample do not follow systematic waste management segregation at the household level.
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Drinking water sources are very scarce for the urban slum communities in Ward 66. There are water mafias who exploit these
ordeals and make a complete business out of it. People actually
buy water from them at prices ranging from INR 6 INR 15
depending on where a family lives-whether near or distant from
the water source or whether on roof tops of buildings. These
local water mafias create an unhealthy atmosphere in water
queues and cause conflicts. Common people generally avoid
such commotion and are thus compelled to fall for these water
mafias.
Food security
Climate change threatens peoples access to food as they become socioeconomically susceptible.
Displaced people living in urban slums are in search of better
and secure life. But urban slums located mostly in low lying environmentally hazardous area coupled with inadequate facilities
like food, shelter, sanitation, health care make their life even
worse. Growing number of people in urban slums over the recent past creates extra pressure on existing systems and challenge to government development activities like slum development and poverty reduction strategy.
The study framework will depict socioeconomic condition of
slum dwellers of primary respondents of Ward 66 and their consumption pattern, while it has been found that majority of them
cant afford nutritious food which is expensive to them. Climate
change will increase poverty and worsen food security. Urban
poverty will increase if environmentally displaced people keep
moving to city, while slum is their potential target for habitation.
Such people create pressure on limited natural resources like
land, water. Also, the poor are often compelled to live in environmentally hazardous area like low lying flood prone area occupying swamps, natural lakes. Poor living conditions and unsanitary environment have been substantiated in the elements
of food security. The other essential element of food security is
biological utilization of food emphasizing environmental sanitation, clean water, and adequate diet. Availability does not ensure food security at specific level like household or individual
level. Household or individuals access to food and more specifically, to absorb diet properly lead to food security. Measurement of food security is an integration of many factors like agroecological, environmental, socio-economic, political and biological factors. The concept is generalized into three main aspects
like:
Water collection is of paramount important for the slum communities, sample respondents agreed to the fact that energy
and health implications are most important concern for water
collection, because the individuals have to go nearly 500 metres
1 Kilo Metre and it takes more than 1 hour for each case. In
Table 29, attributes like long distance and time investments are
also listed as important contributors. In Table 30, its quite evident that power cuts are frequent during summers and thus 1. Availability of food , 2. Access to food, 3. Utilization of food
the demand for water as a resource for the communities inAvailability of food is examined through sufficient supply of food
creases.
to satisfy domestic need. Food availability is determined by
supply and demand oriented approach while supply of food is
integrated with domestic production, imports (public, private, food aid) and changes in national stock. But the issue of
food aid in food availability is often being questioned. Also,
it is found that availability of food cannot often measure
what people actually obtained. In this case access to food
depicts peoples purchasing power to buy food. Poverty is
one of the main obstacles affecting peoples purchasing power with in the communities of Ward 66 urban slum dwellers.
17
Access to food is not only enough in food security, while utiliza tion of food guarantees ones capacity to absorb and utilize nutrients in food consumed. Utilization of food is determined
through caring practices, eating habits, hygiene, access to
health and sanitary facilities.
Assessment of food security is a complex phenomenon as it is
interrelated with many factors. The research reveals second
and third elements of food security in terms of living conditions
of slum dwellers of Ward 66 through the field survey under taken.
A set of indicators is used to analyze living conditions and the
situation of food security of urban poor living in these slums.
Socio-economic factors including income, expenditure and education influence food habit and knowledge about hygiene. Socio-economic factors entail individuals ability to have adequate
and nutritious food as well as water treatment practice for safe
drinking water. Environmental sanitation is characterized by
households latrine type and waste disposal system, while children are easy victim of unhygienic environment. Following
Chart 3 depicts conceptual framework of assessing food security
integrating inter-related factors.
The expenditure and consumption patterns of have been thoroughly analyzed for primary sample respondents.
18
The area of the house considered in Table 35, is very important nearly 46 number of house hold have living areas between 200-250 sq feet and any house having area bigger than
that usually converts them into working space. Hence, among
slum respondents of Ward 66, area inside the house influence
the household members to go for additional livelihood activities inside the house premises be it leather work or flip flop
strap cutting work.
In Table 36, we can clearly see that majority of the sample
respondent opted for the bulbs, tubes and kerosene lamps as
their primary source of lighting
Energy consumption
The energy consumption pattern among sample household respondents is listed in Table 34, 92% of sample respondents have
some sort of electric connection in place and rest 8% dont have
any form of electricity. Nearly, 83% of the household respondent
employs Kerosene as fuel to cook and lightening source. 29.50%
use wood and 21% charcoal for fuel purpose. 15% are extremely
poor they use wood residues, saw dusts and even plastics to
supplement their fuel source.
In Table 37, we can observe that majority of the sample respondents opted for community meter and paying less than INR
300 per month.
19
In Table 38, we can observe that majority of the sample respondents opted for Kerosene and are paying about INR 764
per month. For all the energy sources, consumption tends to
increase during winters.
In Table 39, we can observe that 184 sample respondents have
electrified connection and rest of them have over lapping
sources the figures represented in this specific table is purely
cumulative in nature.
In Table 40, we can observe that there is a definite shift from
sample households respondents when it comes to heating water
and the very same trend quantified in cold months.
20
Seasonal Calendar:
This part of the report will look into different thematic tools employed during focussed group discussion (FGD) to capture comprehensive insights on communitys perception on impacts o f
climate change and various aspects of climate change induced
vulnerabilities related to their daily life. The study employed five
climate change qualitative research finding tools as per CBA
frame work CARE INTERNATIONAL which is as follows:
Objectives
Hazard Mapping
Seasonal Calendar
Historical Timeline
Vulnerability Matrix
Venn Diagrams
Hazard Mapping:
Objectives
Learning and discussion
1. To become familiar with the community and to see how the
1. Communities and CBO swasta sevikas have identified implace is perceived by different groups within the community
portant attributes like periods of food scarcity and water scarci2. To identify important livelihoods resources in the communi- ty.
ty, and who has access and control over them and to identify
2. Community members successfully identified during what time
areas and resources at risk from climate hazards
of year their children are getting sick and what sort of preventive
3. To analyze changes in hazards and planning for risk reduction. measures could be taken up.
Learning and discussion
3.
1. Communities and CBOs swasta sevikas have identified important hazards like fire, heavy rainfall, waste, scattered solid Historical Timeline:
waste, water contamination, stagnant water and gambling as
Objectives
important hazards that community is facing at present.
2. Community members fears and agreed to the fact rampant 1. To get an insight into past hazards, changes in their nature,
gambling and drug addiction is taking a heavy toll on their life intensity and behaviour
and engulfing positivity in present and in future.
2. To make people aware of trends and changes over time & to
3. Community members mutually agreed that poorest of them evaluate extent of risk analysis, planning and investment for the
future
are most vulnerable to these hazards and need safety baskets.
4. Community members agree that heavy torrential rains break Learning and discussion
down their infrastructure of house and deeply affect their liveli- 1. Communities and CBO swasta sevikas have identified imhoods because majority of them get paid on daily basis.
portant chronological events which results in complete transfor5. Community members mutually agree to the fact that they mation of the area- it started with establishment of cluster
need to inculcate thrift or savings to make them secure in times leather industries and which further attracted many migrants
workforce in search of better livelihood opportunities.
of emergency.
6. Drinking water is a perennial problem and needs a sustaina- 2. Community members have identified the year when waste
management problem in Ward 66 got rampant it happened durble solution within the community setup.
ing the year 1992-93.The area which is Ward 66 today was a wet
7. Diseases in children needed to bring down, especially those land earlier and now converted into a full fledge habitable slum
which can be controlled.
areas since 1983.Community members successfully identified
years when slum area of Mazdurpara got entirely burned in the
21
year 2007.
Vulnerability Matrix:
Objectives
Table 45, clearly shows that 92% of the households use soaps
and detergents for cleaning and bathing for all family members.
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10. Recommendations
Capacity building
11. Conclusions
4.
Respecting childrens capacities; supporting their active involvement: The chance to solve problems, contribute, take
action, is a potent protective force for children in adversity.
But the contribution of children and young people is also a
potential community asset too seldom tapped in the process of development and adaptation. There are numerous
precedents for effective action in this area in disaster risk
reduction, preparedness and rebuilding.
2.
Strengthening families capacity to cope or adapt: All adaptive measures should ideally enhance the capacity of
households to come through periods of shock with minimal
upset. But coping may take on broader meaning where
children are concerned, and will include the capacity to
manage hardship without compromising the overall wellbeing of their children.
3.
Maintaining and restoring childrens routines, their networks and their activities: Children rely on daily routines
and activities as a context for stability and optimal development. Other functions, more critical to survival, will inevitably be prioritized (food, health, livelihoods), but in the
course of addressing these, it is important not to compromise childrens spaces, activities, networks and opportunities for gaining competence.
26
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