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Prepared by
Indrajith D. Wijayratne
Associate Professor of surveying
Michigan Technological University
Houghton, MI 49931
2comb = 21 + 22 + 2. 12
Where 12 = covariance between variable 1 and variable 2
If the two original random variables are independent, then 12 =
0, and therefore,
2comb = 21 + 22
This means that the variables are not statistically correlated or the
covariance between them is zero
e.g. coordinates
Two values computed from the same measurements are correlated
e.g. latitude and departure of a traverse line computed from the
same angle and distance
Tape
Stadia
Subtense
EDM or GPS
Single measurement
Multiple measurements
Electronic theodolites
Multiple Measurements
Two basic methods based on the type of instrument
Direction method
Repetition method
Direction method
Two pointings and two readings for each measurement of angle
Each angle measurement is independent
Standard deviation of the mean value of angle due to reading and
pointing is
= (2.2p + 2.2r)
n
= rp 2
n
Repetition Method
= 2. 2pr = 2pr
4
2
DIN = pr/2
DIN value has been estimated in the factory using a specific set of
targets. Since the targets used in the field are different, one could
get a realistic estimates of an angle measurements error by field
testing.
Self-study Problems
1. A distance of 334.56 feet was measured with a 100 ft. steel tape.
The uncertainty in one tape measurement due to random errors
has been estimated to be 0.03 feet. Find the unceratainty of the
total distance measured.
2. If the above distance was measured with an EDM with a
manufacturer specification of (3 mm. + 3 ppm), what would be
the uncertainty of the distance ?
3. If the above distance was added to another distance of 567.98
feet measured with the same EDM, what would be the
uncertainty of the sum of two distances ?
4. What would be the expected uncertainty of an angle, with 95%
confidence, measured with a theodolite that has a pointing error
of 1.2" and a reading error of 1.5". Disregard other errors.
Rod reading
Instrument leveling
Rod leveling
Residual errors in instrument collimation, refraction and
curvature, etc. due to unequal sight distances