54

INTERPRETASI LINGKUNGAN PENGENDAPAN

Lingkungan pengendapan dapat diinterpretasikan dari:
1. Geometri dan distribusi depositional unit
2. Struktur sedimen dan asosiasi litologi
3. Asosiasi fosilnya
Foraminifera sebagai indikator paleoenvironment
Microfossils in general, and forams in particular, can be used to discriminate broad marine environments in a
number of ways:
a. Quantitative: Species diversity (i.e. alpha index), M-R-T Ternary diagram, similarity, dominance:
- Diversity, ( Fisher plot:)
Species richness (diversity) of foram
assemblages is known to vary considerably
depending on salinity, temperature, substrate etc.
By plotting the number of species against the
number of individual forams on a logarithmic
scale, you get a measure of diversity called the
(a= alpha) value for the assemblage (see Murray
1973): In general, values of a < 5 indicate
brackish or hypersaline marginal marine
environments (though it may also indicate
normal marine conditions with a high dominance
of a single species). Where a > 7 (up to 25 or
more), normal marine shelf to slope or
hypersaline shelf are indicated.
- Wall structure ( Miliolid-Rotalia-Textulariina/
Agglutinated Ternary diagram)
Although there is some overlap of environments,
this type of analysis is particularly useful for
discriminating shallow-water environments.

The porcelaneous component exceeds 20%

only in normal marine and hypersaline lagoon
and marshes and is normally < 20 % in shelf
areas.
Agglutinated forms dominate in brackish and
abyssal zones (below CCD).

-.Test form and the environment

Test form in benthic foraminifera is a compromise between a complex array of selective pressures, but it is
true that there is often a good correlation between form of the test and the environment in which the foram
lives.

Hypersaline and brackish environments exhibit a smaller range of morphological variety (dominated
by planispiral, trochospiral, miliolid and annular tests). Uniserial, biserial and fusiform tests are
generally absent in these environments.
Uniserial tests generally only occur in low energy zones associated with shelf, slope and bathyal
environments.
Milioline tests are mainly found on the shelf, and rarely found in slope and deep sea environments

Agglutinated foraminifera can be classified into four morphogroups and these have a distinctive distribution
in modern environments:

55

Morphogroup A (unilocular, tubular or

branching) are characteristic of the deep
sea.
Morphogroups B1 (globular) & B2 (coiled flattened) represent only a small % in
most assemblages but they are more
common in deeper water environments
Morphogroup B3 (multilocular,
planispiral/trochospiral, lenticular) are
particularly common in shelf and marginal
marine environments.
Morphogroup C1 (elongate) is absent in
marsh and lagoon environments, but can
dominate shelf and upper bathyal (to
1000 m) environments
Morphogroups C2 (elongate
quinqueloculine) and D (trochospiral
conical) are characteristic of marshes and
lagoons.

b. Characteristic foraminiferal assemblages

Modern and ancient environments (from marginal marine to abyssal) can also be identified based on
charateristic foraminiferal assemblages (i.e. the biotope concept). Identification of these characteristic
assemblages is obviously dependent of specialist taxonomic knowledge (at least to genus level).
Interpretasi berdasarkan asosiasi mikrofosil foraminifera, harus didasarkan atas keseluruhan dari
asosiasi foraminieranya. Interpretasi tersebut harus didasarkan ciri-ciri keseluruhan seperti
bagaimana kehadiran (persentasi) plangtonik, miliolid, arenaceous form, foram besar dan tentunya
juga asosiasi calcareous bentoniknya. Selain itu harus diperhatikan pula kelimpahan dan
keragamanya, apakah ada dominansi fauna tertentu (misal. genus tertentu, kelompok tertentu seperti
kelompok miliolid, arenaceous atau foram besar), preservasi, ukuran dan bentuk test dll.
Berikut ini adalah penjelasan singkat, sebagai dasar dalam menginterpretasi lingkungan pengendapan
beradasarkan asosiasi formainiferanya (diambil dari Rauwenda dkk, 1984. Robertson Research Indonesia).

Rauwenda, P.J., Morley, R.J. and Toelstra, S.R. (1984): Assessment of Depositional
Environment and Stratigraphy on the Basis of Foraminifera Paleoecology: Robertson
Research International Limited, Singapore.
ECOLOGY OF RECENT FORAMINIFERA
The distribution of foraminiferal taxa is influenced by many different factors. Although many authors
consider water depth the most significant one, water depth specifically is not the main variable, the
controlling factors being the various physical and chemical conditions associated with depth. Typical factors
are temperature and temperature variability, light availability, sedimentation rate, bottom characters, energy
conditions and pressure.
Studies of recent foraminiferal ecology have provided numerous distinct criteria by which many depositional
environments can be characterised and which can be applied to fossil assemblages from sedimentary rocks.
Some of the main variables can be summarised as follows:
1. The total number of species and of individuals increases away from the shoreline, and with increasing
depth of water, to maximum values on the outer shelf and in the upper bathyal zone.
2. Porcelaneous forms show their present diversity in shallow, nearshore environments.
3. Arenaceous foraminifers with simple interior wall structure become dominant in shallow waters or in
intertidal areas. The percentage occurrence of these arenaceous forms reaches a maximum near the
effluence of rivers.
4. Calcareous foraminiferal tests become smaller and thinner near sources of fresh water. In carbonate
rich environments, tests may reach a large size and be very robust.
5. The percentage occurrence of the most common species in a foraminiferal population relates to the
variability of the environment. As marginal marine conditions are approached, environmental
parameters become more pronounced resulting in a tendency towards single species dominance in the
most unfavourable environments.

56
6. Planktonic forms occur most abundantly within the outer shelf and deeper water. Under ideal
sedimentation contitions, especially in clastic deposit, planktonic foraminifers can show a more or less
regular increase in abundance with depth.
7. Arenaceous taxa with labyrinthic wall structures occurs most abundantly in bathyal or deeper waters. In
sediments deposited below the calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD) these forms may become
dominant since the calcareous shells of other foraminifers are dissolved.
INTERPRETATION OF SEDiMENTARY ENTVIROMENTS ON THE BASIS OF MODERN FORAMINIFERAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
The following is a brief summary of how specific depositional environments may be recognised by means of
their foraminiferal content.
1. Non-marine (supralittoral) environments e.g. delta top, alluvial plain.These environments are barren of
foraminifers. Palynological analysis is essential to obtain a detailed interpretation.
2. Transitional environments (marginal marine, littoral, intertidal)brackish water. Again palynological
studies are of major importance in assessing these environments. The following subdivision of these
environments and their faunal characteristics can be made.
a. Sandy beaches
The microfauna inhabiting this environment is little diagnostic. The species diversity is low, and planktonic,
larger foraminiferal and attached calcareous benthonic forms are absent. As most high energy sandy
beaches face open sea, salinities are generally normal.
:
Characteristic species are : Quinquetoculina sp., Miliolinella sp, Ammonia beccarii, Elphidium spp.
Fossil sandy beaches can be recognised by poorly preserved abraded specimens. However, due to
continuous transport of the tests after death many small or thin-shelled specimens may be destroyed, and
foraminifers are sometimes completely absent from an exposed beach sand. A further complication in
determining an ancient sandy beach is, that many alochnous forms may have been washed in.
b. Marshes and, mangrove, swamps
Tidal marshes and mangrove swamps represent transitional regions between marine/brackish water and
terrestrial environments. Tidal marshes occur in temperate areas, whereas the mangrove swamp is
characteristic for the tropics.
Tidal marshes can be subdivided in three groups according to salinity:
Hyposaline marshes
Normal marine marshes ) difficult to distinguish
Hypersaline marshes
Species diversity is highest in hyposaline marshes, although the general diversity is low. The hyposaline
marshes are characterised by the predominance of arenaceous species (Miliammina sp., Ammotiurn sp.,
Trochammina inflata) and rotalids (Elphidium spp.) and the absence of miliolids.
Normal marine marshes are inhabited by dominantly arenaceous species with minor miliolids
(Quinqueloculina) and rotalids (Elphidium spp., Ammonia beccarii).
In hypersaline marshes the percentage of arenaceous species, miliolids and rotalids is about equal. Typical
cosmopolitan marsh species are: Ammotium salsum, Areno parrella mexicana, Miliammina fusca,
Trochammina macrescens, T. polystoma
Interpreting an ancient marsh environment may be difficult. Due to reducing conditions calcareous tests are
easily destroyed after death. After complete solution of calcareous species, it is impossible to distinguish
between the various marsh environments. Only the low.diversity and an assemblage consisting of small
arenaceous species such as Trochammina sp. , Haplophragmoides sp., Amobaculites sp. points to a marsh
origin. If Miliammina sp. is present in this assemblage, a hyposaline lagoon could also be indicated
The lithology of a marsh deposit consists of dark grey highly organic clay and silt, containing abundant roots
and other in determining an ancient plant debris. This can often help marsh deposit. Pyrite is common, due
to the reducing conditions.
Faunal distribution in a mangrove swamp is similar to that of marshes. Typical taxa in a Southeast Asian
mangrove are as follows: Haplophragmoides salsun, Haplophragmoides wilberti, Miliammina pariaensis
Arenoparella mexicana, Trochammina laevigata

57
c. Tidal flats
Tidal flats develop along gently dipping sea coasts, with marked tidal rhythms, where enough sediment is
available and strong wave action is not present. This may be the case in estuaries, lagoons, bays, or behind
barrier islands or other sand bars.
Characteristic foraminifers inhabiting this environment are:
Ammonia beccarii
Elphidiun spp.
(Quinqueloculina sp.)
Rotalids predominate in tidal flat assemblages, miliolids are rare to absent, and arenaceous species not
common.
d. Estuaries
An estuary is the wide mouth of a river or arm of.the sea where the tide meets the river currents, or flows
and ebbs.
Estuaries are hyposaline in character, and can be subdivided into an upper part, subject to the greatest
freshwater influence and a lower part connected with the sea. This differences in salinity is reflectedinthe
faunas of both parts:
upper estuary
lower estuary
Miliammina sp.
Miliammina sp.
Amobaculitessp.
Ammobaculites sp.
Ammonia beccarii
Elphidiun spp.
e. Lagoons
A lagoon is a shallow lake or sheet of water, connected with the sea or a river. Coastal lagoons are shallow
water bodies, running parallel to the coast, and connected to the sea with an outlet. They are separated from
the sea by sand bars or barrier islands.
Based on the amount of seawater entering through the inlet, and the amount of freshwater contributed by
river, the following subdivision of lagoons can be made:
a) hyposaline : freshwater seawater
b) normal marine lagoons
c) hypersaline : no freshwater comes into the lagoons
A characteristic feature of modern lagoons is their low foraminiferal species-diversity. The relatively highest
diversity is found in normal marine lagoons. Despite the fact that literature on lagoonal assemblages is
scarce, the following genera to some extent may characterise the three types:
Genus
Ammotium
Millammina fusca
Quinqueloculina
Triloculina
Miliolinella
Peneroptids
Glabratella
Ammonia beccarii
Elphidium
Protelphidium

Hyposaline
xxx
xxx

xxx
xxx
xxx

Normal marine

Hypersaline

xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx

xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx
xxx

f. Deltas
With respect to foraminiferal assemblages deltas require special comments since in these environments
certain species behave abnormally,especially within the prodelta region.
Three major environmental systems can be distinguished within a delta as follows:
A) The delta plain
The delta plain consists of an intertidal or supratidal covered with Nipah and mangrove vegetation.
Palynological studies are most useful in assessing delta top environments.
B)The delta front
The delta front consists of an intertidal to shallow subtidal platform fringing the delta plain. The inner zone of
the delta front consists of extensive tidal flats. Foraminiferal assemblages relate to local sub-envirorments
which have already been discussed under 2a-e.

58
C) Prodelta
The prodelta consists -of the smooth, steep slope seaward of the edge of the delta front platform, marked by
an abrupt slope break at the 5 meter isobath. The outer limit of the prodelta appears to coincide with the 6070m,isobath.
It is important to mention the "delta effect" (e.g. Pflum & Frerichs, 1976), that is,a variable upper depth limit
of certain species. They call these species heterobathyal species, as opposed to isobathyal species (which
have a more or less consistant upper depth limit). It is possible to distinguish delta elevated and delta
depressed species. Delta elevated species are species with a shallower upper depth limit in the delta area.
(For instance Sigmoilopsis schlwnbergeri and Martinotiella occidentalis). Delta depressed species have a
lower upper depth limit in a delta area. Examples are Pullenia quinqueloba, Melonls barleeanus, Hoglundina
elegans and Bulimina aculeata.
However care must be taken in applying these data to ancient environments.
3. Marine Environments
A widely used tool for distinguishin- marine environments is the planktonic/benthonic ratio. In general it is
believed that increasindepth will imply an increase in the percentage of planktonic species. The system was
developed initially by Grimsdale and van Morkhoven (1955) who found that it lacked the precision that they
had hoped for. They suggested the following relationship:
Environment
Inner Shelf
Middle Shelf
Outer Shelf
Upper Slope
Lower Slope

Depth in Ifeters

% Pelagic/Benthonic Ratio

0- 20m
20- 100m
100- 200M
200-1000m
1000-4000m

0-20%
20-50%
20-50%
30-80'/7.
70-100%

However, it is extremely dangerous to rely on the planktonic percentage alone. In a case of 90% planktonics
for instance, it is important to determine how many planktonic species are present, if there are only a few,
the environment may be quite shallow. It is also important to note size sorting.
Bearing these points in mind, and also noting the distribution of calcareous benthonic, arenaceous and larger
foraminifers the following marine environments may be characterised:
3a.Inner Shelf (low tide -20m) inner neritic, shallow inner sublittoral.
This environment has its lower boundary at the base of the turbulent zone. Within this depth range many
sub-environments can be recognised, depending on wave energy, substratum etc., and hence many different
populations can be found. Characteristic for inner shelf environments is the low species diversity, with one
or two species dominating the faunas. Planktonic foraminifers may occur in frequencies of 0-20%. Larger
foraminifera such as Operculina and Amphistegina may be locally abundant, other forms may be abundant
only in carbonate sediments.
The following taxa are typical of inner shelf environments. It must be stressed that this is not a complete list
and that the taxa indicated are not restricted to this environment.
Southeast Asia
Planorbulinella sp.
Massilina sp.
Cibicides tobatulus
Pseudorotatia spp.
Cellan thus craticulatus
Loxostom limbatum
Elphidium spp.

Chrysalidinella limbatum
Asterorotatia spp.
Cymbaloporetta squamosa
Bacutogypsina sphaerulata
Amphistegina lessonii
Ammonia spp.

3b. Middle Shelf (20-100m), middle neritic, inner sublittoral

The middle shelf can be subdivided in two parts:
1) Shallow middle shelf (20-50m). The lower boundary of this zone is the base of the photic zone
and the storm wave base.
2) Deep middle shelf (50-100m). The lower boundary of this zone is the base of the seasonal
temperature changes.

59
Shallow Middle Shelf
The diversity of species increases here. Larger foraminiferal species (opercuzina spp. and Amphistegina
spp. particularly A. quoyi are common to abundant locally, and the same calcareous benthic assemblage of
the inner shelf is present, but their tests are generally more robust.
Planktonic foraminifers can make up 20-30% of the total assemblages, but their diversity is low, and
restricted to forms such as Globigerinoides spp. and Globigerina bulloides.
Deep Middle Shelf
Rich assemblages are generally present in this environment. 'The typical inhabitants of the inner and
shallow middle shelf are still present, but they are rare (Operculina spp., Amphistegina spp., Elphidum
spp ., Pseudorotatia spp .) -Planktonic foraminifers can make up to :40-50% of the total assemblages.
Typical middle shelf taxa in Southeast Asia are as follows:
Operculina spp.
Amphistegina spp.(A. bicirculata and A. papillosa)
Bolivina spp.
Florilus spp.
Anomalinella
Cassidulina laevigata
Cassidulina oblonga
Heterolepa praecinctus
Dentalina spp.
20-40% Planktonic foraminifers +10 species.

Baggina inflata
Bigenerina nodosaria
Praeglobobulimina pupoides
Siphonina pulchra
Cancris auriculus
Nodosaria spp.
Uvigerina spp
Loxostomum spp.
Lenticulina spp.

3c. Outer Shelf (100-200m) outer neritic, outer sublittoral

The lower boundary of this zone is the shelf edge. The species diversity in this environment is high.
Planktonic foraminifera make up to 40-80% of the total assemblages and their diversity is high (moreless 20
species in recent samples). Larger foraiainifera are absent. Most of the calcareous benthic species of the
deep middle shelf are present.
Typical taxa of the outer shelf are as follows:
Gyroidina acuta
Gyroidina soldanii
Hoglundina elegans
Cassidulina spp.
Fursenkoina spp.

Pulllnia quinquezoba
Uvigerina soendaensis
Bulimina striate
Bulimina marginata
Sphaeroidina bulloides

Bathyal and Abyssal Environments

On most shelves the inclination of the seafloor increases at about 180-200m depth, and this corresponds
with the continental slope. In the deeper waters below 200m conditions are very stable as compared to
shallower environments. No major changes in temperature and salinity occur. Because of these stable
conditions many of the species living in these environments will be cosmopolitan. However, with increasing
depth, the solubility of calcium carbonate will increase. The critical depth is called the calcium carbonate
compensation depth, which lies in modern oceans between 4000-5500m. Below this depth calcareous tests
will be dissolved. In general, we will find with increasing depth a decrease of calcareous benthic species,
and an increase in arenaceous species. An interesting factor is that the size of many deep water benthic
forms shows increase with depth. Many taxa here have very specific depth limits and are termed isobathyal
species. These are particularly helpful in determining environments.
3d. Upper slope (upper bathyal) 200m-1000m water depths
Species diversity and abundance is usually very high in this environment. The planktonic percentage
increases to 50-95%. Robust arenaceous species such as Martinotiella comminis, Karreriella sp., Tritaxilina
sp., Dorothia and Haplophragmoides sp. occur frequently.
Typical upper slope taxa are as follow:
Martinotiella communis
KarrerietLa sp.
Pullenia bulloides
Chilostomella oolina

Sphaeroidina bulloides
Tritaxitina sp.
Uvigerina peregrina
Gavelinopsis translucens

60
Globocassidulina subglobosa
50-95% Planktonics
Isobathyal (-cosmopolitan) species with their highest depth limit within zone are as follows:
Bolivina albatrossi
Bulimina striate mexicana
Chilostomell,a oozina
Eponides reguza
Gyroidina altiformis cushmani
Discorbis transluucens
Uvigerina peregrina

) highest
) occurrence
) at 200m
)

Bulimina acuzeala
Bulimina rostrata alazanensis
Osangularia rugosa
Uvigerina peregrina dirupta
Uvigerina peregrina mediterranea

) highest
) occurrence
) at 300m

cibicides bantconensis
Gyroidina orbicularis
Reticulophragmium venezuelanum
Cyclammina cancellata
Cibicides kullenbergi
Cibicides rugosus
Eponides polilus
Oriidorsalis tener umbonatus
Osangularia culter
Pleurostomella bolivinoides

)
)
)

highest
occurrence
at 400-500m
)
)
) highest
) occurrence
) at 700 - 800 m
)

3e. Lower Slope, lower bathyal (1000-4000m)

Planktonic foraminifers are generally very abundant in this environment (90%). However, as the lower limit
of this environment is close to the calcium carbonate compensation level, solution prone species such as
Orbutina sp. and Globigerinoides spp. may be absent. A conspicuous decrease of calcareous benthic forms
is noted. Robust arenaceous species such as Cyclammina cancelata and Tritaxia sp. may predominate the
faunas.
Typical lower slope taxa are as follows:
Mellonis pompiliolides
Laticarinina pauperata
Oridorsalis umbonatus
90% Planktonics

Cyclanmina cancelata
Cibicides wuellerstorfi
Globocassidulina subglobosa

Isobathyal (cosmopolitan) species with their highest'depth limit within zone are as follows:
Anomalina globulosa

highest
) occurrence
) at 1000-1300 m

Siphotextularia rozshauseni
UVigerina ampulacea
Uvigerina senticosa u
Melonis pompilioides

)
)
)

upper depth limi t 1600m

pper depth limit 2000m
upper depth limit 2200m

3f. Abyssal environments (4000 m and deeper)

Assemblages from this depth are generally rare and little-diverse. The calcium carbonate compensation
level (40OOm-5500m) causes the solution of calcareous tests below this depth. Consequently, the faunas
below 4000-5500m, will consist of large, simple arenaceous species such as Ammodiscus sp., Rhabdamina
sp. and Rathysiphon sp.
Above the calcium carbonate compensation level the calcarous benthic fauna from the bathyal
environments, and thick walled, solution resistant planktonics (Sphaeroidinellopsis sp., Globorotalia spp.) are
still present.

61

62
15. NON-FORAM
A. MIKROFOSIL NON FORAM
(some part taken from: Pamela J. W. Gore Department of Geology, Georgia Perimeter College Clarkston,
GA 30021)
15.1 . PROTISTS (unicellular organisms)
A. Animal-like protists
RADIOLARIA
Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent
Shell composition: Silica (amorphous, opaline silica)
Size: 0.1 - 2.0 mm
Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy; they accumulate to form radiolarian ooze on
the abyssal plain.
Morphology: Microscopic spiny globes with large, lace-like pores, or helmet-shaped
(or space-ship shaped) with large, lace-like pores. Very transparent and glassy.
Environment: Marine only; planktonic.

Radiolaria
B. Plant-like protists
1. DIATOMS
Geologic range: Cretaceous to Recent
Shell composition: Silica
Size: Most are 0.05 - 0.02 mm (some up to 1 mm)
Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental interpretation; major
constituent of diatomite or diatomaceous earth; an integral part of the food chain
(phytoplankton). Most abundant phytoplankton in the modern ocean.
Morphology: "Pillbox" shape, consisting of two valves (shells) which may be circular,
triangular, or elongate. Circular forms have radial ornamentation. Elongate
forms have transverse markings. They are covered with pores.
Environment: Both marine and non-marine. Planktonic or attached.

Diatoms

15.2. MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

A. Animals
1. OSTRACODES (Phylum Arthropoda)

"Twenty five forms circle" prepared by K. D.

Kemp, Services, Somerset, England.
Photos by Bill Turner and Thom Hopen,
MVA, Inc., Norcross, GA.
This image contains twenty five diatoms of
various shapes which have been
assembled into the shape of a star.

63
Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent.
Shell composition: Calcareous (some organic)
Size: 0.5 - 3.0 mm (some larger)
Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental interpretation.
Morphology: Microscopic shrimp-like animal inside a clam-like shell consisting of
two valves (shell halves), with a dorsal hinge.
Environment: Marine and non-marine (fresh, brackish and hypersaline); most
benthic.

Ostracodes
2. CONODONTS (Phylum unknown)
Geologic range: Cambrian to Late Triassic. Conodonts are extinct, and the
organism from which they came is not known with certainty.
Composition: Phosphate (calcium fluorapatite)
Size: Most are 0.5 - 1.5 mm (some up to 10 mm, and some as small as 0.1 mm)
Significance: Useful in biostratigraphy and marine paleoenvironmental
interpretation; their color is a good indicator of the temperature to which the
enclosing rock has been subjected (this is important in determining whether
oil or gas may be present in the rock).
Morphology: Parts of a larger organism which resemble cone-shaped teeth, or
consisting of bars with rows of tooth-like denticles, or irregular knobby plates
called platforms.
Environment: Marine, free-swimming.
Conodonts

Images courtesy of Anita Harris, U. S. Geological Survey.

3. SPONGE SPICULES (Phylum Porifera)
Geologic range: Cambrian to Recent
Composition: Calcareous or siliceous
Size:
Significance: Siliceous skeletons can accumulate to form chert
Morphology: Shapes vary. but may be needle-like (monaxon or one axis), threepointed (triaxon), four-pointed (tetraxon), or shaped like a jack (from the
game of ball and jacks) with six radiating needle-like points or rays
(hexactine). May also be curved.
Environment: Attached to the sea floor. Most are marine.

64

Sponge spicules
B. OTHER FOSSILS
15.3 Algae (green algae: a,b&c Halimeda)

15.4 Bryozoa

Coralline algae

15.5 Barnacles (dari Class Cirripedia)

65
15.6 Echinoid

15.8 Sepulid

15.9 Pteropod/Gastropod

15.10 Otolith
15.11 Fish teeth

15.7 Coral

66
16. Accessory Minerals
Didalam residu kadang-kadang kita menemukan adanya mineral-mineral tertentu. Kehadiran mineralmineral tersebut penting untuk dicatat karena sangat membantu dalam interpretasi terutama interpretasi
lingkungan pengendapan.
16.1 Coal - mencerinkan lingkungan pada daerah yang restricted sampai transisi, bisa juga estuarine
16.2 siderite - biasanya menunjukan adanya pengaruh yang kuat dari air tawar (di daerah transisi nonmarine).
16.3 Pyrite - biasanya bila ditemukan pirit secara melimpah, akan menunjukan kondisi sedimentasi yang
anaerobic.
16.4 Gypsum/anhidrite - biasanya merupakan mineral evaporite (bisa juga sebagai diagenetic mineral yang
mengisi rongga-rongga atau kekar-kekar), yang kemungkinan terjadi pada lingkungan transisi- laut
dangkal
16.5 Glouconite - marine (relatif dalam: middle-outer neritic)