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Medieval English literature

The phrase "Medieval English literature" refers to works that were produced in England from about the fall of
Rome (the late 400s CE) to the invention of the printing press in the 15th century. So, we're talking from the
end of the Classical period, when people flitted around in togas, to the Renaissance, when women flitted
around in cumbersome Elizabethan attire and manly men wore tights.
Early medieval literature circulated orally. Back then, human stories were passed from mouth to mouth
before being written down in manuscript. That's how we got epics like Beowulf. The story of Beowulf existed
for hundreds of years as a tale told by scops, who were like minstrels.
Once printing started, the oral literary tradition quickly became obsolete. Printing allowed for more people to
actually go out and read the stuff coming off the presses for themselves. So stories got (re)produced and
disseminated far faster than ever before. Literature became, in a way, much more democratic than before.
Since the manuscripts of the Middle Ages were all written and illustrated by handthe word "manuscript"
literally means written by handit was one long process. Most people were illiterate during the Middle Ages.
The printing press doesn't show up in England until William Caxton brings it over in 1473. Before then, if you
weren't part of the educated elitewhich basically meant the clergy and the nobilityyou probably couldn't
read or write.
But with the arrival of the printing press, copies of popular works were being churned out faster than the
speed of ten thousand monks' pens. This mass-produced material was way cheaper than the old, handwritten manuscripts. So suddenly, your average person-on-the-street could afford to purchase books. And
the availability of those books helped to spur a drastic uptick in literacy.
During the Medieval Period, works were written in a range of languages, including Latin, Old English, French,
Celtic (Welsh), and various Middle English dialects. That crisp BBC accent didn't spring, fully formed, from the
tongues of 4th century Britons. They were talking and writing and reading in all kinds of ways back then. So
Medieval English are those that were penned in the British Isles during the period in question, regardless of
the language the writer chooses.

The Norman Conquest, 1066

When we talk about Medieval Literature, we're not dealing with the famed British Empire. In fact, Britain
didn't even have an Empire at this time, but was instead the victim of many waves of attack and invasion.
First came the Romans (relatively civilized people), and then the barbarian invasions of the Germanic tribes
(Jutes, Angles and Saxons). Next were the Viking, who were essentially more tough.
Finally, in 1066, we get to the Normans. Back then, there was a dispute over who had the best claim to the
throne of England. This spurred William, Duke of NormandyNormandy is a region in northern Franceto
sail on over to England and claim that throne all for himself. And he did so without too much effort. He was
all, "Time to defeat King Harold at the Battle of Hastings." And so it happened.
This French invasion changed Britain's formerly Anglo-Saxon culture and language to one that was much
more like mainland Europe. And this invasion shaped the English language irrevocably; the new French influx
pushed Old English down the path toward Middle English, a variety nearer to what people speak today.
Prior to the Norman Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon language (a.k.a. Old English) wasn't considered appropriate
for literature. Anything that was thought to be vaguely important or permanent was penned in Latin.
Similarly, after the Norman Conquest, the language spoken at the English courts was always a form of
Frencha dialect called, unsurprisingly, "Anglo-Norman French."
This dialect started exerting an influence on Old English, and all that language intermingling was what gave
birth to Middle English. Writers like Geoffrey Chaucer then started showing people that this whole new

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English could be used as a genuine literary language. That it could stand its ground against the "fancy"
languages of French and Latin.

Allegory in Medieval English Literature

Allegory is a fancy word that really just means "extended metaphor." In an allegory, people, places, things,
and happenings have two layers of significance. First, there's the literal level: whatever actually happens
within the narrative. Second, there's the figurative or symbolic level: what those people, places, things, and
happenings stand for outside of the narrativelike, The Big Picture.
The medieval writers were experts of allegory. Some of the most popular works of the period were very long
and involved allegories, in fact. The French had The Romance of the Rose. The Italians had Dante's Divine
Comedy. And the English had William Langland's Piers Plowman.
These texts investigated the essential elements of the human condition and experiencethat Big Picture we
were on about before. The Romance of the Rose personifies abstract qualities like Courtesy, Youth, Love, and
Idleness, while Piers Plowman allegorizes the social classes of the 14th century. As an added bonus, Piers
represents Jesus Christ in its main character, Piers the Plowman.

William Langland, Piers Plowman

"Out from the West, a girl, it seemed to me,
Came walking on that path; she looked towards hell.
The girl was named Mercy, gentle through and through,
A very gracious lady, and humble of speech.
Her sister, so it seemed, came quietly walking
Straight from the East, and she looked to the West.
A very comely creature and pure, her name was Truth.
Thanks to the quality that she stood for she was never afraid.
When these maidens met, Mercy and Truth,
Each asked the other about this great wonder
About the noise and the darkness, and how the day was unfolding.
And how a light and a glow lay before hell.
'I am baffled, in faith, by these goings on,' said Truth,
'And I am going to find out what this wonder means.'
'Don't be amazed,' said Mercy, 'it signifies joy.
A maiden called Mary, [who became] a mother without sex
With any natural creature, conceived through speech
And grace of the Holy Ghost. [She] grew big with child;
She, without blemish, brought him into the world.
And I take God to witness that my story is true." (Passus 18, 113-132)
Piers Plowman is considered one of the most challenging pieces of English literature from the Medieval
Period. It's a dream vision that follows the poem's unnamed narrator. A kindly plowman named Piers guides
him through a series of visions (called passus, which is Latin for "steps"). These visions lead the narrator
toward Truthwhich is a fictional person within the text, who symbolizes Truth. In Langland's work, it's
commonly accepted that Piers is a Christ-like figure.
Passus 18 gives an extended treatment of the Harrowing of Hell. This is a narrative tradition that recounts
how Jesus Christ went down to Hell after the crucifixionbut before the resurrectionto rescue all those
good folks who lived before Christ. While this account was not included in the Bible, it was a well-known
apocryphal story that made the rounds all over the medieval period.

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Langland is making the abstract concrete here. He's allegorizing concepts as people; Mercy, Truth, and all the
rest interact with each other, and the narrator. And by doing so, the author helps us to explore how these
qualities work in real life.
So, the narrative has two different levels of meaning. The first is the literal story that's being told. That is, the
dreamer is seeing these actions play out, and he's telling us this story. The second level is that of symbolic
meaning. As Mercy and Truth and so on acquire human characteristics, these esoteric concepts become
easier for us to wrap our minds around.

The Black Death

Here's one of the more unpleasant episodes of the Medieval Period: the Black Plague. People back then also
referred to it as the Great Mortality or, even more bluntly, the Pestilence. This horrific sickness first swept
through England and other areas of Europe around 1348-1349, and it spread through the population very
fast. People would get these huge lesions on their necks and groins, which would start out red and then
darken to black. They would die. And quickly. Usually within about six days.
And since the medieval period wasn't particularly known for its high-tech medical advancements, people
thought they were suffering the wrath of God for their sins.
The Black Plague didn't even end after it wiped out so much of Europe back in the 14th century. There were
subsequent waves in later years. None were as devastating as the O.G. Pestilence. It was said that about
30,000 of London's 70,000 people died during the 1348-49 outbreak.
Not surprisingly, the death of so many people had long-lasting effects on society. One result was a greater
feeling of anxiety among the people. Also, there was a sort of employment vacuum created by the
disappearance of so many peasants. Suddenly, the rich and powerful didn't have enough workers to grind
their grain. Or make their bread.
As a result, workers were able to demand higher wages from landowners and noblemen. So some peasants
started to make some serious bank, and the previously distinct lines between the classes started to blur a bit.
Moreover, the Sumptuary Laws were introduced. These laws dictated just who was allowed to wear certain
fashionable and elegant fabrics and even some particular colors, and who was not. The ruling class needed
some way to make sure that the lady walking down the street clad in fine puce velvet was from the right
family, and not just a commoner.
Medieval authors deal with the Black Death in more subtle ways. Like by examining its effects, including an
increase in social mobility (see Chaucer's Franklin, for example). Oh, and by delving head-long into a general
anxiety about the frailty of the human body.
Sometimes references to the plague pop up in the most unlikely of places. Take, for instance, Chaucer's Cook.
While he can whip up a mean stewed chicken and a delicious spicy tart, he has a very unappetizingly oozy
sore on his shin, called a "mormal." Its pus is reminiscent of the "buboes" of the Black Death. A lot of
medieval texts take up the issue of the Black Death by tackling people's general anxiety relating to death. And
by focusing on just how frail our human bodies are.

Medieval Romance
When we say "romance," we're talking about the most popular literary genre of the Middle Ages. Originally,
"romance" just meant the language certain stories were written in. These were the vernacular languages
so, not Latin, but derived from Latin (or "Roman," hence the term "romance").
Over time, the term "romance" came to mean a narrative told in either verse or prose that features the
manly adventures of knights like Lancelot, Gawain etc. One of the main conflicts in these romance novels is
how the ideal knight would behave vs. how knights can often behave.

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Also, brotherhood is very important. Just think of King Arthur's fabled Round Table, where all of his knights
are supposed to be equal and serve as the best examples of the knightly code. Again, they don't always live
up to the code or even up to the required standard, but the code definitely gives those knight-guys
something to aspire to. Which knight exhibits the best chivalric skills and behaviors? Medieval authors
disagreed on this point
And what would a good adventure story be without a smattering of magic and a little supernatural spice?
Medieval romances usually give us a healthy dose of both. The traditional medieval romance also involves
tons of magic swords, enchanted girdles, and men who can shapeshift into the Jolly Green Giant.
We need to talk a little about the narrative structure of the romance as well. As you might've noticed,
romances are usually organized around the questsome major goal that the knight must achieve in order to
make good on a bargain, fulfill a personal dream, or simply make it home.
Usually, along the way, the knight learns something about himself, or about his society or culture. One
memorable example of this journey-and-revelation narrative can be found in The Wife of Bath's Tale. The
knight character in that story gets kicked out of Arthur's court and has to hunt around for a year and a day
until he discovers the answer to this all-important question: What is it women desire most?
The knight's quest in medieval romances also tends to make the structure of these stories highly episodic.
What we mean by that is that they sometimes jump between moments of major action without providing
much connective material to fill in the gaps.
Love also plays a central role in many medieval romances. Anyway, when love comes on the scene in these
stories, there tends to be a lot of swooning, sighing, and other sentimental emotional reactions.
One last thing: medieval romances are not about deep, complex characters. We're firmly within the territory
of "ideal" characters, or character "types," here. So, Sir Gawain is a stereotypically perfect knight, boasting
such fine qualities as extraordinary bravery, knightly prowess, smooth talking, excessive generosity, and
purity. Gawain does learn a lesson at the end of his story. But he doesn't compromise any of his knightly
virtue to do so. There's no real character development of the kind we expect from modern-day fiction.

The Peasants' Uprising

Middle Ages was a time when there were huge inequities between "the haves" (the rich aristocracy and the
higher-ups in the Church) and "the have-nots" (average peasant on the street).
The Black Death was a terrible, terrible disease indeed. That Plague killed like a third of Europe's population.
But there was a silver lining there, too, because the Plague really paved the way for the Peasants' Uprising.
Because so many people died as that disease swept across the landsespecially poorer peoplethe workers
who remained were able to ask for more money from their bosses.
Those rich people still needed peasants to grind their grain, do their field work, weave their clothes, and brew
their ale. So the surviving peasant class were, for the first time, holding some bargaining chips when it came
to securing a good wage. This was a case of supply and demand in action.
Of course, "the haves" weren't too happy with this situation. They didn't like the peasants trying to rise above
their "station." So they got Parliament to pass some laws that limited the amount of money workers could
ask for. Then, around 1377 the British government passed a poll tax, which was basically a tax the king and
nobility charged people just for being alive. To add insult to injury, the proceeds were being used to finance
the war against France, as well as funding wealthy folks' extravagant lifestyles.
Unsurprisingly, the peasants soon got fed up. In 1381, they decided to act. In a very violent movement,
thousands of rebels stormed the city. They destroyed property and killed people who got in their path.
While not many authors of medieval literature deal with this uprising explicitly in their works, it shows up in
more subtle ways. Class tensions are never far beneath the surface of medieval works. Chaucer's Canterbury

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pilgrims give us a good example of this tension; did you ever notice how they're always bickering? While
Chaucer doesn't usually incorporate a lot of current events into his texts, he does sneak in one reference to
the Peasants' Uprising. In The Nun's Priest's Tale, at line 628, the narrator mentions "Jack Straw," who was
one of the rebel leaders of the Uprising. Plus, since Chaucer lived over one of the main gates where people
entered the city of London, he likely witnessed some of the Uprising first-hand.
Interestingly enough, the leaders of the 1381 uprising turned to medieval literature to help communicate
their points. William Langland's long allegorical poem Piers Plowman was appropriated by the rebels because
it was sympathetic to the poor. And its main character, the plowman, was held up as the model of a good
medieval worker. Rebel leader John Ball mentions this work in his letter complaining about the 1%'s
egregious exploitation of the peasant class.

Revenge vs. Forgiveness

The Germanic and Scandinavian tribes really liked their fighting. So, to keep blood feuds from getting totally
out of hand, a warrior could make peace by paying wergild, or a "man-price" to the victim's family. That way,
he wouldn't have to sleep with one eye open for the rest of his life, waiting for the victim's family to get
sweet, sweet revenge.
Perhaps the most memorable example of revenge winning out over forgiveness can be found in Malory's Le
Morte D'Arthur. Arthur's Round Table is totally ruined because Gawain and Lancelot can't make peace. Why?
Lancelot accidentally killed Gareth, Gawain's brother. In this story, these characters are way past the idea of
paying restitution, as happens in Beowulf. Nothing will make Gawain happy. Except killing Lancelot.

Antifeminism
There's a reason that Chaucer's Wife of Bath stands out for many readers as the most memorable character
in his Canterbury Tales and perhaps even in all of medieval English lit. She wants to live her life as she sees
fit, and doesn't give a fig for those crusty old clerics who tell her that she can't have just as many husbands as
she pleases. She roundly chastises men who buy into the negative medieval stereotypes about women.
We need to keep in mind that a big chunk of medieval literature was actually written by clericsthose highpowered men who filled the Church offices and who were usually raised and educated by the Church. Such
men were typically well-versed in the late Classical tradition that claimed women just got in the way of men
being good scholars and thinkers. Those writers portrayed women as greedy, shrewish, over-sexed gold
diggers who only wanted men for their wallets. Actually, they carried purses back then.
And the Church's views on women only encouraged this point of view. After all, the Church understood all
women through the lens of Eve (the "fallen," disobedient woman) and the Virgin Mary (the image of
womanly perfection). Since most women couldn't live up to the unbelievably restrictive and lofty example of
Mary, they were, by default, lumped in with Eve. Which meant they were automatically suspected of being
disobedient, dishonest, and prone to sexual hijinks.

The Church
The Roman Catholic Church was the central institution around which medieval life was organized. By default,
everyone was a member of the Church, and "Catholic" actually means "universal." If you weren't a Christian,
you were more than likely Jewish, but Edward I kicked Jewish people out of England in 1291. You also could
have been Muslimagain, not many Muslim people were seen in England during this timeor some other
flavor of "heretic." It didn't matter; if you weren't a Christian, you basically just weren't welcome anywhere in
Europe.
This "us vs. them" mentality of the religious shows up in the literature in many ways. In some tales, nonChristian religions and cultures were portrayed as being simply foreign, while in others, they were depicted as
downright evil. Check out The Prioress' Tale for a vivid example of that good vs. bad Christian vs. nonChristian dynamic.

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All in all, the Catholic Church had the religious market cornered for about nine whole centuries. That is, until
we get to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. It was omnipresent in people's lives.
In fact, everyone had to pay a tax to the Church equaling 10% of their yearly income (called a "tithe"). This
donation was not voluntary. Plus, all of the standard services provided by the Churchupon which your
immortal soul dependedcost money. Baptism? Pay money. Weddings? Pay money. Prayers to reduce your
loved ones' time in Purgatory? Pay double money.
Some of these proceeds did go to feeding and clothing the poor, which is a pretty good cause, if you ask us.
But lots of money also went to lining the pockets of the Church's upper ranks. And their pockets were
probably already fur-lined. This type of hypocrisy is roundly criticized in a lot of the literature of the time. And
once again, Chaucer is our go-to guy for this kind of insight: his portraits of religious figures like the Friar, the
Summoner, and the Pardoner are famous for their biting critique of medieval religious life.
Why were people willing to shell out money to pay for the services of shady characters like the Summoner
and Pardoner, you ask? Keep in mind that people in the Middle Ages were terrified of going to Hell for their
sins. And the Catholic Church was the only gig in town for avoiding this thoroughly unpleasant possibility.
Because of this, unscrupulous factions of the Church exploited the fear of the illiterate masses as much as
they could. In doing so, the Church came up with fun things like "indulgences," which would buy you a certain
amount of time out of Purgatory in exchange for some bank.
As you can imagine, after a while, people got tired of this racket. Eventually, they demanded to have more of
a hand in their own salvation. And that's what led to the Lollard heresy in the 14th century. The Lollards
wanted to be able to read the Bible for themselves, and they Just Said No to Latin-only services. They also
wanted the Church to get rid of some of its sketchier practices, like hoarding wealth and selling indulgences.
Things didn't turn out so well for many of the Lollards, though; lots o' them were burned at the stake for
challenging the Church.
The Church also cornered the education market. If you wanted a decent education during the medieval
period, chances were you got it through the Churchat a school attached to a nunnery or monastery. Of
course, since the Church was supplying this education to you, they then appreciated it if you stuck around
and became a cleric (well, at least the men), and put your learning to good use for them.
Even once universities really got rolling, the Church was usually heavily involved. The Church really had its
hands in everyone's business back then.

Medieval Authors and Texts

The Beowulf Poet
We know virtually nothing about the person who first wrote down this foundational Old English epic. It's
likely that Beowulf actually had a number of authors, and that the tale was part of Anglo-Saxon oral tradition.
And if Beowulf was the kind of tale bards used to tell around campfires before they sang "Kumbaya" then
either short episodes of this story or bigger chunks were recited out loud. With harp. Those men doing the
reciting were called scops.
This whole out-loud tradition probably continued for hundreds of years before Beowulf was written down.
People think that happened sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries. The person who finally recorded
it for future generations might have been a monk, because the poem gives us a mixture of paganism (from
the Scandinavian culture the poem describes) and Christianity.
This text is one of the oldest full-fledged bits of literature in English (Old English, that is). And it's not just any
little story, either; Beowulf is counted right up there as one of the VITsVery Important Texts.

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Not only does it give us an entertaining example of the earliest form of English, it also gives us a peek into
what the Anglo-Saxon culture considered important: loyalty, generous kings, and manly heroes. And we get
heaping servings of all these elements in this epic tale.
Beowulf is the first epic hero of English literature. As such, he obviously had some manly traits. Many scholars
have mined Beowulf as a sort of treasure trove for exploring Anglo-Saxon society and culture. One interesting
thing about the story is how it shows the Anglo-Saxons (who wrote the text) looking back into their past, at
Scandinavians and Norse culture. Keep in mind that the tribes we see in Beowulf aren't Anglo-Saxons
themselves; they're Danish or Scandinavian. The Anglo-Saxons shared a cultural background with these folks.
And heritage included customs like gift-giving and song-making, which, frankly, are two of our favorite things.

Geoffrey Chaucer
Strangely enough, Chaucer was not particularly known for his poetry when he was aliveeven though we
now think of him as the most important poet of medieval England. Instead, what made him popular among
his peers and honored by the royal court was his life as a dedicated civil servant.
With Troilus and Criseyde, he gives us a good, old-fashioned romance. His translation of The Romance of the
Rose delves right into allegory. And with Chaucer's Book of the Duchess, we get an elegy with the added
bonus of a dream vision.
He was also kind of a revolutionary. In his day, French was still the preferred language of the court. And Latin
was still used to write down anything considered truly important. But Chaucer used the language associated
with the less privileged classes (English) to write some of the best works of all time. He really showed them
how English could be taken seriously as a literary language.
But wait, that's not all. The Canterbury Tales, the work in which Chaucer most showcases his poetic skills. In
it, he juggles a ton of genres: everything from allegory to elegy, courtly romance to fabliaux (a fancy word
that basically means medieval bathroom humor).
The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer's best known work. It presents a huge range of genres while also giving us a
glimpse into 14th-century life. The Canterbury Tales fits into a medieval genre called "estates satire." In this
genre, the author would critique the various social classes of the time. So, the pilgrimage of the frame story
brings together many different types of people that might not normally interact a lot during the 14th century.
In Troilus and Criseyde, Chaucer gives us an earlier set of star-crossed lovers whose tragic love doesn't fare
well during the Trojan War. But then again, whose did? At least the story's an exciting mix of themes and
genres. In it, Chaucer shows us that he can juggle courtly romance with a twist of Boethian philosophy.
Chaucer was ahead of his time in more ways than one. In Troilus and Criseyde, he gives us an early example
of the type of re-imagining-the-classics trend. He chooses to zoom in on a love story while the Trojan War is
raging all around the city gates.

The Gawain Poet

It's very unfortunate that we don't know this poet's name, because his poems are unquestionably awesome.
Known now only as the Gawain Poet (or the Pearl Poet), he was from a region in England called the North
West Midlands. This is an area along the Welsh border of the U.K.
So, the dialect of Middle English these poems are written in is much more difficult than the London-speak
Chaucer wrote in. This is mainly because the Gawain Poet's version borrows heavily from Welsh. It's also
closer to the original Old English than Chaucer's version.
We only know of four works that the Gawain Poet left behind, and all of these are contained in one
manuscript. Like Beowulf, the Pearl Manuscriptas it's sometimes called, after one of the works contained in
itsomehow miraculously beat the odds of surviving any number of horrible things that could have gone
wrong since the 14th century. So we are able to enjoy it today.

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The manuscript includes four poems that scholars commonly agree were written by the Gawain poet. The
four he probably wrote are: Pearl (an allegorical dream vision); Cleanness (a sermon about purity); Patience
(another sermon, this one about the value of being patient); and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. All of
these poems are written in alliterative verse.
Throughout the works, the Gawain poet shows an amazing range of knowledge. He throws in details relating
to everything from jewelry making to hunting, dressing game, and seamanship.
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a fine example of a courtly romance. In fact, it's right up there with some
of the most memorable Arthurian narratives. It also stands out in how it combines three folk tales that were
popular during the Middle Ages: the beheading game, the exchange of winnings, and the chastity test.
The Gawain Poet also gives us a bonus in this romance: a unique poetic stanza form called the "bob and
wheel." It's five short lines that rhyme according to an ABABA, pattern. And the first of those lines is way
shortonly two syllables). As in: fun, fun.

Medieval Drama
The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century also signified the fall of theatre. Drama was banned and
theatres were closed. The church felt theatre, as they knew it during the Roman Empire, was barbaric and
evil. How ironic is it that the very institution which banned drama can be credited with bringing it back.
During this time period, church services were held in Latin, which wasn't understood by the majority of the
congregation. Most people couldn't read and had no experience with The Bible or Bible stories. Dealing with
an illiterate and pagan audience, the church slowly began dramatizing The Bible as a way to give religious
instruction to their congregation. Short dramatic readings turned into performing Bible stories, which turned
into full blown performances outside the church.
Medieval drama is known for its highly stylized character and action, its verse dialogue and its religious
themes. Drama developed roughly from the 10th to 16th century, peaking in the 15th century. Most of the
authors were anonymous and there are very few surviving texts. As the plays moved away from the church
they took on more and more the attitude of the common people. Humour found its way into the storytelling.
Contemporary language and references were liberally mixed into ancient events.
The actors were amateurs, either local or nearby townspeople. Actors were always men in England, women
would occasionally be allowed on the stage in Europe. Costumes were decidedly Medieval in nature with
added on pieces such as angel wings and devil horns.
The sets were limited to what could fit on a platform, but almost always included special effects such as
flying, fire, or the use of water (important for the Noah's Ark story). Sets always portrayed Heaven and Hell.
Three types of plays grew out of this time period: Mystery, Miracle, and Morality. All three flourished in
different areas of Britain and Europe and yet had a short life. In England, for example, the plays were either
changed or banned as Protestantism came into power.

Mystery Plays
To a Medieval town, the performance of a mystery was an event of immense interest... the magistrates
ordered all the shops to be closed, and forbade all noisy work. The streets were empty, the houses locked
up and none but solitary armed watch-men, specifically engaged for the occasion were seen about the
residences. All were gathered in the public square. Karl Mantzius, History of the Theatrical Art?
The plays were based on scenes and stories from The Bible and often performed together in a series called a
cycle. Cycles could range from the Fall of the Angels to Judgement Day. An important aspect of the Mystery
cycle was to show plays of Fall and then Redemption. The stories themselves the highlight, rather than
realistic acting, sets, or costumes. Examples of stories are: Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Abraham and Isaac,
The Last Supper, The Resurrection, Judgement Day.

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Depending on the cycle it could take all day or multiple days to go from beginning to end. In England, the
plays were performed on pageant wagons each wagon held a different story. As the producers changed
from the church to local towns and guilds (trade groups such as bakers, smiths, carpenters, plasterers, cardmakers) the language of the plays changed from Latin to the common vernacular. Each guild received a play
and were responsible for everything from the wagon to the actors, to the sets to the costumes. Therefore,
the quality of sets and costumes depended on the wealth of a particular guild. Guilds received stories related
to their craft.
The shipwrights performed Noah's Ark.
The goldsmiths performed the Three Wise Men.
The shepherds performed the nativity.
The bakers performed the Last Supper.
As you can imagine preparing for such an extravaganza would have taken months to prepare, there was no
time off work to rehearse. They were also quite costly. To that end, some towns produced cycles only once a
year, some bi-annually.
There is a misconception that because of their origin and the subject matter that these plays were dour and
serious. Certainly some were. But as they moved away from the church's control, the more secular they
became, and elements of humour found their way through. For example, in The Second Shepherd Play, a
shepherd and his wife steal a sheep and try to hide it for comic effect. They're going to pretend the sheep is
their newly born son.
WIFE: A good trick have I spied
Since thou knowest none
Here shall we him hide
Till they be gone
In my cradle abide
Let me alone,
And I shall lie beside
In childbed and groan.
Even in the Medieval era, theatre had to relate to its audience. But, this is true in every era, isn't it? The
Medieval audience could not read or write. For the most part they were blue collar working men and women.
In order for the plays to connect to the audience, they had to speak the language of the audience, and they
had to show characters who had characteristics of their audience (this is why the ancient stories were
peppered with contemporary references).

Miracle Plays
Jean Bodel was a French poet, jongleur, and playwright whose drama Le Jeu de saint Nicholas is thought
to be the first French miracle play. - Jana Schulman, The Rise of the Medieval World?
These plays were some of the earliest in the era, developing during the 12th century. In some areas the terms
miracle and mystery are interchangeable when describing Medieval drama, particularly in reference to
English plays. But true miracle plays have their own focus. Instead of Bible stories, they dramatized the lives,
the legends and miracles of Roman Catholic saints. This type of religious drama flourished in France with
writers such as Jean Bodel and Rutebeuf. Some of the saints most typically portrayed were the Virgin Mary,
St. George, and St. Nicholas. Few examples exist today. Miracle plays in England were eventually banned
because of their Roman Catholic nature.
Example: Miracle of Theophile
In the Miracle of Theophile (by Rutebeuf) Theophile sells his soul to the devil and when his time draws near,
he prays to the Virgin Mary for help and forgiveness.

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THEOPHILE: Virgin, flower of eglantine,
Rescue me from Satan's ire!
Rose of Heaven, my soul is Thine;
Save it from eternal fire!
SATAN: Curs'd Theophile, renounce Her, or thou diest!
THEOPHILE: Dear Virgin, glory to Thee in the highest!
SATAN: Then die, perfidious heavenly one!
THEOPHILE: Dearest Lady, hear Thy son!
Flower of eglantine, red rose,
Lily fair, glad life is done:
Through eternal fiery woes
I must suffer for my sin,
Suffer far, oh, far from Thee!
Ere my punishment begin
Pity, then, ah pity me:
Grant me one sweet parting grace,
One dear vision of Thy face!
SATAN. Hi hi ! Ha ha ha ! Hi hi ! Ha ha!

Morality Plays
Morality plays emphasize ethics and salvation, or, one might say, the ethics of salvation. Both Man and
God may choose: Mankind has free will; God has mercy... Mankind must choose between opposing
trinities: Gods throne or the scaffolds of the unholy trinity, the World, the Flesh and the Devil - Maryse
Gabrielle Wilkinson, On Site and Insight: A Reading of The Castle of Perseverance and its Staging?
Continuing the development of Medieval drama, morality plays emerged during the 15th century. The Castle
of Perseverance is often described as the first and most complete Morality play while Everyman is the best
known.
Morality plays differ from Mystery and Miracle in that they focused neither on The Bible nor the saints but
the common man. The main character in a morality play represents all humanity: Everyman, Mankind,
Humanum Genus. The theme of every Morality play dealt with the struggle for salvation: what can man do to
be a Christian and save his soul? The main character must make a conscious decision against temptation to
be saved, thus showing the free will of man. It's the universal battle between good and evil. Vice versus
virtue. Which will mankind choose?
Morality plays used allegory. Allegory is often seen in Medieval drama, where a message or meaning is
expressed through symbolic representation: ideas and values, vices and virtues become personified. Some
examples: the character of Knowledge in Everyman, The Seven Deadly Sins in The Castle of Perseverance,
Mercy and Mischief in Mankind.
As with mystery plays, it's easy to assume that morality plays are serious from beginning to end. Many used
humour to tell their story. In Everyman the main character has to find a companion to go with him to God. His
cousin explains he can't go because he has a cramp in his toe...
Whereas Mystery plays were domain of towns and amateur actors, these plays evolved toward professional
troupes and professional actors. With smaller casts and simple staging, morality plays were easy to transport.
Everyman
Everyman is the best known Morality play, with productions happening even today. The play was written in
the 15th century by an anonymous writer. However, there is a Flemish play called Elckerlijic, first printed in
1495 with an identical story. It's not known which play came first.

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As well as a morality play, Everyman is an allegory. The majority of the characters are personified ideas and
qualities - they represent, rather exist. In this play, the majority of the characters represent a part of the main
character: Goods, Good-Deeds, Knowledge, Strength, Beauty.
The full title of the play is The Summoning of Everyman and encapsulates the story quite well. God is upset
with how Man has succumbed to earthly materialistic pursuits. He tells Death to summon Everyman so that
he may make an account of the good and evil deeds in his life. Everyman is reluctant to go, seeing as his good
deeds are rather slim. Not only that, in order to stand before God, he has to die. When it's clear there is no
bribing or delaying Death, he asks if he can look for a companion to go with him. Not surprisingly, those
around him (his friends, his family, his wealth) who are good for a meal or a party or a laugh, resoundingly
refuse Everyman in his time of need. Everyman realizes that his earthly pursuits mean nothing in the afterlife.
He must face the fact that in order to have a companion to stand with him before God he must acknowledge
his sin, confess, and atone. Only then will he will receive forgiveness and finally find a companion to stand
beside him before God Good-Deeds. That is the only companion you can have in the afterworld, the good
you do in life. Even your good qualities, such as Knowledge and Strength are just physical attributes. You can't
take anything with you after death, only your spiritual well being. The play ends with an Angel taking
Everyman's spirit up to Heaven.
There are two levels to the story. The first is Everyman's physical journey to find a companion, and to death.
The end of the story actually plays out what happens to us as we head toward death. Our faculties desert us:
first our Beauty, then Strength, next our Discretion, our Wits and lastly our Knowledge. One by one these
attributes leave Everyman before he crawls into the tomb with Good-Deeds only by his side.
Secondly, there is his spiritual journey from a frivolous young man to one who is prepared to stand before
God. As with all Morality plays Everyman looks at what man must do to save his soul. That is the most
important aspect of life - how man treats his soul. The body that he lives in is only on loan from God.
Character after character tell Everyman that his vision of life (such as the accumulation of wealth) is
completely wrong. Material wealth means nothing and the fact that he focused on earthly pursuits has
brought about his own downfall.
GOODS: Did you think I was yours Everyman?
EVERYMAN: I thought so.
GOODS: Only a loan, poor boy. You may have risen to the top, temporarily, but don't you understand? My job
is to kill men's souls. And say I save one, there's a thousand I drag down. Go with you? I'll never go with you.
Everyman is a very interesting play for a couple of reasons. It seems ironic that even in the 15th century there
was the concern that man was too materialistic have we not changed at all in six hundred years? I was
unready for the humour in the piece because of the time period it's from. And I was pretty shocked how at
one point one of the characters actually expresses doubt over the actions of priests. I suppose I like knowing
that man hasn't changed all that much, it somehow brings the centuries closer together.
KNOWLEDGE: Some priests are good, this is true. Sinful priests set a bad example. Some have children who
sit by other men's fires. Some haunt the company of women. Some are made blind by an unclean life with
the lusts of lechery.

Interludes
Interlude is sometimes considered to be the transition between Medieval morality plays and Tudor dramas.
Interludes were performed at court or at great houses by professional minstrels or amateurs at intervals
between some other entertainment, such as a banquet, or preceding or following a play, or between acts.
John Heywood, one of the most famous interlude writers, brought the genre to perfection in his The Play of
the Wether (1533) and The Playe Called the Foure P.P. (c. 1544). The earl of Essex is known to have had a
company of interlude players in 1468; the first royal company was apparently established in 1493.

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The best of the interludes, however, were not those used for the purpose of propaganda. As the species
developed, abstract characters gave place to recognizable human beings, didacticism disappeared, and a
spirit of genuine comedy emerged. Life was no longer like the morality, a battlefield between Virtue and Vice,
with the betting chances strongly in favor of Vice, but an opportunity for amusing and diversified
experiences. The engaging quality which characterizes Chaucer and Piers Plowman was little by little
transferred to the stage, partly at least through the interlude.

Medieval English Literature Timeline

43-600 CE: The British Invasions
First came the Romans, who brought Christianity and built Hadrian's Wall. This wall protects Britain from the
northern barbarians, known as the Picts. But they say "buh-bye" in 400 and hustle off in their skirty armor to
protect their own capital.
That means the Brits were left to subsequent waves of invasions all by their lonesome. They were attacked by
a series of fierce Germanic tribes, including the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes.
700: The Lindisfarne Gospels
The Christian religion combines with native Celtic art forms to form the Lindisfarne Gospels. This is one of the
most beautiful manuscripts seen in the entire Medieval Period.
731: The Ecclesiastical History of the English People
So this monk, Bede "the Venerable," writes a history of England. He writes it in Latin, and focuses on the
conversion of the Anglo-Saxon kings to Christianity. Not much more to say here. Except for the fact that
"ecclesiastical" is just a sweet-sounding word that means "relating to the Church."
790s-900: The Viking Invasions
Just when the British thought they were finally safe, the Vikings attack. These fierce northern tribes swoop in
on their longships and ravage the coast. They even set up permanent shop in a northern area of England that
was called "The Danelaw" for a while.
871-899: King Alfred reigns
Nothing brings people together like a common enemy, and that's just what the Vikings give King Alfred the
Great. This man was able to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms on the island in order to beat back the
invasions... well, most of them, at least.
His reign represents a sort of "golden age" of the Anglo-Saxon period. Under King Alfred, education and
literature start to flourish.
700-1000: Beowulf
No one really knows when this famous epic was composed. But no matter what year it was written, it
continues to teach us all about those manly, heroic Anglo-Saxons.
1066: The Norman Conquest
William the Conquerer, conquers England in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings. This invasion brings about a more
recognizable form of English across the lands.
1147: A History of the Kings of Britain
Here, Geoffrey of Monmouth gives us the first significant text that deals King Arthur, along with a number of
other "real" and mythic English kingsincluding King Lear. Basically, he was yet another monk writing in
Latinare you starting to see a pattern here? What set him apart is that he was one of the first to get King
Arthur's story down.

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1154-1189: Henry II
Henry II would reign for 39 years, which was a good, long time back then. During his reign, he marries Eleanor
of Aquitaine, who is one of the richest landowners in France. Together, they preside over a court that is
renowned for its literary connections and refinement.
Romance becomes mega popular as a genre during this time. And so does courtly love.
12th Century: The Mabinogi
These are stories of Celtic folklore and myth, and they were originally composed in Welsh. But they've
inspired many, many literary and cinematic works since then.
1215: The Magna Carta is signed
The English Barons finally get tired of King John lording over them, and force him to sign this "great charter."
It establishes a number of rights that "freemen" will be granted under the King.
On the one hand, old King John certainly isn't thrilled with this whole granting-freemen-rights business. But
on the other hand, the idea for the U.S. Constitution comes from The Magna Carta.
1290: The Expulsion of the Jews
King Edward I kicks all the Jews out of England. And if that weren't enough, he confiscates all of their
property and money. This law would be in effect until 1656.
13371453: The Hundred Years' War
As you will note, it was more like The Hundred And Sixteen Years War. But that doesn't sound quite as grand
or catchy, we know. In any case, this war was comprised of a long, drawn-out series of battles between
England and France. They were trying to decide who had the right to the French throne. In the end, after all
that fighting, France won.
13481349: The Black Death kills a ton o' people
The horrific disease kills off approximately one-third of the European population during this time.
Unfortunately, there's a plague over most people's houses.
1377: Richard II inherits the throne
A true boy king, Richard II is only 11 when he ascends the throne. In reality, some older uncles take care of
things until he's more mature. Like fourteen. Then, he reigns for twenty-two years before he's unseated by
Henry IV. But at least we get the "famous four" poets during Richard II's reign: Geoffrey Chaucer, William
Langland, John Gower, and the Gawain Poet.
1381: The Peasants' Uprising
As you can imagine, taxing the poor peons in order to have money to fight expensive wars didn't go over all
that well with the working classes. They finally take their rage to the streets and riot in London. Sadly, many
people die during the Uprising, including the movement's ringleaders.
13821388: Troilus and Criseyde
Geoffrey Chaucer composes his epic romance during these years. And no, "epic romance" is not an
oxymoron. The poem includes both elements of epic and elements of romance. Here, Chaucer takes up the
story of Troilus and Criseyde: two star-crossed lovers. But unlike Romeo and Juliet, the reasons their stars are
crossed have less to do with their family histories per se and more to do with the Greek army.
13871400: The Canterbury Tales

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Chaucer's at it again, this time with his best-known work. In short: a group of pilgrims who travel to
Canterbury, and tell stories along the way. Unlike Troilus and Criseyde, The Canterbury Tales remains
incomplete.
1400: Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
An anonymous poet gives us this tale of Sir Gawain and the fun game he plays with the fearsome Green
Knight. Th more recognizable version of English than Chaucer.
1381Early 16th Century: The Lollard Heresy
Regarded by the Catholic Church as a heresy, this popular religious reform movement is started by John
Wycliffe. Mr. Wycliffe is a religious advocate who translates the Bible into the vernacular languages so that
people can read it for themselves and once they do, those who subscribe to this movement call for the
Church to get rid of its wealth and landholdings. But many of those who follow John Wycliffe are burned at
the stake.
13421416: Julian of Norwich
Julian is credited with being the first known female English author. She was an anchoress, which means she
lived a life of seclusion locked in a tiny room. And like Margery Kempe, she wrote her book, Revelations of
Divine Love, after experiencing a series of mystical visions.
13731438: Margery Kempe
With The Book of Margery Kempe, Margery writes the first autobiography in English. Her work outlines the
spiritual life she leads after having a series of visions, which are all about Hell and Jesus and stuff. An
outspoken woman, she goes against Church teachings by preaching to others. She even faces heresy charges.
Several times, actually.
Late 14th to 15th Centuries: Cycle dramas hit the scene
Also called the "mystery plays," (or Mystery Miracle and Morality plays) these early dramatic presentations
were performed in town streets. They usually told the entire cycle of Biblical history, from the Creation to
Judgment Day.
14551487: The War of Roses
Shortly after the end of the Hundred Years' War, England thought it would be a great idea to start a really
bloody and bitter civil war. It was called the Wars of the Roses because the two warring noble families in
England each used a different rose as a family symbol. Kind of poetic, if you ask us. Not the battles, obviously.
But the roses.
1473: The Printing Press Comes to England
William Caxton, an upper-class merchant, writer, and printer, brought the printing press to England. And he
printed the first book there in 1473: The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye (The Collection of the Histories of
Troy).
1485: Le Morte D'Arthur
Although this major work of Arthurian literature is printed in 1485, Thomas Malory actually writes Le Morte
D'Arthur sometime between 1468 and 1471, while he is a guest of the state (read: cooling his heels in prison).
This text becomes highly influential. It's the original source for virtually all of the modern renditions of the
King Arthur story even the deplorable, though highly laughable, First Knight.