25/09/02

Grammar
Descriptive: it is only looking and describing. They should describe and then try to
think about some rules, etc.
Prescriptive: you are said to do something, grammar is interested in telling what is well
and wrong; grammars are based on latin so they say that there are things similar
between English and latin.
Changing words: morphology

Forming words: syntax

Affix: Afijo

Fronting (moving something to the front) the adverbial is a way to link the sentence to
the provious one.
Syntax: put things together and combine them
30-09-02
Grammar
Formal: thinks about the form (rules)
Structural/Functional: doesnt think about the form thinks what the language is
doing.
Subjects are in general :agentive
Objects are in general :affected
Thematize: Put on the first position in a sentence
The functional grammarian studies what are the consequences of choosing the active or
the passive
Rank Scale in Grammar:
1Morpheme 2Words 3Phrase 4Clause 5Sentence 6Discoursre / Text

Phrase: it is an extended word with an article, etc.

SENTENCE CLASIFICATION
Sentences:
1Simple
2Composed: and, but, all (coordinated)
3Complex: subordinated
4Composed Complex: coordinated and subordinated
3 He went to Spain because she had left him
Main clause
Subordinated Clause
My brother hired a car
Object (affected)

My brother has become a ski-instructor

Complement

My brother gave the visitor a book

Oi Od
Mr. Smith found Mary an exceptionally good baby-sitter
Subject
Verb Od
complement
They were sitting under a tree in the Campus

with intransitive verbs, the verb

Prepositional phrase Prepositional Phrase

Subject

Verb

controls the type of sentence

Adverbial Adverbial

1/10/02
CLAUSES; Syntactic elements of sentences / clauses. SVOOCA

By eliminating optional adverbials from the clause structures illustrated, we arrive at

classification of the essential core of each clause structure. Of the obligatory elements,
the main verb is the same that wholly or largely determines what forms the rest of the
structure will take. Examples:
Type
SV Someone was laughing
SVO My mother enjoys parties
SVC The country became totally independent
SVA I have been in the garden
SVOO Mary gave the visitor a glass of water
SVOC Most people would say that these books are rather expensive
SVOA You must put all the toys upstairs
SVCA: He put the book under the table (the adverbial is necessary)
The set of patterns is the most general classification that can be usefully applied to the
whole range of the English clauses whether main or subordinate. 3 types
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES
They locked up the house before they went on holiday
independent
dependent
Finite and non-finite
Depends on the form of the verb chosen. If the speaker wishes to express tense, person
or number, a finite form of the verb is chosen such as is, eats, locked, went and the
clause is then called a finite clause. Example. The guests arrived late
If the verb form doesnt express this type of information about the verbal process, the
verb and the clause are classified as non finite.
The non finite verb forms are

a) the infinitive (eat, lock, go)

b) the participial ing form (being, eating)
c) the pasta participial form in ed (been, locked, gone)
All independent clauses are finite. Dependent clauses can be either finite or non finite

Example: They locked up the house, before they went on holiday

They locked up the house, before going on holiday
Minor clauses
Verb less clause Take travellers cheques, whenever possible (=wherever it is possible)
Abbreviated Clauses: Can you? I wont!

Has she?

Phrases: are classified according to the class of word operating as the main or the
head-element.

Noun Phrases
I saw
Who was
It was

Determinative

Premodification

wonderful

the

best

that

Verb Phrases

Auxiliaries

Head

Post modification

film
girl
trip

by Fellini
I saw you talking to
I ever had

Main Verb

At that moment the shop

must have been

sinking

They

are not going to

return this week

Adjective Phrases

Premodification

Head

Post modification

The weather was

The weather was
He is
sense)

too

enough

very

hot
cool
good

Adverb Phrases

Premodification

Head

Post modification

I explained
I spoke to him

very

severely

indeed

as

Complementation

clearly

Complementation
to be enjoyable
to be enjoyable
at languages (without this very distant

Complementation

as I could

Prepositional Phrases

Preposition

Prepositional Complement

I met he
I met he
I met her

for
at
by

lunch
the corner of the street
a strange coincidence

The Structure of Phrases

The

modern house

Deterniner

Premodifier

Head

on the corner

is for sale

Postmodifier (Qualifier)

Everything that comes after the head is a qualifier (=post modifier)

Hes glad to see her
Complementation
2/10/02
VERB PHRASES: Operator: its the first or only auxiliary verb in the VP realising the
sentence function of verb
.They should have bought a new house
operator
VERB PHRASE
The operator is necessary to do the most important operations (interrogative or negative)
in a sentence
The operator that is invented is called a dummy operator (interrogative and negative
sentences).
Characteristics of the Operator

1 It permits the coordination of two predications (=everything except the subject and the
operator).
Example. You should phone your mother and
Operator

find out how she is

coordinator

Predication / Predicade

2 An operator can be used alone with total ellipsis of the predication that is to be
understood.
Example; My parents hoped I would study medicine, but I wont
3 The position immediately after the operator is crucial in forming a negation or a
question:
they shouldnt have bought the house
Should they have bought the house? (operator is in the place of subject)
4 Where the V element in a positive in a declarative sentence has no operator, a form of
Do is introduced in the negative or interrogative version.
They bought the house
They didnt buy the house
Did they buy the house?

= dummy operator

5 When the V element is realised by a form of Be, this functions itself as an operator:
The house is not cheaper
Is the house cheap?
CLASE 14/10/02
Word Classes:

Verbs:

Open: Adverbs, nouns and adjectives

Closed: Conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions

Primary verbs (be, do, make) closed

Modal verbs (can, may, might, should, would) closed
Lexical verbs open

Marked: without inflection

Unmarked: without addition

happy (unmarked)
man (unmarked)
Live (unmarked tense)
Exception---------------------- Widow (unmarked)

unhappy (marked)
woman (marked)
lived (marked tense)
Widower (marked)

Unmarked forms: old, heavy, tall, etc.

Stative: He is stupid; (no change) Nouns and adjectives are Stative.
Dynamic: He is being stupid; (movement, progress) Verbs are dynamic
Assertive
Non assertive.

This two terms are applied to clauses and verbs.

At all (non assertive term, intensifying negative phrase)

He hasnt any money (non assertive)

I have some money (assertive)
If you have any money you must lend it to me (non assertive)
Have you any money? (non assertive)

Verbs and Auxiliaries

Full / Lexical verbs

Primary verbs
Modal auxiliaries

Regular full verbs have 4 morphological forms

1 base form (call), 2 s form (calls), 3 ing participle (calling), 4 ed form (past &
past participle (called)
Irregular full verbs - V=Ved=V-ed 3 forms: cut, cuts, cutting, (cut, cut)
V-ed=V-ed 4 forms: meet, meets, meeting, met (met)
V=V-ed 4 forms: beat, beats, beating, (beat), beaten
V=V-ed 4 forms: come, comes, coming, came, (come)
V=/V-ed=/V-ed 5 forms: speak, speaks speaking, spoke, spoken
(v=base form, v-ed = past form, v-ed= past participle)
The preservation of the short vowel quality of the preceding vowel (doubling the
consonant protects the previous vowel------- hot/hotter, hate/hater, hat/hatter
15/10/02
Shilly-shally: indeciso

To can: enlatar

Forms of modal verbs: can, could, may, might, would, will, should, shall, must
Might-mightnt; Shall-Shant
Be/Have/Do (Primary Verbs): function as main verbs and auxiliary verbs

Ann is coming tonight (auxiliary verb)

I always have tea for breakfast
I have three sisters
I have done it
STATIVE USE:

Do you have any sisters? (USA)

Have you any sisters? (UK)
Have you got any sisters? (colloquial use)

USA FORM AND UK FORM

Dynamic use Im having tea (have is used in combination with another verb)
What are you doing (main)? What did (auxiliary) you do (main) last night?
USED TO (marginal modal verbs)----only for past

I used to smoke (something continuous in the past and stopped in the past)
I usually smoke 3 cigarettes a day (present form)
Used you to smoke?
Did you use to smoke?
No, I didnt use to smoke.
16/10/02
CESSATION OF A REPEATED ACT IN THE PAST
He used to get up at 5:00 a.m. (soler)
He was used to getting up at 5:00 a.m. (estuvo acostumbrado)ease/automatic
Would (indica nostalgia)---When we were young we would sit by the Ebro
Exercise
1 Mike was used to getting up early in those days V
2
used to get up

3 Mike used getting up

4 Mike would get up

X
V

A At one time he got up early but he doesnt now

B he found getting up early cool
C he got up early frequently
1-B; 2-A, 4-C
Ought to + Infinitive:You ought to talk to my uncle

Ought I to talk to?

You ought not to talk to my uncle
Speakers authority is involved (should, ought to, must)
Speakers authority is not involved (have to)
DARE & NEED
Non assertive contexts
Modal verb formations are possible
Dare she tell him what she knows?
She darent tell her boss
He neednt stay unless he want to
Need I come early tomorrow?
Main verb forms are also possible and in fact are more common

Do I need to come early?

She needs a visa to go to the US
She doesnt dare (to) tell her boss
Do you dare ask her?
Need I come to class tomorrow? (Authority is involved with the modal verbs)
Do I need to come to class tomorrow? (Isnt involved with the main verbs)
Asking permission to be absent about a factual state of affairs
I didnt need to open the bags (an action wasnt performed)
I neednt have opened my bags (I did open them but it was unnecessary)
I didnt have to
I had to open
How dare you! (Como te atreves!)
MODAL IDIOMS
Aux + Infinitive or Adverb
More of them has not finite forms

(Strong advice sometimes a threat)

Youd better hurry If you

Had I better?
Youd better not tell him
The recommended course of action may be necessary to avoid a problem,
unpleasantness or danger. More urgent than Should or Ought to. Not a comparison.
21/10/02

MODAL IDIOMS
A combination of auxiliary and infinitive or adverb, none of them have non finite forms
and they are therefore always the first in the VP.
HAD BETTER: Youd better hurry If you want to get home before dark

WOULD RATHER: Would you rather stay here or go home? (would prefer to)
Id rather not go for a walk.
Id rather you went home now (past when another person is involved)
HAVE GOT TO: Ive got to do it (spoken). Ive to do it (written)
Have got tends not to have a habitual meaning (something happens regularly)
1 Jim has got to check the temperature every two months
2 Jim has to check the temperature every two months
1 This is the force of a directive stipulating what Jims duties will be in the future
2 This is what Jims present duties consist of
BE TO:
The Queen is to visit Japan next year.
I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.
These tablets are to be kept out of reach of the children (instructions)
Tell her she is not to be back late (orders)
If a regular costumer were to make arrangements with their branch (to make a future
possibility sound less probable) mechanism of distancing
Example: Is to be broken in case of fire
CONTRASTS EXPRESSED IN THE VP
A) Tense: requires a choice between present (unmarked) and past (marked)
She works hard / She worked hard. Work is the only inflected word
B) Aspect:
He writes poems
has written poems
is writing poems
has been writing poems

(non perfect, non progressive)

(perfect, non progressive)
(progressive, non perfect)
(perfect, progressive)

C) Mood:
He listens / is listening
(indicative)
Listen to me
(imperative)
I demand that he listen to me (subjunctive)
D) Finiteness: She plays tennis (finite). Playing tennis is good for your health (non finite)
E) Voice: Shakespeare wrote this play. This play was written by Shakespeare
F) Questions: She would like to pass the exam. Would she like to pass the exam
G) Negation: I cant play the guitar / I didnt like the film
H) Emphasis: Is frequently carried by an operator. I have done it. I do love you

FORMS
1 Present subjunctive the base form
2 past subjunctive- only were
Uses of the present subjunctive
1 The Mandative subjunctive used in a that-clause (1) after an expression of such
notions as demand, recommendation, proposal, intention, (insist, prefer, request,
suggest, demand, it is necessary, desitable) (2) In certain concessive clauses (3), in
clauses of condition or negative purpose introduced by lest or fear that
More characteristic of AmE becoming more common in BrE. More common
alternatives in BrE; putative should or the indicative.
They demand that be: Resign (subjunctive, esp AmE)
Should, resign (putative should, esp BrE)
Resigns (indicative, BrE informal)
Resigned (indicative, BrE informal)
Even if that be the official view, it cannot be accepted
The president must reject the proposal lest it cause strife and violence
2 The formular subjunctive: used in certain set expressions: God save the Queen,
Heaven forbid that.., Come what may, Suffice it to say that
Uses of past subjunctive
The past subjunctive is hypothetical in meaning. It is used in conditional and concessive
clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish and suppose .
If I were a rich man, I would live on an island
I wish the journey were over.
Just suppose everyone were to act like you
The indicative form (was) is possible except in fixed expressions such as as if were or
If I were you, or in conditional sentences formed by subject-operator inversion., e.g.
were she here, she would support the motion. Most subjunctive structures are formal
and un usual in BrE. In that-clauses, British people usually prefer should + infinitive or
ordinary present or past tenses.
22/10/02
VOICE (Active or Passive)
Transitive verbs only. Passive: be + past participle
John gave Mary a book. Mary got given a book
*GET passive is used
to talk about things that are done suddenly, unexpectedly, or by accident
to talk about actions done to oneself (He washed himself)
He was invited to tea at his brothers. He got invited to tea at the Zazuela.
By July theyll have produce 10 tons. 10 tons will have been produced by July.
REASONS FORMING THE PASSIVE FORM
The agent is unknown: The minister was murdered. The car was stolen.
The speaker wants to avoid assigning responsibility: This letter has been opened.

The agent is unimportant, or obvious:

The rubbish hasnt been collected

The fire was put out quickly

The processes and procedures described are more important than the agent
The information is processed. An objective tone is desirable
The agent might be included in a passive construction.
THEME (STATIC, given information) RHEME (DYNAMIC, new information)
To put emphasis on the agent: The prize-winning novel was written by Bryce Echenique
To avoid a long active subject: I was annoyed by the commentaries she made on it.
To retain the same subject throughout a long sentence:
As a cat moves, it is kept informed of its movements not only by its eyes, but also by
messages from its pads and elsewhere in its skin, its organs of balance, and it sense
organs of joints (articulaciones) or muscles.
Flee-fled (huir corriendo). Wound /wund/ In this sense (en este sentido)
EXERCISE:
A soldier was shot and critically wounded as he sat / was sitting in his car. Two men
who are believed to be terrorists The pillion passenger was running / ran towards the
car which was parked He shot the soldier, then ran back and fled. Mary was hit He
is said to be in hospital. They later cordoned the area. This attacked was well planned
and its likely that the one office was targeted It is not known. A baby was found
23/10/02
WHICH TWO RULES ARE BEST?
1We use passives when we are interested in what happens, not who it happens to
2 Passives are common when we are thinking about what is done to the person or thing
that were interested in, not about what she / does. TRUE
3 Passives can help us to go on talking about the same thing in case where an active
verb would need an unwanted new subject. TRUE
4 Passives are best in a formal style. Actives are more informal.
THE SEMANTICS OF THE VP
Tense in a grammatical category realised by verb inflection

Present (unmarked tense) Past (marked tense)

STATIVE AND DYNAMIC VERB SENSES
The semantic categories of past, present and future apply not so much to time as to
happenings that take place in time, and which are denoted by verbs
1 Mary hoped for success (refer to a past hope of Mary)
2 Peter knows great deal (refers to Peters present knowledge)
3 Surrey will be defeated (refers to a future defeat of Surrey)
A single event:
Vesuvius erupted in 77 AD
In 77 AD there was an eruption of Vesivius
A plurality of events: The country was invaded many times
There were many invasions of the country

CONCLUSSION: Verbs with dynamic meaning (count) such as erupt and invade are
comparable to count nouns.
Test 1: Does Present Perfect refer to an unbroken state up to the present or to a sequence
of events?
1 I have driven cars for years (stative)
2 I have known the Penfolds all my life (not stative dynamic)
Test 2: Does the verve sense occur with frequency adverbials?
Stative: The chair has beautifully cared legs quite frequently (non sense, use of have)
Dynamic: We have dinner at Maxims quite frequently (use of have)
Test 3: Does the verb sense occur with imperative?
Learn how to swim ( its a stative verb there isnt an agentive subject.) correct
Know how to swim (stative dont go in the imperative usually) wrong
Verbs of sensations and emotions are on the frontier between stative and dynamic.
a)

STATIVE:

1 States of being and having: be, contain, depend, have, resemble

2 Intellectual states: believe, know, realize, think, understand.
3 States of emotion or attitude: disagree, dislike, like, want, wish.
4 States of perception: feel, hear, see, smell, taste.
5 States of bodily sensation: ache, feel sick, hurt, itch, tickle.
b)

STANCE: lie, live, sit, stand

Stance verbs are intermediate between stative and dynamic verbs.

TENSE
The simple present tense for present time

1 The stative present (stative verb senses)

(single unbroken state affairs)
Two and three make five (time less present)
They live in Zaragoza. Zaragoza lies in the Ebro Valley
2 Habitual Present (dynamic verb sense)
The earth moves round the sun (timeless present). Bill drinks heavily
3 The instantaneous Present (dynamic verb senses)
Commentaries (Maradona passes the ball to Luis)
Self-commentaries (I enclose a stamped-addressed envelope)
With performative verbs (I apologise for my behaviour)
4.4
Simple present tense for past and future
1 The historic present refers to past time (narrative style)
just as we arrived, up comes Ben and slaps me on the back as if were life-long
friends
ADVERB + VERB + SUBJECT (strange structure)

2 The simple present verbs of communication / reception

I hear you need an assistant
3 In main clauses, the Simple Present + Time / Position
As = certainly.The plane leaves for London
Simple present for future time in subordinate clauses
Ill tell you as soon as I get the news. Hell do it if you pay him
4.5
Simple Past tense for past time (page 50)
1 The event past with dynamic verb senses a single past event

The Normans invaded England in 1066. The plane left at 6 p.m.

2 The habitual past.. with dynamic verb senses repeated past events
We spent our holidays in Spain when we were children
3 The state past with stative verb senses a single unbroken state of affairs
I once liked reading novels. (used to may be used fot tupes 2 and 3, but not 1)
28/10/02
Special uses of simple past
1 In Indirect Speech, thought the simple past in the reporting verb may cause the verb in
the subordinate reported clause to be back shifted
She said that she knew you
2 The Attitudinal Past is optionally used to refer more tentatively (indirectamente)
(=more politely) to a present state of mind
Did you want to see me now?
I wondered whether you are free tomorrow
3 The Hypothetical Past is used in certain subordinate clauses, esp if-clauses, to convert
what is contrary to the belief or expectation of the speaker
If you knew him, you wouldnt say that
If she asked me, Id helped her
I wish I had a memory like yours
4.7

ASPECT

Aspect is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the action of a verb is
viewed with respect to the time. There are two aspects: perfect and progressive.
Perfect aspect.
The prefect is concerned with actions or states in a period up to the time of orientation
(now or then) It relates a past or state to that time of orientation .
The present perfect
a) The state Present Perfect with stative verb senses refers to a state that began in
the past and extends to the present and will perhaps continue in the future.
Stative verb meanings: I have known her for 3 years

The notion of extending to the present can exist even when the state qua state has come
to an end but continues to exert a strong influence in the present, or has present
relevance
I too have lived in Arcadia (my present c.v. includes this)
MM has stood on this spot (Past and present met here and now)
b) The event Present Perfect (Ive seen the Titanic) I dont want to see it now
The apples have been eaten (There are none now)
She has recovered from the flu (She is well now)
Have the visitors arrived? (Are they here now?)
I havent had breakfast yet (Im hungry now)
Have you seen that? ( There is still time to see it, it is still on)
4/11/02
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
(future as a matter of course)
The speaker shows that he doesnt want to influence.
The listeners intentions Will you be driving into town this afternoon?
When will you pay (polite) back the money? (Volitional will)
be paying (attentative: what about your plans?)
I simply want to?
What would you say if I marry the boss?
Semantics of VP: Meaning of the modal verbs
Two main kinds of meaning for modal auxiliaries:
Extrinsic / Epistemic Modality (possibility, necessity, prediction) involves human
judgement of what is or is not likely to happen.
Intrinsic Modality: (permission, obligation, volition) involves some intrinsic human
control over event. Overlapping is possible
Ill see you tomorrow (volition + prediction)
Most of the modals can be paired into present and past forms (can/could, may/might,
shall/should, will/would). From the point of view of meaning the past forms are often
merely more tentative or more polite variants of the present forms.
CAN/COULD
Extrinsic:
Possibility; Even expert drivers can make mistakes
Ability; Can you remember where they live?
Idem: At 5 he could write poetry in Greek
Distinguish potentiality (general ability) from fulfilment (particular ability) with
regard to could.
*The pilot could land despite the storm.
The pilot managed (correct)
Logical necessity: Those shoes can be hers. Those shoes cant be hers
Speculation: The red ones could be hers (it is not as sure as must)
Intrinsic:
Permission: Can / Could we borrow this book (asking for permission)
Idem: In the 19th century only men could vote in election

Idem: Ann cant go to the party, shes too young

MAY/ MIGHT
Extrinsic:
Possibility: He may never return. You may be right.
Idem: He might never return (less probable)
Idem: Rare bird may be seen in that wood
Idem: They may have returned via Barcelona
NB Can, theoretical possibility; may, future possibility.
Cf it can be cold in Zaragoza in December. And it may be cold in December (this
specific December, possibility).
She may be happy tomorrow (specific). She can be very unhappy (generally)
Intrinsic:
Permission: May/ Might I use your bike?
NB Cf. Will/Would/Can/Could you shut the door? (I want you to do that)
May/Might/Could/Can I use your phone (request for doing smth, I want to do smth)
Idem: Passengers may not smoke in this area
12/11/02
The articles in specific reference
The definite article
The marks a noun phrase as definite, as referring to something that can be uniquely
identified in general context. The identity may be obvious because it is visible.
Do you see the bird sitting on the lower branch
The situational reference might exist only in minds of speaker and listener.
When the policeman have gone I remembered that I had not told him about the broken
window-pane.
Identification depends on general knowledge (something known)
When you travel by train at night you have no idea of what the countryside looks like
The government have a meeting
Sporadic reference (we promote to institutional status a phenomenon of common
experience)
Youll see it in the paper tomorrow
I go to the theatre now and then
Parts of the body in prepositional phrases
I grabbed him by the arm (aggression) with the
Somebody hit him on the shoulder (aggression) with the
He had a parrot sitting on his shoulder (no aggression) with his, my, your
The uniqueness of a referent may be logically imposed. Thus, nouns premodified by
superlatives, ordinals and similar restrictive items are made logically unique.
When is the next flight?

She was the sole survivor

He is the best player

The reference may be anaphoric (ana- backwards) and cataphoric (cata- downwards).
He bought a radio and a camera but returned the camera
She tried to open the door but couldnt get the key in the lock

Anaphoric
Anaphoric

Im looking for the book I wanted to show you

Cataphoric

The Indefinite Article

Used when the reference cannot be regarded as uniquely identifiable from shared
knowledge of speaker and addressee.
Im moving to a flat near where you live.
A is commonly used with first mention and the with subsequent references:
Her house was burgled and she lost a camera, a radio and a purse though fortunately
the purse contained very little money.
Zero article (absence of any kind of article) and some / any
With non count and plural count nouns the role of indefinite article is unfilled by either
(Zero) or (where quantification is to be expressed) some or any.
Do you know what a badger looks like?
Badgers look like?
I take milk with my coffee
I would like some milk, please. I dont need any bread today.*
She has men as well as women on her staff.
She has men as well as some women on her staff (more men than women)
*If youre not expressing quantity you can leave some or any in modern English.
Some (limited quantity) poco
She has men as well as some women on her staff
The greater generality of Zero as compared with some must not lead us to confuse this
general use of Zero with the generic use:
Quantitative: Some tea will calm your nerves

General: Tea can be bought almost anywhere

Generic: Tea is a common stimulant
Zero article with definite meaning. = Zero article = definite article
When a phrase specifies a specific role or task. article can closely resemble the
definite article.
Maureen is (the) captain of netball this year.
The speaker is Mr. Smith (the) author of a recent book on football and (the) presenter of
a TV show.
Analogous to the use of the with sporadic reference, there is with implication of
definite rather than indefinite meaning, especially with idiomatically institutionalised
expressions relating to common experiences.
Quasi-locatives:
be in + town / bed / hospital
go to + church / prison
be at / go + home
go to + sea / college (without the means studying; with the, visiting only)
Transport and communications
travel / come / go by bicycle / bus / train / car / plane

send it by telex / post / mail / satellite

Time expressions: occurs after certain prepositions

at dawn / daybreak / sunset / night

by morning / evening
by day / night (por la noche)
after dark / nightfall
before dawn / dusk
in winter / spring / summer / autumn
13/11/02
Meals: unless particular reference is being made

What time do you have breakfast / lunch / dinner / supper?

Illness: unless specific reference is being made

He has anaemial diabetes / pneumonia

Fixed Phrases
corresponds to a certain idiomatic fixity:
in certain common prepositional phrases and complex prepositions: on foot, in step, out
of step, in turn, by heart (de memoria), in case of, by reason of
in certain binominal expressions
arm in arm (abrazados) / hand in hand / mile after mile / day in day out (everyday the
same thing happens) / cheek to cheek / side by side / eye to eye / man to man / from
beginning to end (de cabo a rabo).
The articles in generic reference:
All three types of article can be used to make a generic reference (the usually , a
always with singular count nouns, with plural count nouns and with non count nouns)
The car / A car / Cars became an increasing necessity of life in the 20th century.
Velvet is an excellent material for curtains
Love and murder will out (saldrn a la luz)
is by far the most natural way of expressing the generic
Tigers are becoming extinct.
The tigers in Africa are becoming extinct / Africans tigers are becoming extinct
Most / some + determiner / pronoun
Most / some of the people in this city have visited La Seo
us liked the picture.
The muse of Vivaldi was his wife.
Most of my friends are women (specific with of)
Most people in the city are used to heavy traffic (general without of)
She keeps most of her jewels under the bed
He left most of her money to the poors
Most birds fly
Most of my friends have stopped smoking
Most of the people that I know have stopped smoking (specifying)

Most people like cinema (general)

SOME / ANY VERSUS
We need (some) cheese
I didnt buy (any) eggs
Use some or any when thinking about limited but rather indefinite or vague numbers or
quantities. Use when thinking about unlimited numbers or quantities, or not thinking
about numbers or quantities at all.
Weve planted some roses in the garden (a limited number unspecified)
I like roses (no idea of number)
We started talking to some students (limited number)
Our neighbours are students (the important idea is classification, not number)
Is there any water in the fridge (speaker wants a limited amount)
Is there water on the Moon? (the p. of interest is the existence not the amount)
This engine hardly uses any petrol (point of interest: the amount)
This engine does not use petrol (point of interest: the type of fuel)
Youve got some great books! (point of interest: the number)
Youve got pretty toes! (point of interest: not the number)
18/11/02
NUMBER
The grammatical category of number, operating for example through S-V concord and
pronominal reference, requires that every noun form be understood grammatically as
either singular or plural.
Regular plural of nouns
In most cases, the plural in ENG. Is written with an s book books
The plural is written with es after s sh x ch
Addresses, wishes, boxes, churches
With nouns which end in a consonant + y, the y becomes i and es is added
Technology technologies, lady ladies
But id the y follows a vowel, only s is added
Day, days, trolley trolleys, But soliloquy soliloquies
Nouns which end in o add s:
1 add s: Eskimos, pianos, radios, studios, kangeroos
2 add es: potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, torpedoes, buffaloes
3 add s or es: cargo(e)s, motto(e)s, volcano(e)s
Collective nouns with singular or plural verbs
Singular nouns for groups of people often have plural verbs and pronouns in BrE
especially when we are talking about personal kinds of action. Compare:
My family are very angry with me. They think I should go to university.
The average family has 3.5 members. It is much smaller that in 1900
The team are going to lose again. Theyre useless.
A cricket team is made up of 11 players, including its

SPECIAL PLURAL FORMS

1 Countable nouns which singular and plural in s
series, species, crossroads, (analysis) analyses. Example: crisis / crises

2 Other nouns with the same singular and plural (zero plural)
trout (trucha), deer (ciervo), fish, salmon, (when they are viewed as prey presa)
sheep and aircraft
3 Nouns that have a plural without s after a number
hundred (eg two hundred), million, score (twenty), thousand
4 Nouns with singular in f(e), plural in ves
calf calves, half halves, knife knives, loaf loaves, life lives, thief thieves, wife wives,
wolf wolves, shelf shelves
5 Other nouns with irregular plurals
child children, foot feet, fungus fungi, goose geese, man men, medium media, ox oxen
(buey), penny pence, phenomenon phenomena, louse lice (muy mala calidad), tooth
teeth, mouse mice, (mouse-mouses en informtica)
6 Uncount singular nouns ending in s (normally no plural)
Politics has/have never interested me
Athletics, billiards, economics, gymnastics, measles, mathematics, physics, politics,
news
7 Plural nouns with no singular
arms, belongings, cattle, clothes, congratulations, contents, goods, trousers, earnings,
outskirts, people, remains, surroundings, thanks, troops, police, scissors.
If the word ends in vowel is lenis = voiced / fortis = voiceless
19/11/02
(1 and 2) Personal M and F Gender Classes
Type 1 Nouns Morphologically unmarked between masc. And fem.
Bachelor Spinster Boy Girl
Father Mother
King Queen
Uncle Aunt
Monk Nun

Brother - Sister
Man - Woman
Nephew Niece

Type 2 Nouns morphologically marked: the two gender forms have a derivational
relationship
host hostess
waiter waitress
god goddess
emperor empress
prince princess
hero heroine
widow widower
steward stewardess bride groom-bride usher usherette
To avoid sexual bias (smth that makes you go in the wrong direction prejuicio) in
language, attempts have been made to introduce sex-neutral (personal dual gender)
forms, esp. in AmE eg :
Supervisor for foreman (capataz)
Firefighter for Fireman
Chair person for Chairman (moderador)
Spokesperson for Spokesman (portavoz)
Housemaker for Housewife

Type 3
Personal dual Gender:
Artist
Foreigner
Librarian
Professor
Student

Co reference: who he she

Mostly nouns of agency
cook doctor teacher
friend writer inhabitant
parent person novelist
guest singer speaker
enemy typist servant

A gender marker may be added a female student. Expectations that a given activity is
largely male or female dictates the use of gender markers: nurse (female) / male nurse,
engineer / female engineer
Restos romanos: roman remains
Type 4 Common gender: Intermediate between personal and non- personal.
Non personal might be preferred by Someone emotionally unrelated. To the child, or
who wishes to generalize across sex distinctions:
Baby: The baby lost its parents, when it was 3 years old
Infant
Child: A child learns to speak the language of its environment
Type 5: Collective Nouns (Only singular nouns, not plural)
Army association
Cast audience
club crew
enemy firm
family generation
herd opposition
staff university

team
class
crowd
couple
group
party
majority

board
college
company
gang
population
minority
government

The committee (who have/ which has) been sitting all night (has/have) not been able to
reach a conclusion (it /they) will meet again next week
The following occur in the singular only, preceded by the:
The aristocracy, the clergy, the bourgeoisie, the elite, the church, the intelligentsia, the
public, the press.
Example: Blessed are the good-looking
The + adjective (when we are referring to all in general)
To drop off = dormir (echar una cabezada)
Types (6,7,8) Familiar Animals : M F dual
Masc and fem distinctions are maintained by people with a special concern for animals
(pets or domestic animals). He/ she/ it, His/ her /its and which may be used.
This is the ball which has a brand on (its) his back
Nouns morphologically unmarked between masc. and fem.
Bull cow, ram (carnero) ewe (oveja), stallion (male horse) mare (female horse),
cock (male) hen, dog bitch, lion lioness, drake (male) duck (female), fox
vixen, gander goose, boar (jabali) sow (cerda), stag (ciervo) doe (cierva).

Tomcat (macho) Marimacho (Tomboy)

Types (9 and 10) Less familiar animals and inanimate nouns
The majority of creation in the inanimate world are less familiar creatures. The line
between familiar and less familiar is not always clear.
The bees who? That? Are bussy all the time
Do you see that spider? Its hanging from the beam
Sex differences can be indicated by a range of gender markers:
Male female frog; buck rabbit doe rabbit; dog fox bitch, fox (foxvixen), cock pheasant hen pheasant (faisan), he goat (cabra) she goat, (billy goat
nanny goat).
Inanimate things e.g. ships, countries, cars, may attract personal pronouns to indicate
special relationship.
20/11/02
CASE
Case is a formal category of noun which defines its relation to other units. In OE there
were four cases distinguished by inflections: nominative, genitive, dative and
accusative. Present day E has two cases: The head of the genitive phrase is typically
noun with specific reference:
The girls face (the face of the girl)
My mothers car ; my parents car; Sarah and Henrys car
The womens liberation movement
GENITIVE MEANINGS
1 Possessive genitive:
Mrs Smiths coat. Mrs S. owns this coat.
2 Genitive of Attribute
The victims courage. The victim was courageous.
3 Partitive genitive
The hearts two ventricles. The heart has two ventricles.
4 Subjective genitive
The parents consent. The parents consented
5 Objective genitive
The prisoners release. Someone released the prisoner.
6 Genitive of Origin
Englands cheese. The cheeses are from England.
7 Descriptive genitive
Childrens shoes. Shoes are designed for children.

GENDER AND GENITIVE

The genitive is not used with all nouns equally but tends to be associated with those of
animate gender, esp. with those having personal reference the dog name.
Geographical names take the genitive, esp. when they are used to imply human
collectivity:
Chinas policy but *Chinas mountains.
So too with the strictly inanimate nouns when used with special relevance to human
activity or concern: The hotels occupants rather than The hotels furniture. And
The books true importance rather than The books colour.
The grammatical status of the Genitive (taken from Grammar of written and spoken
English)
1 Specifying genitives: The most important function of the genitive phrase is to specify
the reference of the NP of which it is a part, in the same way as a determiner: This /
Johns / My cousins new briefcase
2 Classifying genitives
Compare:
Specifying: Her two childrens clothes disappeared
Classifying genitives: They went to a childrens clothes shop
Differences between specifying and classifying genitives:
I)

CGs respond to the Question What kind of..? while SGs respond to
Whose..?

II)

CG cannot be replaced by possessive determiners (his, her) while SGs can

III)

CGs can be preceded by determiners and premodifiers of the whole NP,

rather than of the genitive noun alone:
A new birds nest / New childrens clothes
NP
NP

IV)

CG form an inseparable combination with the following nouns and do not

allow an intervening adjective
*a birds new nest / *childrens new clothes
Im going to buy some new childrens clothes

V)

CG are frequently paraphrased by a for phrase rather than an of phrase

as in clothes for children

3 Genitive of time and measure: To specify location in time, to express duration,

distance, length, value
In last weeks observer / a months holiday / a stones throw away/ fifty pounds worth
of food.
The words edge and sake also attract the genitive
I did it for Johns sake / We walked to the waters edge
4 Elliptic genitive: When the head of the NP is recoverable, the genitive phrase may on
its own fill a nominal position
That isnt my writing, Its Selinas!

They preferred girls toys to boys

5 Other Independent Genitives:
She has gone to a friends
Hes gone to the chemist
6 Group genitives: The genitive suffix is attached to the last word of a genitive phrase:
Her mother-in-laws house / a father of fives problems / the king of Spains daughter /
Zoey and Lucys room / Britain and Chinas war of words / But: the organiser have to
keep Englands and Hollands supporters apart.
7 The double genitive: This construction allows the same head noun to take a
specifying genitive (or possessive pronoun) and another determiner.
That was a good idea of Johns
*A Peters sister is coming to stay is impossible to say in English, the alternatives are
One of Peters sisters or A sister of Peters
-A photo of Peter (peter is in the photo)
-A photo of Peters (peter is the owner of his photo)
25/11/02/
CENTRAL PRONOUNS
PERSON NUMBER
1
2
3

sing
plural
sing
plural
plural
sing

S
I
We
You
You
they
he
she
it

REFLEXIVE

me
myself
us
ourselves
You
yourself
You yourselves
them themselves
his
himself
her
herself
it
itself

DETERMINER
my
our
your
your
their
his
her
its

POSSESSIVE
mine
ours
yours
yours
theirs
his
hers
its

EXERCISE
1 She has a doctors degree in Phramacy (classifying genitive) What kind of?
2 The ministers proposals were rejected (specifying genitive) Whose.?
3 They are living in a quaint old shepherds cottage (specifying and classifying genitive)
4 Childrens shoes cost more than they used to (classifying genitive)
5 They attend to a womens university in Kioto (classifying genitive)
6 Where did you find these childrens clothes? (specifying and classifying genitive)
7 She was wearing a nurses uniform (classifying genitive)
8 She was wearing the small Spanish nurses uniform (specifying genitive)
9 They live in an old peoples home (classifying genitive)
10 It is a typical teachers problem (specifying and classifying genitive)

26/11/02
Pronouns display a three way person contrast; a three way gender contrast; a two way
number contrast, and sometimes a three-way case contrast
Person distinguishes the speaker or writer (1st person) from the addressee (2nd person)
and from those persons or things which are neither (3rd person) word order:
You (2nd) Jack (3rd) I (1st) will still be at work.
Gender enforces a three-way distinction on the 3rd person singular, with masculine,
feminine, either because the gender is unknown or because it must be inclusive.
Someone is knocking so Id better go and let him/her in
An ambitious player must discipline him/her self.
Traditionally the masculine has been used as the unmarked form covering male and
female reference in such cases, but sensitivity to sexual bias makes many people prefer
a cumbersome (enrevesado) co-ordination.:
An ambitious player must discipline himself or herself
Or where an informal disregard (pasar por alto) for strict number concord is felt
tolerable, the gender-neutral plural is used:
Someone has parked their car in front of the door
The graphic s/he is of limited value, since there is no equivalent objective, possessive,
or reflexive form
Case: The choice of subjective and objective form doesnt depend solely
(exclusivamente) upon the grammatical distinction between Subject (left hand) and
Object (right hand). Rather, usage shows that were concerned more with subject
territory (the pre-verbal part of the clause) in contrast to object territory (the postverbal part of the clause). In informal style we have:
His sister is taller than him
Whoever left the door unlocked, it certainly wasnt me
Many people are uncomfortable about these forms
When an operator can be added of course, the problem disappears:
His sister is taller than he is.
SPECIFIC REFERENCE
Central pronouns resemble NPs in normally having definite meaning, and they also
usually have specific reference.
NB cataphoric reference is conditional upon grammatical subordination:
1 The museum is excellent and everyone should visit it.
2 When she had examined the patient, the doctor picked up the telephone (cata)
She examined the patient and then the doctor picked up the telephone
The doctor picked up the telephone and then examined the patient.
USES OF IT
IT may be used referentially. Any singular NP that doesnt determine reference by he
or she is referred to by it. Collective nouns, non-count concrete nouns, abstractions
and complete sentences or sequences of sentences. Thus,
Do you like my shirt? I bought it in the sales (c )
The committee met today. I am its president (coll)
Buy salmon- its her favourite food (non-count)

He gave his assessment of the problem. It was very negative (abstraction)

I dont like to say it but I must: you lost your job because you didnt work
hard enough. You have only yourself to blame (complete sentences)
There are three major non-referential uses of It
1 Empty subject / object
Empty It occurs where there are no participants to fill the Subject slot (as a Dummy
pronoun), particularly in referring to weather, time or distance. Its cold / Its eight
oclock / Its a long way to London / IT was time to beat it (largarse), I could see
IT in Idiomatic Phrase
1 Step on it or we will miss the train Hurry up
2 Well, if the last train has gone theres nothing for it. Well have to walk
Theres no alternative
3 This cars certainly had it. Ive got to get a new one Smth is finished / worn out
4 You cant have it both ways either do the job properly or resign combine two
apparently exclusive choices
5 Your trouble is your just live it up all the time. You shouldnt have so many late nights
to live at a fast and enjoyable pace
6 Why have you got it in for me? to want to hurt or upset someone
What have I done to annoy you?
7 When his partner left the firm, he decide it to go it alone deliberately do something
by oneself
8 I dont mind roughing it but Id like something a bit more comfortable really
put up with primitive conditions
3 es el ms comn I have had it (estoy muerto/frito/acabado)
27/11/02
2 Anticipatory Subject or Object
It is inserted as a Subject or an Object, where a clause has been extraposed (poner
fuera de lugar)
Itd be nice to spend the day there
We leave it yo the reader to imagine what happened next (SVOO)
*To spend the day there would be nice, but to spend the night there would be terrible
Avoid becoming sentences with to+infinitive.
S+V+O in English
3 Subject in cleft constructions
It is found in cleft constructions placing focus on a particular element in the clause
-Oh Peter, its today your leaving, isnt it? (cleft sentence) asking only about today
-Oh Peter, youre leaving today (base unmarked sentence; S+V+A)
-Oh Peter, its you who is leaving today? Cleft sentence (asking only about who?)
-It was at this stage that I decided to get over.
-I decided to get over at this stage (unmarked sentece)
-It was some apples that Tom bought at the shop
-Tom bought some apples at the shop

FIRST PERSON PLURAL

We may be inclusive or exclusive of addressee. There are some inclusive uses which are
cloying (empalagosos) and to be avoid in writing. Some academic writers use we/us
with a variety of references: (I) we= I (the author(s)) (II) we=you (the reader(s)) (III)
we=people in general.
Many readers would object to uses (II) and (III)
Modification of pronouns
1 Adjs: Poor him! Clever you! Silly old me!
2 Appositive nouns: Will you others please wait?
You nurses do a great job and we politicians must see you get a proper reward
3 Here and there. We are willing to wait. You there, watch out!
4 PrepP
It is the concern of us in the medical profession
5 Emphatic Reflexives
I myself saw it
6 Universal pronouns with plurals
We all accept responsibility. You both need a rest
7 Relative clauses (formal)
We who fought for this country will never forget it / Those of us who (modern En)
Generic Reference
Pronouns we, you and they have widespread use as generics. Eg.
We live in an age of moral dilemmas (referring to the average p.)
You can always tell if someone is lying
They dont look after these roads properly (complaint)
To generalize is to be an idiot, to particularize is the only good (William Blake)
THE REFLEXIVES
They are coreferential with a noun or another pronoun, agreeing with it, in gender,
number and person:
Veronica herself saw the accident (appositive subject, emphasis)
The dog was scratching itself (OD)
He and his wife poured themselves a drink (OI)
The coreference must be within the clause:
Penny begged Jane to look after her (ie Penny)

herself (ie Jane)

Where the PrepP is adverbial (esp relating to space) coreference can be expressed
without the reflexive:
Fred closed the door behind him
She took her dog with her
THE POSSESSIVES
As shown in the table, possessives differ in form according to whether they function as
determiners or as independent items.
These are her books / These books are hers. Etc
When the emphatic (very) own follows a possessive (the only form of modification
admitted) there is no difference between determiner and independent function:

That is my own bicycle that bicycle is my own

Possessives are used with items such as parts of the body, not however in PrepPs
involving aggression
She shook her head
I tried to keep my balance
Have you looked in your pockets?
Your shoes are dirty
But: She hit him on the head with a plate
2/12/02

PRONOUNS WITHOUT A PERSON CONTRAST

Relative pronouns

The

man (who / that)

remained
Table (which, that)
remained
The man (who(m), that, zero) I saw
table (that, which, zero) I glanced at
The relative can be left out when its not the subject
The man at whom I glanced at.
table at which
If you use a non-restrictive clause your options are fewer
The man who was elected
The man who I saw very clearly, was wearing a hat
My brother who/*that remained at home, likes TV
You use whom if before is a preposition
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
There are five interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which and what
Who owns this house?
Who(m) does this house belong to?
To whom does this house belong (formal usage)
Whose is this house?
Which (of all these) is the best? (personal and non-personal reference)
What is in the box? (non-personal) unlimited choice
What and which can also be determiners and in this function the NP can be personal or
non-personal:
What doctor(s) would refuse to see a patient?
Which doctor(s) (of those we are discussing) gave an opinion on this problem?
As a determiner whose retains its personal reference
Whose house is this
Questions with which suggest a limited choice, and those with what an unlimited
choice. The distinction between who what and which can be seen in:
Who is his wife? A: The novelist Felicity Smith
What is his wife? A: A novelist
Which is his wife? A: The woman nearest the door.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
The demonstratives have the same formal range and semantic contrast both as pronouns
and as determiners, this/these suggesting relative proximity to the speaker,
that/those relative remoteness. But while they can be used as determiners irrespective
of the gender of the noun head, as pronouns the reference must be to noun of non
personal (and usually inanimate) gender:

-In the garden, I noticed this plastic bag / this kitten /*this woman
this/these tend to be associated with cataphoric reference (future), that/those with
anaphoric reference (past)
Look, this is how its done
So now you know, thats how its done
This is an announcement, Mrs Baines please go to the information desk
And that was the six oclock news.
In informal usage, this/these may signify speakers approval and that/those
disapproval: How can this intelligent girl think of marrying that awful bore
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
They have general and non-specific reference. They typically involve quantity (from all
to nothing). Gender is involved in those items ending in body/ -thing
UNIVERSAL INDEFINITES (the compound indefinites)
Everyone, everybody, everything, no one, nobody, nothing .
These only function as pronouns: despite their entailment of plural meaning, they take
singular verb.
Each and None operate irrespective of gender with singular reference each also
functions as a determiner. Its role is similar to that of every. (each is targeted on the
individual, every on the totality),
Consequently every is subject to premodifications
Almost every candidate but *Almost each candidate
No is the determiner that corresponds to none and unlike none which takes as
singular verb, may take a singular or a plural
No music was / no musical instruments were played
Many actions were interviewed but none (was/were) selected.
All and both: have plural and dual universal reference
All (determiner) the actors were interviewed and all (pronoun) were selected
The police interviewed both (det.) men and both (pronoun) were arrested.
The converse of all is no/none and of both neither
The police interviewed both men and neither was arrested.
PARTITIVE INDEFINITES
Those in assertiveness:
I can see someone/somebody in the garden
There is something I want to tell you
These nuts are good, try some
This wine is good, try some
They all speak French and some speak Italian.
Those in non-assertive use:
Did you meet anybody/anyone?
I couldn0t find anything to read
Id like nuts, if you have any
Id like wine, if you have any
They all speak French but I dont think any speak Italian
Partitives include many, a few, a great deal, a little
The public reacted strongly; many disliked the performance and a few
actually left in disgust

THE OF-PARTITIVES: its a typical of the indefinites which have both a pronoun and
a determiner role to use roles in a of-expressions where the final part is a personal
pronoun or a noun preceded by a definite determiner.
Some are doing well *some of students *most of students
Some students are doing well
Some of the students/these students/them are doing well
Some of the students who I know (correct)
Some of+ the+ noun +postmodification
Partitive construction (specifying determiner must be used)
With singular count partition
All, both, some, many, more most, (a) few, fewer = +count partition (countable nouns)
All, some, many, much, more, most, a little, little, less = +non count partition
3/12/02
Always use zero in general statements
Use some with invitations (politeness)
Use some with requests
Any is assertive territory often followed by postmodication
Anyone who says that must be mad
Any pesetas can be returned to the Central Bank
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS (QUARK CHAPTER 7)
Adjectives are characterized by four features
1 They can freely occur in attributive function, that is (ie) they can
premodify a noun, appearing between the determiner (including zero article) and the
head of a NP: an ugly painting! / The round table / Dirty linen
2 They can freely occur in predicative function, thats as subject complement
or object complement: I painted the door blue (Co). The painting is ugly (Co)
3 They can be premodified by the intensifier very: the men are very happy
4 They can take comparative and superlative forms: by inflections (-er and
est) or by using the premodifiers more and most (periphrastic comparison):
-the children are happier now
-these are the happiest people I know
-this grammar is more expensive than that one -theyre the most beautiful paintings
Number 3 and 4 need Gradability
Not all adjectives possess all these features. Features 3 and 4 depend on a semantic
factor, gradability. Thus, atomic scientist but *a very atomic / *a more atomic scientist
Many adverbs are gradable, and since they also take premodification by very and
comparison, features 3 and 4 do not distinguish adjectives from adverbs.
The ability to function attributively and predicatively are central features of adjectives
Adjectives like happy, infinite which have both functions, are therefore central
adjectives.
Those like utter (intensifier) (only attributive) the fool utter and those like afraid
(only predicative) are peripheral adjectives: I went into, and I found 3 scared
/frightened /*afraid children
Sort =ordenar (en ordenador). Classifying adjectives (are not gradable) close to the noun
position.

4/12/02
CRITERIA FOR ESTABLISHING ADJECTIVE CLASSES
1 John is hungry 2 The universe is infinite 3 Susan is an old friend 4 The prisoners
were afraid 5 Bob is an utter fool 6 The patient was asleep 7 The meeting is soon
8 Anna is abroad 9 There is the bus station 10 He is appreciated
= attributive use (b) = predicative use after the copula seem (c) premod. by very (d) =
comparison
A
B
C
D
central adj.
1 HUNGRY
+
+
+
+

2 INFINITE
+
+
peripheral adj.
3 OLD
+
+
+

4 AFRAID
+
+
+

5 UTTER
+

6 ASLEEP
+

7 SOON
+
+
adverb
8 ABROAD
adverb
9 BUS
+
noun
10 APPRECIATED +
?
+
participle
Apply the test to the words underlined in the following sentences:
1 He ate four apple pies 2 It was a criminal attack 3 The sisters were alike
4 My brother is here 5 They are away this week 6 She is normally friendly
7 It was a perfect evening 8 Poor Johns hurt himself
1 a+ b- c- d- 2 a+ b+ c+ d- 3 a- b+ c+ d+ 4 a- b- c- d- 5 a- b- c- d6 a+ b+ c+ d+ 7 a+ b+ c- d+ 8 a+ b- c- dExamples:

a = She is a friendly person, *my here brother, *they are away people
b = *my brother seems here, this pies are apple
c = john is very hungry, he is a very much appreciated artist
d = *they are more away than me, these two sisters are more alike than

Away and here are adverbs

Sound asleep (profundamente dormido)
Very cant be used with verbs
He has a tired look (cara de cansado)
NB 1 Adjectives are invariable : One white T-shirt, two white T-shirts. (even if the
adjective is the Head of the NP)
NB 2 Formally adjectives may be Simple (tall, brilliant) or Prefixed (unhappy,
discourteous, subnormal, irrelevant, asleep, awake)
Suffixed (comfortable, reasonable, comprehensible, horrible, playful, beautiful,
careless, endless, dangerous, luxurious, greyish, foolish, seasonal, personal, scientific,
economic, dirty, easy, expensive, etc.)

Compound (duty-free goods, air-conditioned, part-time, long distance calls, homemade cake, sunburnt skin, a well-off person (forrado), an evergreen tree (perenne)
10/12/02
THE ADJECTIVE AND OTHER WORD CLASSES
Adjective and Adverb Homomorphs (7.2)
-ly suffix: He has a rapid car. He drove rapidily
Homomorphs:
-He has a fast car. He drove fast. A kindly gesture. Kindly refrain from
-She arrive in the late afternoon. She arrived late
-I caught an early train. We arrived early
Adv formed from friendly, lively, masterly, would be PrepP such as in a friendly way.
Adjectives and Adverbs beginning with a- (7.3)
The a-adjs in general can only be used predicatively with be and other copular verbs.
The a-advs can be used with be but not with other copular verbs, eg seem.
The a-adjs refer to temporary status and cannot follow verbs of motion, whereas the aadvs denote direction after such verbs: Two tests, then, of whether an a-word is
adjective or adverb are: seem and go:
The patient was asleep/happy/abroad/there
The patient seemed asleep/happy/*abroad/*there
The patient went *asleep/*happy/abroad/there
Asleep and Happy are a-adjectives. Abroad and There are a-adverbs
Exercise:
Ablaze adjective
Abroad adverb
Aboard adverb
Adrift adjective
Around adverb
Aware adjective

Afraid adjective
Aghast adjective
Ajar adjective
Alert adjective
Ashamed adjective
Away adverb

Alike adjective
Alive adjective
Alone adjective
Aloof adjective
Averse adjective
Awake adjective

Afloat (flotar) Ablaze (ardiendo) Adrift (sin rumbo) Aghast (horrorizado) Aloof
(distante) Averse (en contra de)
Adjectives and Nouns (7.4)
Nouns are commonly used attributively but they do not fulfil the other criteria for
adjectives.
The large station (attributive position)
the bus station
The station is large (predicative position)
*the station is bus
A very large station
*a very bus station
A larger station
*a busser station
-Some items of course are both adjectives and nouns, eg intellectual has been
converted into a noun in He is an intellectual.
-Nouns functioning attributively show their nominal character by their correspondence
to a Prep Phrase.
a bus station a station for buses
a new statio *a station for new
an English teacher a teacher of English/ who is English
Participial Adjectives and Participles (7.5)

Participial adjectives (causes) in ing: an interesting face, an amusing story, a tiring

class, an annoying person, a boring book, an exhausting experience, exciting, a
disgusting mess. (the participial adjectives in ing often describe the quality of a person
or thing), ACTIVE
Participial adjectives (effects) in ed: an interested expression, a tired child, disgusted,
an annoyed look, an exhausted shrug, a bored audience, excited shouts. (the participial
adjective in ed often describes feelings or reactions) PASSIVE.
These include forms that have no corresponding verb, eg unexpected weather (*to
unexpect), his talented friends (*to talent), a blue-eyed boy (*to blue-eye), a
downhearted team (*to downheart).
How can participial adjectives be distinguished from participles, ie, verbs? (7.6)
1 Presence of object implies VP:
-Your behaviour is frightening the children (SVO) participle
-Your behaviour is frightening (SVC) participial adjective
2 A by-agent after an ed form implies VP
-The man was offended by the policeman (participle)
-The man was offended (participial adjective)
3 Premodification by very indicates adjectival status:
-Your behaviour is very frightening / The man was very offended
-However there is divided usage with regard to the possibility of combining very with a
by-agent phrase: *? The man was very offended by the policemen.
*Your behaviour is very frightening the children.
Very is never possible with the ing participle.
Intensifier for verbs in general is = much
EX. Supply the ing of the ed form, as appropiate
1 The climb was exhausting (active/cause) and we were exhausted (passive/effect)
2 The road sings were confusing (active/cause): nobody understood them
3 Driving all day must be very tiring (active/cause)
EX. Which analysis?
1 The whole cake was eaten (SV) (*SVC)
2 I was disturbed by your attitude (SVA) (*SVCA) was disturbed (Verb passive)
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3 You look depressed SVC 4 Hes telling the truth (SVO)
5 Its a telling detail SVC
Objects must have a transitive verb (they are noun phrases or adjectives)
EXERCISE: Adjective or Adverb?
Its getting late (adj)
I read a daily paper (adjective)

It doesnt seem likely (adj) that your children

The postmans early (adj)

She sings very well (adverb)

We have monthly (adj) meetings
Dont talk so loud (adv)
Try to come home early (adv)
If you want me to work hard (adv) Milk is delivered daily (adv)
The train arrived late (adv)
I cant stand loud noises (adj)
Dont be so silly (adj)
Shes becoming hard (adj) to live with
Im very well (adj), thanks
That was a cowardly (adj) thing to do
Curare is a deadly (adj) poison
I get paid monthly (adv)
If youve got a fast (adj) car, why dont you drive fast (adv)?
Shes a lovely friendly (adj), lively (adj) person. But seems lonely (adj)
ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATIVE FUNCTIONS (7.7)
Attributive: they premodify the head of the NP: a small garden, pop music
Predicative: they function as Cs or Co. There is copular relationship between Subject
and Cs and between O and Co.
He seems careless (Cs) I find him careless (Co)
Adjectives can also be Cs to finite and non-finite clauses:
-That you need a car is obvious
-Whether she will resign (subject) is (verb) uncertain (complement)
-Playing chess (subject) can be (verb) enjoyable (complement)
Adjectives can also be Co to clauses:
-I (subject) consider (verb) what he did (object) foolish (Co)
-I (subject) consider (verb) taking such risks (object) foolish (Co)
NB The adjective functioning as Co often expresses the result of the process denoted by
the verb He pulled his belt tight. The result can be stated b using be: His belt is
tight.
Co gives information about the result of something (is related to causative verbs)
POSTPOSITIVE FUNCION (7.8)
Adjectives may follow the noun or pronoun they modify. There are, then, 3 positions for
adjectives:
-predicative: this information is useful
-attributive: Ive useful information
-postpositive: Ive something useful for you
Postpositive adjectives may be regarded as reduced relative clauses: something useful=
something that is useful.
When are postpositive adjectives used?
1 After compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in body one thing
where
Anyone intelligent can do it
I want to try something larger
Were not going anywhere very exciting
2 After certain institutionalised expressions eg: the president elect, heir apparent,
attorney general, secretary general, notary public, body politic
3 Adjectives ending in able and ible can be postpositive as well as attributive, when
they are modified by another adjective in superlative degree or by certain other
modifications, eg: The best use possible, The greatest insult imaginable, The only actor
suitable or The only suitable actor, etc.

4 Postposition is usual for absent, present, concerned, involved when they designate
temporary as opposed to permanent attributes:
Exercise: Where would you put the word in brackets?
1 The present police force is much better organized
2 The soldiers present were his supporters
3 He had a concerned look on his face
4 The men concerned were not in court (concerned=involved)
ADJECTIVES WITH COMPLEMENTATION (7.9)
Adjectives can be complemented by a prepositional phrase or a to infinitive clause, in
which case they require postposition:
I know a suitable actor but I know an actor suitable for the part
Brave fighters are rewarded but
Students brave enough to attempt the course deserve to succeed
The adjective phrase may be discontinuous. There are often 2 possibilities:
-I know an actor suitable for the part (post position adjective because has a
complement)
-I know a suitable actor for the part (discontinuous)
-*I know a suitable for the part actor