Learning Management System

Subject Name

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Topic

Week

1.

Chapter Overview

2.

3.

Biological Molecules Are Joined Together or Broken Apart by Removing or Adding

Water
There Are Several Monosaccharides with Slightly Different Structures
Disaccharides Consist of Two Single Sugars Linked by Dehydration Synthesis
Polysaccharides Are Chains of Single Sugars
Proteins Are Formed from Chains of Amino Acids
Amino Acids Are Joined to Form Chains by Dehydration Synthesis
A Protein Can Have Up to Four Levels of Structure
The Functions of Proteins Are Linked to Their Three-Dimensional Structures

Learning Objectives
Understand the structure of carbohydrates and lipids and their roles in living organisms
Understand the structure of proteins and their roles in living organisms
Know the importance of water in living organisms
Carry out laboratory work to identify the biological molecules

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

Classify the different types of carbohydrates monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides and describe their roles in living organisms
Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fats and their roles in living organisms
Illustrate that different functions of protein depend on their shape
Distinguish that life depends on water
Identify the different biological molecules in the laboratory through experiments
4. Carbohydrates
A. Carbohydrate can be simple sugar or a larger molecule compound od sugar units.
1. Carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules.
2. Carbohydrates serve as energy sources or have structural roles.
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B. Simple Sugars The Simplest Carbohydrates

1. A monosaccharide one sugar unit is the simplest carbohydrate.
2.

Sugars are soluble in water and may be sweet-tasting.

3. Ribose and deoxyribose (five-carbon backbone) are building blocks for nucleic
acids.
4. Glucose(six carbon backbone) is the primary energy source and precursor of
many organic molecules.
C. Oligosaccharides : Short Chains that Store Energy
1. A oligosaccharide is a short chain resulting from the covalent bonding of two or
three monosaccharides.
2. Sucrose (table sugar) is glucose + fructose
3. Lactose (milk sugar) is glucose + galactose
D. Polysaccharides: Sugar Chains that Store Energy
1. A polysaccharide consists of many sugar units (same or different) covalently
linked.
2. Glycogen is a storage form of glucose found in animal tissues.
3. Starch (energy storage in plants) and cellulose (structure of plant cell walls are
made of glucose units but in different bonding arrangements.
5. Lipids
A. Lipids are composed mostly of hydrocarbon and are hydrophobic.
1. They form the basic structures of membranes and have roles in energy
metabolism.
2. The sterols are important in the formation of hormones.
B. Fats and Energy-Storing Lipids
1. A fatty acid is a long, unbranched hydrocarbon with a COOH group at one end.
a. Saturated fatty acids have only single C-C bonds in their tails, are solids
at room temperatures, and are derived from animal sources.
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b. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds between the
carbons that permit kinks in the tails; they tend to come from plants.
2. Fats are lipids which have one, two. Or three fatty acids attached to one glycerol,
are the bodys most abundant lipids.
a. Triglycerides, which have three fatty acids attached to one glycerol, are
the bodys most abundant lipids.
b. On a per-weight basis, these molecules yield twice as much energy as
carbohydrates.
C. Pospholipids are Key Building Blocks of Cell Membranes.
1. A phospholipid has a glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and
a small hydrophilic group.
2. They are important components of cell membranes.

6. Proteins: Biological Molecules with Many Roles

A. The most diverse of the large biological molecules, proteins function as enzymes, in cell
movements, as storage and transport agents, as hormones, as antidisease agents, and as
structural material throughout the body.
B. Proteins are Built from Amino Acids
1. Amino acids are small organic molecules with an amino group, an acid group, a
hydrogen atom, and one of twenty varying R groups
2. They form large polymers called proteins.
C. The sequence of Amino Acids in a Proteins Primary Structure
1. Primary structure is defined as the chain (polypeptide) of amino acids.
2. The amino acids are linked together in a definite sequence by peptide bonds
between an amino group of one and an acid group of another.

7. A Proteins Function Depends on its Shape

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A. The primary structure determines the proteins shape, and ultimately its function in two
ways:
1. by positioning groups so that hydrogen bonds can form between different amino
acids in the chain.
2. by putting R groups in positions that force them to interact.
B. Many Proteins Undergo Second and Third Rounds of Folding.
1. Hydrogen bonding along the polypeptide chain is the key to secondary
structure.
2. Secondary Structure is he helical coil or sheetlike array that will result from
hydrogen bonding of side groups on the amino acid chains.
3. Tertiary structure is caused by interactions among R groups, resulting in a
complex three-dimensional shape.
C. Proteins can consist of More Than One Polypeptide Chain
1. Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein, is an example of a protein with
quaternary structure the complexing of two or more polypeptide chains to
form globular or fibrous proteins.
2. Hemoglobin has four polypeptide chains (globins) each coiled and folded with a
heme group at the center.
D. Glycoproteins have sugars attached; Lipoproteins have lipids
1. Certain proteins combine with triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids to
form lipoproteins for transport in the body.
2. Glycoproteins form when polypeptide chains are added to proteins.
E. Disrupting a Proteins Shape Denatures It
1. High temperatures or chemicals can cause the three-dimensional shape to be
disrupted.
2. Normal functioning is lost upon denaturation, which is often irreversible.

KEY TERMS
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TERMS
amino acid
carbohydrate
cellulose
chitin
cholesterol
collagen
condensation reaction
dehydration reaction
disaccharide

fatty acid
glycosidic linkage
hydrolysis
lipid
monomer
monosaccharide
peptide bond
phospholipid

DEFINITIONS
An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups.
Amino acids serve as the monomers of polypeptides.
A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or
polymers (polysaccharides).
A structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose
monomers joined by glycosidic linkages.
A structural polysaccharide, consisting of amino sugar monomers,
found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of all
arthropods.
A steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell
membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other
biologically important steroids, such as hormones.
A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms
strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the
most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.
A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each
other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water, in which
case it is also called a dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each
other with the removal of a water molecule.
A double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a
glycosidic linkage formed during dehydration synthesis.
A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Fatty acids vary in length and in
the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a
glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also known as a
triacylglycerol or triglyceride.
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a
dehydration reaction.
A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of
water, functioning in disassembly of polymers to monomers.
One of a group of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and
steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water.
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.
The simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for
disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars,
monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are generally some
multiple of CH2O
The covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid
and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.
A lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate
group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar,
hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts as a polar,
hydrophilic head. Phospholipids form bilayers that function as

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polypeptide
polysaccharide
primary structure
protein
quaternary structure
saturated fatty acid
secondary structure
starch
tertiary structure
trans fat
Triacylglycerol
unsaturated fatty acid

biological membranes.
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide
bonds.
A polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration
reactions.
The level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of
amino acids
A functional biological molecule consisting of one or more
polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional
structure.
The particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the
characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent
subunits, each a polypeptide.
A fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are
connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen
atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton.
The localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide
backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between
constituents of the backbone.
A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose
monomers joined by a glycosidic linkages
Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side
chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen
bonds, and disulfide bridges.
An unsaturated fat containing one or more trans double bonds.
Three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; also called a fat or
a triglyceride.
A fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the
carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of
hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.

REFERENCES
Cell and Molecular Biology Concepts and Experiments by Gerald Karp 2005, 3rd Ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Human Biology by Cecie Starr & Bevery McMillan 2007, 7th Ed., Thomson
Brooks/Cole
Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader 2004, 8th Ed., McGraw Hill

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