NECES EE306B Notes (Prelims and Finals) - A.Y. 2014-2015

EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
EE306B Circuit Analysis II
This course covers the steady state frequency domain analysis of RLC circuits driven by
sinusoidal voltage/current sources; impedance bridge circuits; application of mesh/nodal
analysis and network theorems in AC circuit analysis; concept of power and power factor
correction in AC circuits; resonant and tuned circuits.
Generation of AC voltages
Power Distribution System
Step-down
Step-up
Power
Plant
Low voltage
Home or
business
In a power distribution system, a power plant generates an AC (alternating current) voltage

and a transformer steps it up to a higher voltage. This transformation is done so that the loss
encountered during transmission would be minimal (e.g. copper loss). This voltage is then
stepped down to a value common to the residential/commercial areas which is around 220
Volts for the Philippines and 110 Volts for Japan/USA etc.
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction
o A voltage is induced in a coil of there is a changing magnetic field in it.
o = 108 , where e is the emf in volts

N=number of turns in coil
d/dt=rate at which the flux, in maxwells, changes through the coil.
Between two magnets of differing polarity, there is an attracting force between the north
and south pole.
F
NECES Academics Committee 2014-2015

Page 1
John Paolo C. Tuazon, Notes from Engr. Patrick Ellis Gos lecture, Electric Circuits by Johnny Tan
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits by C.K. Alexander and M.N.O. Sadiku
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Cutting the force between these two magnets would generate electricity. With this, if a
magnet produces 100,000,000 lines of force and a conductor cuts this line of force, a voltage of 1
volt would be produced, that is:
100,000,000
= 1
1 /
To increase the amount of voltage produced, a number of conductors are added between
these two magnets. These added conductors form the armature of the generator.
F
Armature
One complete cycle of the armature produces one cycle of emf induced in a conductor.
Graphically:
Image from: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/sinusoidal-waveform.html
The time it takes for one cycle to be completed is known as the period, T.
Increasing the number of cycles every second increases the frequency, f.
There is an inverse relationship between frequency and period, that is:
1
1
= ( ) , = ( )
In the Philippines, the frequency of the residential supply voltage is 60 Hz.

Page 2
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Types of Electrical Signals

1. DC (Direct Current) unidirectional flow of electric current, formerly known as
Galvanic current.
DC Waveforms:
2
1.8
1
1.6
1.4
0.8
Magnitude
Magnitude
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
50
100
150
200
Seconds
250
300
350
400
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700
Magnitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2. AC (Alternating Current) flow of current periodically reverses direction.

AC Waveforms:
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2
Magnitude
Magnitude
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1
-1
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700
0.01
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
Amplitude
Magnitude
0
-0.2
0.03
Seconds
0.04
0.05
0.06
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1
0.02
-1
4
5
Seconds
20
30
40
4
Seconds
1.5
Magnitude
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
0
10
50
Seconds
60
70
80
90
100

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
0.8
0.8
Magnitude
Magnitude
3. Periodic Signal are signals which have values that reoccur at regular time intervals.
Examples of these signals are:
Rectified signals
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700
Saw tooth Wave
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
Magnitude
Magnitude
Sinusoidal Signal
0
-0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1
-1
100
200
300
400
Seconds
500
600
700
Triangular Wave
4
5
Seconds
0.02
0.03
Seconds
Square Wave
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
Magnitude
Amplitude
0.6
0
-0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.4
-0.6
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8
-1
-1
0
4
Seconds
0.01
0.04
0.05
0.06

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Signals which do not have period are classified as aperiodic such as:
2
Voice signal
DC Signal (constant voltage)
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.4
1
Magnitude
1.2
Magnitude
0.5
1
0.8
0.6
-0.5
0.4
-1
0.2
-1.5
0
-2
0
10
20
30
40
50
Seconds
60
70
80
90
50
100
150
200
Seconds
250
300
350
100
Characteristics of a Sinusoidal waveform

1
Vp or Ip
Vp-p or Ip-p
0.5
-0.5
-1
50
100
Period
150
200
250
300
350
400
Vp= peak voltage, Vp-p = peak-to-peak voltage

Ip= peak current Ip-p = peak-to-peak current
Vp-p=2Vp, Ip-p =2Ip
Considering a simple circuit:
R
For the positive half, the current direction is:
For the negative half, the current direction is:

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400
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Average Value
o The average value of a sine wave when taken over one complete cycle is always zero
because the negative half would always nullify the effect of its corresponding
positive half.
o Because of this, the average value of a sine wave is defined over a half cycle rather
than a full cycle.
Deriving:
=
/2
1
sin
/2 0
Where :
T/2 = shows that it is defined over a half cycle
Vp = the peak voltage of the sinusoid
= angular frequency of the sinusoid = 2f
integrating the equation:
( cos ) | 2
0
()
2
1
= 2, =
1
2
=
((cos ( )) cos 0)
1
2
(2( )
2
= (1 1)
Effective value (RMS Value)

o The effective or root-mean-square value of a sinusoid is equal to the direct current
value that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the sinusoid.
Deriving:
1
2
= ( sin( ))
0
Where :
T = shows that it is defined over a full cycle

Vp = the peak voltage of the sinusoid
= angular frequency of the sinusoid = 2f
1
= 2 sin2
0
1
= sin2
0
Exploiting the trigonometric identity of sin2(t):

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
1 1 cos(2)
=
0
2
1 sin(2)
= [
]
0
2
4
1 sin(2(2)
0 sin(2(2)0
= [(
)(
)]
2
4(2)
2
4(2)
2
1 sin (2 ( ) )
= [
]
2
2
4( )
1
= [ 0]
2
Form factor
o This is used for the computation of the correction factors for generated voltages and
instrument readings.
o This is defined as the ratio of the effective value to the average value.
/2
=
=
= 1.11
2 /
General expression of a sinusoid
= sin( )
Where:
y=instantaneous value of the sinusoid at time t.
ym=the peak value of the sinusoid
=angular frequency of the sinusoid =2f
= phase of the sinusoid (where a positive value yields an advanced shift in
time and a negative value yields a delayed shift in time).

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
------y=ymsin(t+0)
------y=ymsin(t+60O)
------ y=ymsin(t-60O)
1
0 degree phase shift
0.8
+60 degree phase shift

-60 degree phase shift
0.6
0.4
Magnitude
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1
-0.5
0.5
Seconds
1.5
Elements of an AC circuit
Resistor
o A resistor in AC is with the same principle as that in DC.
o Voltage and current relation is the same with DC
sin()
= ()
()
=

Page 9
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
In graphical terms:
(Assuming that = 5 sin(2) and R = 3 Ohms.)
5
v
4
3
2
Magnitude
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-1
-0.5
0.5
Seconds
1.5
Inductor (Pure , with no resistance)

o An inductor in AC is not the same with DC (inductor is considered shorted).
o In a pure inductor the current lags the voltage by 90O.
sin()
= ()
since an inductor possesses the v-i relation:

=
equating the two equations, we would get:

= sin()
rearranging and integrating

sin()
=
cos()
=
Exploiting the trigonometric identity of cos(t),

( )
=

Page 10
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
In graphical terms:
(Assuming that = 5 sin(2) and L = 1.3 H)
5
v
4
3
2
Magnitude
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-1
-0.5
0.5
Seconds
1.5
Capacitor (Pure , with no resistance)

o A capacitor in AC is not the same with DC (capacitor is considered open).
o In pure capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90O.
sin()
= ()
since a capacitor possesses the v-i relation:

=
Integrating
( sin())
=
= ( cos()
=
( + )

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
In graphical terms:
(Assuming that = 5 sin(2) and C=47mF)
5
v
4
3
2
Magnitude
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-1
-0.5
0.5
Seconds
1.5
Ohms Law in AC Circuit

Resistive Load
Inductive Load
= sin()
= sin()
sin()
sin( 90)
=
=
R=R
Inductive Reactance:
XL=2fL in
Where:
f = frequency
L=inductance
Capacitive Load
= sin()
=
sin( + 90)
1
Capacitive Reactance:
1
=

2
Where:
f = frequency
C=capacitance
Reactance reaction of the capacitor/inductor based on the signal applied to them. It is

determined by frequency.
Inductive Reactance
o The opposition to current change.
o Directly proportional to frequency.
Capacitive Reactance
o The opposition to voltage change.
o Inversely proportional to frequency.
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Impedance
o Comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow,
including both resistance and reactance.
o Present in all circuits and components.
o When an AC goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is between
0-90 electrical degrees out of phase with the current.
o Impedance is mathematically symbolized by Z ()
Phasor
o A complex number that represents a sinusoid function whose amplitude, frequency
and phase are constant with time (time-invariant).
o Electrical quantities that are represented in the same manner as vectors.
o Phasor algebra is also the same with vector algebra.
o A transformation of voltage from its general sinusoid form is given by:
sin( + )
=
2
The same is done for the current:
sin( + )
=
2
o With these transformations, the need for using differential equations as solutions in
getting the steady state and transient response would not be used.
o The analysis done in the circuit is now similar to the analysis done in DC circuits.
o Phasor analysis can only be done in circuits with single frequency.
Phasor Representation of Resistance and Reactance
+j
real
-j
o
When a resistance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented in rectangular

form as a vector directed to the right (real axis) with its magnitude.
Ex. 7
+j
7
real
-j

Page 13
EE306 B- Notes
o
o
A.Y. 20142015
When a pure inductive reactance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented

in rectangular form as a vector directed upwards (imaginary axis) with its
magnitude.
Also its magnitude is multiplied with the imaginary unit j.
Ex. j9
+j
j9
real
-j
o
o
When a pure capacitive reactance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented

in rectangular form as a vector directed downwards (imaginary axis) with its
magnitude.
Also its magnitude is multiplied with the imaginary unit -j.
Ex.- j3
+j
real
-j3
-j
o
o
When an impedance Z is represented in its phasor form, it is represented in

rectangular form as Z = R+ jXL for an impedance with inductive reactance and Z = RjXC for an impedance with a capacitive reactance.
In the coordinate system:
ZL=R+jXL
+j
ZL
XL
real
-j

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
ZC=R-jXC
+j
R
ZC
real
XC
-j
The magnitude of Z is obtained by using the Pythagorean theorem, that is:
| | = 2 + 2
| | = 2 + 2
The angle formed between Z and the real axis is the impedance angle, also it is the
direction of the phasor.
= tan1
1
= tan
In polar form, the impedance can be expressed as:

= | |
= | |
Examples:
1.
= 5
= 7
|| = (5)2 + (7)2
= 8.60
7
= tan1
= 54.46
5
= . .
2.
= 5
= 10
|| = (5)2 + (10)2
= 11.18
7
= tan1
10
= 63.43
= . .
To convert from polar form to rectangular form:

= || cos + || sin
Example:
= 11.18 63.43
= 11.18 cos(63.43) + 11.18 sin(63.43)
=

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
For an easier conversion using the calculator (Casio FX991ES)

Rectangular to Polar
Initial setup
1. Enter the CMPLX Mode
2:
2. Input the given rectangular form in the calculator:
Ex. 3+j2
3+2 =
3. Make sure that the calculator is set in Degrees mode. Then push the following:
2 3:
1333.69
Polar to Rectangular
1. Enter the CMPLX Mode
2:
2. Input the given polar form in the calculator:
Ex. 1260
1 2 () 6 0 =
It should display 1260 on the upper-left and 6 + 63 on the lower right. If it
still displays 1260 on the lower right, press SHIFT SETUP Down button 3
(CMPLX) 1:a+bi .
Equivalent reactance in LC circuits/impedance in RLC circuits
o If the total reactance of the circuit is negative (ex. j6 , 2-j9.2 , 8.24 75.96 )
the load is capacitive.
o If the total reactance of the circuit is positive (ex. +j2 , 1.2+j0.2 , 3536.89 ) the
load is inductive.
Phasor Algebra
,
1 = 1 + 1 , 2 = 2 + 2 , 3 = 3 3
Addition
4 = 1 + 2
4 = (1 + 2 ) + (1 + 2 )
5 = 3 + 1
5 = (3 + 1 ) + (3 + 1 )
Multiplication
4 = 1 2 = (1 + 1 )(2 + 2 )
4 = (1 2 1 2 )
+ (1 2 + 2 1 )
or
Convert Z1 and Z2 to polar then:
4 3 = |Z1 ||2 |(1 + 2 )
Division
1 (1 + 1 ) (2 2 )
4 =
=
2 (2 + 2 ) (2 2 )
4
[(1 2 + 1 2 ) + (1 2 2 1 )]
=
22 + 22
or
Convert Z1 and Z2 to polar then:
|Z1 |
4 3 =
(1 2 )
|2 |

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Alternating Current Circuit Analysis

o In AC circuit analysis, all circuit analysis methods in DC circuits are applicable (KCL,
KVL, Current Divider, Voltage Divider, Thevenins , Nortons, Superposition etc.)
Examples:
1. Find the equivalent impedance Zab:
a
12
Zab
-j18
j15
25
Solution:
, 1 = 12 18 , 2 = 4 + 15 , 3 = 25
To simplify solutions and calculations, store the values in the calculator.
To store Z1 into A, go into complex mode and enter the value of Z1 then press SHIFT then
RCL (STO) , A (in red colored font). It should display 12 18 A. You can access the
value of A by pressing ALPHA then A.
= 1 2 3
1
=
1
1
1
+ +
1 2 3
=
1
1
1
12 18 + 4 + 15 + 25
= . + . . .
Using the store function in the calculator:

(Type this as it is, assuming Z1 is stored in A, Z2 is stored in B and Z3 is stored in C.)
1
= 11.22155269 + 3.244691868
1
+ 1 + 1

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2. The coils of a three-phase generator are connected as shown. Determine Vab, Vbc and Vca.
(11.37, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
a
1200
120240
120120
b
Solution:
Note: The dot on each coil signifies that it is the positive part (for phasor algebra), even
though it is alternating current in nature. The ground is the center connection.
The same goes for voltage sources.
Or
Therefore:
= 1200
= 120120
= (120240 )
=
= 1200 (120120)
= .
=
= 120120 (120240)
=
=
= (120240 ) 1200
=

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
3. Determine the equivalent impedance Zab. (11.41, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
5+j3
2+j4
3-j6
5-j6
6
b
Solution:
---------Series
---------Parallel
5+j3
8+j4
2+j4
3-j6
5-j6
6
b
a
5+j3
4.8-j2.4
8+j4
5-j6
3-j6
5+j3
5-j6
9.8+j0.6
4.8 -j2.4

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
= . .
a
5-j6
9.8 +j0.6
b
4. A series circuit consists of a coil, a resistor and a capacitor connected across a 250V, 60
Hz power supply. The voltage across the coil is 150V, that across the resistor is 100 V
and that across the capacitor is also 100 V. The resultant voltage across the coil and the
resistor is 200 V. If the circuit draws 15 A from the source, determine the (a) resistance
of the resistor, (b) the resistance and the inductance of the coil, (c) the resistance and
the capacitance of the capacitor, (d) the power factor of the coil and (e) the power factor
of the capacitor. (11.53, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
= 150
250 V
60 Hz
VL=150 V
VL+VR=200V
VR =100V
VC=100V
Solution:
a. R=?
Since V-I relationship in a resistor is in phase therefore , VR=100V and
= 150 is in phase.
1000
=
=
150
= .
b. RL =?, L =?
A phasor diagram (with current as the reference phasor, which means that
for voltages in phase with the current, it is just drawn on the x-axis/
horizontally, leading voltage phasors /lagging current (inductive loads) are
projected upwards, lagging voltage phasors/leading current (capacitive
loads) are projected downward) can be drawn to symbolize the voltage
between the resistor and inductor. Also assign angles for the diagram.

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
+ = 200
= 150
= 100
= 150 using cosine law

(200)2 = (150)2 + (100)2 2(150)(100) cos
= 104.1775
= 180
= 75.5225
= 15075.5225
=
15075.5225
=
=
150
= 2.5 + 9.6824
= .
= 2
9.8682 = 2(60 )
= .
c. RC=?, C=?
This can be solved by drawing the phasor diagram representation of the
whole circuit which is:
= 100
+ = 200
= 250
By using the principle of parallel lines, we can transform the phasor into:
+ = 200
= 100
= 250
Angle is obtained by getting the angle of impedance of the sum of VL and VR

Which is:
+ = 200?
15075.5225 + 1000 = 20046.5675

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
To find angle , cosine law may be used:

(250)2 = (200)2 + (100)2 2(200)(100) cos
= 108.21
= 180 46.5675
= 25.2225
The angle would be negative since it is directed downwards ( voltage
lagging the current), thus,
= 25.2225
= 100 25.2225
1
2
1
2.8409 =
2(60)
= .
100 25.2225
=
150
= 6.0311 2.8409
= .
= 2.8409 =
d. Power factor of the coil
= cos()
Where is the angle of impedance of the coil
= cos(75.5225)
= .
e. Power factor of the capacitor
= cos()
Where is the angle of impedance of the coil
= cos(25.5225)
= .
5. A coil takes 6 A at a power factor of 0.6 lagging from a 120V source. A 10 resistor is
connected in series with the coil. The combination is then connected across a 220 V
source. Determine the voltage across the coil. (11.55, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
6A
VL = ?
120 V
220 V
10

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Solution:
6A
120 V
For the first condition, the coil can be expressed as impedance Z.

Using V = IZ, we can get the value of impedance Z.
=
||
|| =
||
120
|| =
= 20
6
Since the power factor is given, the angle of impedance can be computed:
= cos = 0.6
= 53.13
= 2053.13
= 12 + 16
The second circuit can now be drawn as:
12 +j16
220 V
10
The total impedance is now 22+j16 , from here, we can compute for the value of the
total current:
220
=
=
22 + 16
= 8.09 36.03
With the current now solved, the voltage across the coil is:
= 8.09 36.03 (22 + 16 )
= . .

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
6. Determine (a) the currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 and (b) the voltages Vba and Vcd . (11.65,
Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
a
+_
+_
10060
Solution:
To solve for the given circuit, Maxwells Mesh Equation will be used.
First, assign mesh currents to the circuit:
+_
+_
10060
The mesh current is equal to the current source since it is part of only Mesh .
= 1060
For Mesh :
(2 + 4 + 3 6 )I (3 6 ) = 10040
(2 + 4 + 3 6 )I (3 6 )(1060 ) = 10040
155.694722.7695
(2 + 4 + 3 6 )
= 28.219744.5709
= = . .
2 =
= . .
=
For Mesh :
(4 + 5) + (4 + 5 + 5 + 6 ) = 10060
(4 + 5)(1060) + (4 + 5 + 5 + 6 ) = 10060
148.660679.6538
=
= 10.459728.9432
(4 + 5 + 5 + 6 )
= = . .
Page 24
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
3 =
= . . = . .
= (4 + 5)3 + 10060 + (3 3) (3 6)2
= . .
= (3 3)
= . = .
Power in AC circuits
There are three types of power in AC circuits:
o Real Power (P) in Watts (W)
o Reactive Power (Q) in Volt-Ampere Reactive (VAR)
Capacitive = -Q
Inductive = +Q
o Apparent Power (S) in VA (Volt-Ampere)
Power Triangle
+j
real
-j
Where: = the angle of impedance
Real Power
o = 2
2
=
= cos

cos = =

=
Apparent Power
o = 2
2
=
=
= 2 + 2
=
Reactive Power
o = 2
2
=
= sin

sinZ = =

=

Page 25
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Example:
1. Two impedances Z1=1045 and Z2=1230 are in series across a voltage source.
The total reactive power is 2060 VAR. Determine the total true power and the total
apparent power. (11.81, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
Solution:
= 1 + 2
= 1045 + 1230
= 21.813336.8142
= 36.8142
2060
sin = sin 36.8142 =
=
||
||
|| = .
= cos = 3437.7833 cos 36.8142
= .
= 2752.2305 + 2060 = 3437.783336.8142
Power Factor Correction
o Power factor correction is a method that is done to make the power factor of a
system or circuit near unity.
o In a unity power factor, the apparent power is equal to the real power. With that, the
reactive power is zero.
o To make a power factor correction for a capacitive reactive power, inductive loads
are added in parallel.
o To make a power factor correction for an inductive reactive power, capacitive loads
are added in parallel.
Examples:
1. The power factor of a 200KW load was improved to 0.9 lagging by the use of 35 KVAR of
parallel capacitors. Determine the power triangle of the load before the capacitors are
added. (11.91, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
Solution:
200KW
35 KVAR

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
QL-35 KVAR
Z = cos 1 0.9
P=200KW
= tan(cos 1 0.9)
35
= 0.4843
200
= 131.8644 ()
= 2 + 2 = (200)2 + (131.8644)2
= .
*Power is still the same for both cases.
P=200KW
200
cos = =
= 0.8347
239.5583
= .
2. A 500 KVA transformer has 0.6 lagging power factor load of 280 KVA. (a) If additional
0.8 power factor lagging loads are to be added how many KVA of such loads can be
added without overloading the transformer? (b) A 0.8 lagging power factor of 300KVA
is to be added. Will the transformer be overloaded? (c) If the answer to b is yes,
determine the KVAR of capacitors needed to reduce the load on the transformer to its
rated value. (11.93, Electric Circuits, Johnny Tan)
Solution:
a.
Drawing the power triangle:

280
500
= cos 1 0.6 = 53.1301

= cos1 0.8 = 36.8699
= 180 90 = 36.8699
= 90 + + = 163.7398
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EE306 B- Notes
b.
A.Y. 20142015
By Law of Cosines:
(500)2 = (280)2 + 2 2(280)() cos(163.7398)
:
1 = 225.0152
2 = 762.6152 ( )
. = .
300
280
c.
2 = (280)2 + (300)2 2(280)(300) cos(163.7398)

= 574.1777
since the new apparent power in the circuit is greater than the rated apparent
power of the transformer (574.1777KVA > 500 KVA) therefore, the transformer will
be overloaded.
1 = 280 280(cos1 0.6)
1 = 168 + 224
2 = 300 300(cos1 0.8)
2 = 240 + 180
= 168 + 240 = 408
= = 500
Setting up the power triangle:
500
408KW
= (500)2 (408)2
= 289.0260
=
= 1 +
2
= 404
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
= 404 289.0260
= 114.9470
. .
Maximum Average Power Transfer in AC
To get the maximum power in a circuit, we need to apply the Maximum Power
Transfer Theorem. This theorem states that to obtain the maximum power in a circuit, the
load resistance and the internal resistance of the source are to be made equal. With that,
maximum power is transferred to the load.
In the case of AC circuits, the maximum average power transfer happens when the
load impedance is in equal magnitude with the source impedance but with opposite phase.
To prove this theorem, we consider the problem below.
A circuit with load ZL = RL +jXL is connected to a voltage source with Thevenin
equivalent VTH, with a Thevenin equivalent internal impedance ZTH. Show that the maximum
power transfer that can be supplied to the load can be attained when the impedance ZL of the
load is to be made equal to the Thevenin equivalent internal impedance ZTH =RTH+jXTH of the
Thevenin equivalent voltage source VTH.
Z = RTH+jXTH
I
VTH
ZL = RL +jXL
First, the current flowing through the circuit must solved, that is =
. Then, the active power (average power) in the load ZL, is, =
( + )+( +)
| |2
1
1
||2 =
. To get the maximum power transfer, get the partial
2
2 ( + )2 +( + )2
derivative of the power with respect to RL and XL and equate it to zero.

||2
1
=
(
)
2 ( + )2 + ( + )2
1 | |2 [( + )2 + ( + )2 2 ( + )]
=
2
2[( + )2 + ( + )2 ]2
=0
0 = | |2 [( + )2 + ( + )2 2 ( + )]
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
0 = ( + )2 + ( + )2 2 ( + )
2
2
0 =
+ 2 + 2 +
+ 2 + 2 2 22
2
2
2
0 = + + 2 + 2
2
2
=
+
+ 2 + 2
2
=
+ ( + )2
| |2
1
=
(
)
2 ( + )2 + ( + )2
| |2 ( + )
=
[( + )2 + ( + )2 ]2
=0
0 = | |2 ( + )
0 = ( + )
=
2
The value of impedance = + =
+ ( + )2 . But since XL =-XTH,
2
therefore =
+ ( + ( ))2 = = = , which is just the
complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the source. Using this as the impedance for getting
the average power, we get the maximum power as
| |2
| |2
1 | |2
(
)
=
2 ( + )2
2( + + )2
2(2 )2
| |
Examples:
1. Given the following circuit, find ZL and determine the maximum average power transferred
from the source to the load.
40

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Solution :
First, find the Thevenin equivalent of the voltage and impedance
By source transformation:
2
I
80
80
4 = 5.0596 18.4349
2 + j2 + 4
To get ZTH, make the current source as open circuit
1
= 1.6 + 0.8
1
1
+
2 + 2 4
= = . .
| |2 (5.0596 )2
=
=
=
8
8(1.6 )
=
2. Given the circuit below, obtain the maximum average power transferred and the equivalent
impedance of the load necessary to do this.
10
I
50
22060
60
10
1.093

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Solution:
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent voltage and the equivalent impedances.
1 = 50 + 2(60)1.093
1 = 50 + 412.0513
2 =
= 265.2582
2(60 )10
10
I
22060
60
1 ||2
10 + Z1 ||2
1
1 ||2 =
1
1
+
50 + 412.0513 265.2582
1 ||2 = 146.2934 694.7555
= 22060
146.2934 694.7555
10 + 146.2934 694.7555
= 219.342759.2127
= 22060
10
= 10 ||1 ||2
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
1
1
1
10 + 50 + 412.0513 + 265.2582
= . . = R TH ( )
= 9.9692
| |2 (219.3427 )2
=
=
= .
8
8(9.9692 )
3. For the given circuit below, find the necessary impedance of the speaker required for it to
acquire maximum average power from the source. Also, find the necessary capacitance for
its coupling capacitor.
500
I
33
8
2090
440
250
Solution:
1
2
= (1 ||2 ) + 8
2(440 )33
1 = 500 10.9610
1 = 500
2 = 250 + 2 (440)1
2 = 250 + 2764.6015

Page 33
EE306 B- Notes
1
ZTH =
1
1
+
500 10.9610 250 + 2764.6015
= . + .
ZTH = R TH + jX TH
X L = XTH = j74.5267 , (find Capacitance)
1
C=
= .
2(440 )74.5267
A.Y. 20142015
+ 8
4. Given the source resistance and capacitance as 470 and 500 respectively, determine
the Load impedance, (with the pure inductor having 2.5 Henries of inductance) and the
frequency of the voltage source for it to deliver maximum power to the load. Also,
determine the maximum average power.
470 500
1100
2.5
Solution:
= 500
j
2(470 )
= + 2(2.5 ) =
= = 500
=
1
2 (2.5 ) =
2(470 )
1
2 =
(2)2 (2.5)(470 )
2 = 21.5577 2
= .
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
= 500 + (2)(4.6430 )(2.5)

= + .
470 500
1100
= 1100 0 (500
)
2 (4.6430 ) 470
= 1100
| |2 (110 )2
PMax =
=
8
8(500 )
= .
5. In the given circuit below, a load of impedance ZL is to be connected in parallel with the
1000 ohm resistor. Find the impedance of this load if it were to have maximum average
power. Also, find its maximum average power.
200
10
10
1000
12000 40
47
820

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Solution:
1
1000
3
1 = 2(10 )(2)
2(10)(10)
1 = 1465.8857
2(10)(40)
2 = 12000 397.8874
3 =
+ 820
2(10)47
3 = 820 338.6725
2 = 12000
1
1000
2 ||3
= 1000 ||(1 + (2 ||3 ))
1
2 ||3 =
1
1
12000 397.8874 + 820 338.6725
2 ||3 = 774.1597 297.9815
1 + (2 ||3 ) = 1465.8857 + 774.1597 297.9815
1 + (2 ||3 ) = 774.1597 1763.8672
1
ZTH =
1
1
1000 + 774.1597 1763.8672
= 716.5367 281.8188
= +
= ,
=
Page 36
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
= . + .
200
10
1
I
1000
2 ||3
= (1000 )
=
200
1 + (2 ||3 ) + (1000)
200
1465.8857 + 774.1597 297.9815 + 1000

= 7.994344.8333
= (1000 )(7.994344.8333 )
= 7.994344.8333
| |2
(7.9943 )2
=
8
8(716.5367 )
= .
Resonance in Series and Parallel Circuits

In AC circuits, we deal with circuits that are made up of resistors, inductors and
capacitors. Such circuits are said to be in resonance when the total current is in phase with
the applied voltage. In this condition, the total reactance of the inductor and capacitor is equal
to zero and the total impedance would just be the value of the resistance. This would also
result to the overall power factor equal to one.
When a circuit is in resonance, the reactance of the inductor is equal in magnitude
with the reactance of the capacitor but with different signs. This phenomenon results to an
equal amount of energy exchanged periodically between the capacitor and the inductor. The
rate at which the energy is required by the inductor is exactly equal to the rate at which the
capacitor discharges.

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
A. Series Resonance
The circuit shown below is an example of Series Resonance. In this circuit, XL is equal to XC,
which means that the voltage in the inductor, VL = IXL is equal in magnitude to the voltage in the
capacitor, VC =IXC. This makes the two voltages cancel each other out and leaves V R =VS. In
resonance, the circuit is in its maximum current since only R acts as the impedance in the circuit.
Which also means that the power dissipated is also in its maximum.
To calculate the frequency fO at which the total reactance would be equal to zero, you need to
equate the reactance of the conductor, to the reactance of the capacitor.
=
1
2 =
2
1
4 2 2 =
1
2
= 2
4
Shown in the figure is the curve between

circuit current and the frequency of the applied
voltage. For different values of R, there also seems to
be different shapes of the resonance curve. For
smaller values of R, there is a noticeable peak whereas
for larger values of R, the curve is almost flat. This
ability of the circuit, having to pass only certain
frequencies and disregard the others is called
selectivity also known as the quality factor Q. This
quality factor is compared in circuits in terms of their
half-power bandwidths.

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
The highest power dissipating from the circuit occurs when it is in resonance which is:
1
1 2
= 2 =
2
2
Since at certain frequencies f1 and f2, outside the resonant frequency, the dissipated power
would be half the maximum values:
1 2
1 2
1 = 2 = = ( ) =
( )
2
2 2
2 2
These equations mean that at half-power frequencies, the current is equal to 2 and the
impedance = 2.
This means that the half-power frequencies can be obtained by setting = 2.
1
,
2

, 22 = 2
1
= 2
2
2
2 1
=
2
22 2 1 = 0
2 + ( )2 = 2
2 + (2
= 2
1 2
) = 2
2
1 2
+ (2
) = 2 2
2
1 2
2 = (2
)
2
1
= (2
)
2
2

() ()2 4()(1)
2 =
2
2 2 + 4
2 =
2
2
1
2+
2
4

2 =
2 =
2
1
+ 2+
2
4
( + + )
1
,
2

, 21 = 1
= 2 +

Page 39
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
1
1
12 + 1
=
1
12 + 1 1 = 0

() ()2 4()(1)
1 =
2
2 2 + 4
1 =
2
= 1 +
2
1
2+
2
4

1 =
1 =
2
1
+ 2+
2
4
( + + )
Getting the geometric mean between the two half-power frequencies would give
2
1
2
1
( 2 + 2 + ) ( 2 + 2 + )
4
4
1 2 =
2
2
2
1
2
2 + 42
1 2 = 4
4 2
1
1 2 = 2
4
1
1 2 =
2

=
These two frequencies, f1 and f2 also relate to each other by means of their difference. The
difference 2 1 is equal to the bandwidth BW. This bandwidth is the half-power bandwidth because
it describes the width between the two half-power frequencies.
The quality factor Q of a RLC series circuit is regarded as the voltage magnification that
happens when the circuit is in resonance and also as the ratio of the maximum stored energy to the
energy dissipated per cycle of oscillation. It is also defined as the quantity by how much is the
selectivity of the tuning coil and it is also a ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth. In
equations, these definitions can be shown as the following:

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
I.
= =
1
2
2
1
=
=
, =
=
=
2
II.

the maximum stored energy is given by either the inductor or the capacitor, and the
energy dissipated per cycle is consumed by the resistor, therefore
= 2
In terms of the inductor,

= 2
1 2
2
1 2
1
( )
2
2 2
=
In terms of the capacitor,

=
1
2
III.
at resonant frequency,
=
,
2
1
2 =
1
1
1
= =

IV.
2
1
1

=
= =
=
=
2 1
B. Parallel Resonance
The resonance in parallel circuit has also the same power factor (which is unity) with the
resonance in a series connection. A difference is that, the total current drawn by the circuit is at
its minimum because the algebraic sum of the quadrature components of the current is zero. This
shows that the voltage is in phase with the current. Also, resonance in parallel RLC circuit can be
achieved if the frequency of the source is equal to the frequency at which the parallel impedance
is at maximum or the frequency at which the reactance of both the capacitor and inductor are
equal but with the condition that the resistances are very small.
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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
Considering the circuit shown on the next page, the two branches of the parallel circuit
contains series connections of an inductor and resistor and capacitor and resistor respectively.
This circuit would be in resonance if the quadrature components (vertical component) of the
currents IL and IC are equal. To get the quadrature components, first express the impedance Z as
the admittance Y,
1
= = + ,
Then expressing the reciprocal in terms of conductance G and susceptance B,

= , = +
Since, the current is obtained by dividing E with Z, therefore, it can also be obtained by
multiplying E with Y.
= =
= , = +
with this, the quadrature components are now EBL and EBC.
This equation can be illustrated by the phasor diagram on the bottom left.
In resonance, the two quadrature components EBL and EBC are equal which means that BL
and BC must be equal.
1
Since = , then
1
+
1

=
+
1
= 2

+ 2
= 2
, =
2 2
+ + 2
=

Page 42
EE306 B- Notes
=
A.Y. 20142015
+ 2
1

1
+
=
+
1
= 2
+
+ 2
= 2
, = +
2+ 2
+ + 2
= 2
+ 2
=
2
2 = 2
+ + 2
1
2
2
=
2
2 + (2 )2
1
2 + (
)
2
2
1
1
[ 2 + (2 )2 ]
2 [2 + (
) ]=
2
2
2
2 2
2 2 +
=
+
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
4 + 2 + 4 2 2 2
=
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
4 + = + 4 2 2 2
4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 = 2
4 2 2 (2 ) = 2
2
4 2 2 = 2

=
In further analysis, combinations of the resistances, inductance and capacitance that would
make the numbers inside the radical negative would indicate that resonance is not possible.
In cases where the resistance of the inductive branch is equal to the capacitive branch or in
cases that RC is eliminated and RL is made very small the equation just reduces to:
In parallel resonance, the concept of bandwidth is the same with that of series resonance.
That is the bandwidth is equal to the upper minus lower half-power frequencies. To get the upper
and lower half-power frequencies, we exploit the duality between the series resonance and the
parallel resonance by comparing Z and Y. In which,
Page 43
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2
1
= + 2 +
2
In this we would know that to get the values of the upper and lower half-power frequencies,
1
1
1
we would just replace with , with and with .
in which we get
+ () +
=
( ) +
+
= + 2
The quality factor in parallel resonance is defined as the ratio of the current flowing
between the branches to the total current drawn from the supply or simply just the current
magnification. Still the quality factor is equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the
bandwidth.
=
=
=
2
2
2 1
1
1
( 1 ) + 1
( 1 ) + 1
+
+
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
=
= 2 =
1
1
2
2
Examples
1. With the given circuit below, a. calculate the frequency at which it resonates, b.
determine the total current and power, and c. determine the voltage drops across each
element.
0.113
220
33
60

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
a.
1
2 20.113 (33 )
= .
b.
220
= 3.6667
60
= = 220 (3.6667 )
= .
=
c.
= =
=
= 3.6667 (2(82.4184)(0.113)
= .
=
3.6667
=
2(82.4184 )33
= .
2. Given the circuit below, calculate the value of inductance for the variable inductor and
determine the total current and the voltage drop across the inductor.
4.7
110
50
120
= 50 =
2
1
(4.7 ) =
100
= 2.1558
110
= =
= .
120
= = 0.9167 (2(50)2.1558 )
= .

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EE306 B- Notes
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3. Given the two branch parallel circuit below, calculate the two values of L if the circuit is
to be made resonant.
= 20
= 30
220
60
53.0516
When the circuit is in resonance,

=
2
2 = 2
+ + 2
1
2(60)53.0516
2
1
900 + (
)
2(60)53.0516
50
=
400 + 2 900 + 2500
502 3400 + 20000 = 0
3400 (3400)2 4(50)(20000)
=
2(50)
1 = 61.4955
2 = 6.5045
1
1
1 =
=
2 1 2(60 )(61.4955 )
= .
1
1
2 =
=
2 2
2(60 )6.5045
= .
=
400 + 2

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EE306 B- Notes
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4. A filter circuit is given below. Determine the capacitance C2 and the inductance L if it is
designed to pass 442 Hz and block 1000 Hz.
3.3
2
The series part of the circuit will be made resonant to 442 Hz so that it can let that
frequency pass.
=
1
21
442 =
2(3.3)
= .
Then, to block 1000 Hz signal, first find the reactance of the series portion of the
entire filter. Then the entire parallel-series circuit would be made resonant to 1000 Hz.
= 2(1000 )39.29
1
2(1000 )3.3
= 0.1986 ()
1
1
2 =
=
2 2(1000)(0.1986 )
= .
5. Calculate the resonant frequency of the given circuit below.
10
20
1.5
1.2

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2
2 2
(10 )2 1.2 1.5
2
21.5 (1.2 ) (20 ) 1.2 1.5
= .
6. From example no. 5, if the resistance RL is made equal to RC, what would be the resonant
frequency assuming L and C to be constant ?
, =

1
=
2
1
=
21.5 (1.2)
= .
Three-Phase Systems (Balanced)

In our world today, nearly all modern AC generators are made for the
generation of three-phase voltages. It is for the reason that three-phase systems can
transmit large amounts of power because it is constant rather than pulsating as it is
in single phase systems. Three-phase systems are more efficient, uses less material
for a given capacity and cost less than single phase apparatus.
In generating three-phase there are three interconnected windings in which
three voltages are formed that are displaced in time by 120 electrical degrees.
Producing the time displacements would require the windings to be mounted on a
laminated, slotted, ring-type structure called stator so that their positions are
displaced in space as the same number of electrical degrees that their voltages differ.
The centre of this structure consists of a rotating magnet called the rotor which is
connected to a DC source. The rotor provides the magnetic field which then induces
the voltage in the windings. The figures on the next page illustrate how the threephase generator is constructed.

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EE306 B- Notes
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Rotor
Winding
Since each windings of the three-phase generator are similar, it is likewise customary
that their voltages will be identical although displaced in time with 120 electrical degrees.
This means that the maximum, minimum and zero values of the phases would occur at 120
electrical degree intervals.

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EE306 B- Notes
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Three-phase systems consist of three voltage sources connected to loads by three or four
wires (the fourth wire being the neutral wire). The three-phase system is equivalent to three
single-phase circuits that can be connected into wye-connection or delta-connection. With
this, we consider the wye connection of the sources below:
The voltages Van , Vbn , and Vcn are the voltages between lines a, b and c and the neutral
line n and are called as phase voltages. These voltages having the same amplitude and
frequency but displaced by 120 electrical degrees are said to be balanced. This results to the
equation below:
+ + = 0
| | = | | = | |
The diagram below shows how the voltage waveforms are related in a three-phase
system with phase B lagging behind phase A by 120 electrical degrees, and phase C lagging
behind phase A by 240 electrical degrees.

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EE306 B- Notes
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Also, a phasor diagram shows the relationship between effective voltages.
Assuming sinusoidal voltage variations and using phase A as reference, voltages in

three-phase can be expressed by the following equations:
= sin()
= sin( 120)
= sin( 240)
In phasor notation:
= 0
= 120
= 240 = 120
These equations are valid if the generator is following a positive phase sequence or
the abc sequence in which Van leads Vbn, which in turn leads Vcn. This is produced when the
rotor turns counter clockwise.
On the possibility that the rotor turns clockwise, the negative phase sequence or the
acb sequence occurs and in this Van now leads Vcn , which in turn leads Vbn. This can be
expressed by the following phasor diagram and equation below:
= sin()
= sin( 120)
= sin( 240)
In phasor notation :
= 0
= 120
= 240 = = 120

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EE306 B- Notes
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In general, the phase sequence of the voltages that is applied to the load is determined
by the order in which the three-phase lines are connected. By interchanging any pair of lines,
the phase sequence is now reversed.
Also it can be determined by the order at which the phasors pass through a stationary
point in the phase diagram. As they rotate counter clockwise, the sequence is abcabca Thus,
the positive sequence can be called as abc, bca or cab. Similarly, if the rotation becomes
clockwise, the sequence is now acbacba This sequence is the negative sequence and can be
called as acb, bac or cba. Knowing this is important for power distribution as for example,
interchanging lines would result to reversal of the direction of motor in an induction motor.
Moreover, it could cause different set of values of currents for unbalanced loads.
In three phase systems, there are also two types of connection of the load same as
that of the sources. It can be in wye connection or delta connection. The figures below show
these connections:
3
2
Wye connection
Delta connection
For balanced wye-connections, the impedances can be expressed as:

1 = 2 = 3 =
For balanced delta-connections, the impedances are
= = =
In converting the balanced wye to delta connection and vice versa, the impedances
Z1, Z2 and Z3 can be expressed as ZY and Zab, Zbc and Zac can be expressed as Z.
Wye to Delta
+ +
=
= 3
Delta to Wye
=
=

+ +

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EE306 B- Notes
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Having 2 types of connection for the source and also 2 for the load, there are four
possible connections for three-phase systems namely:
Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection (Wye-connected source with Wye-connected load)

Wye-Delta (Y-) Connection (Wye-connected source with Delta-connected load)
Delta-Delta (-) Connection (Delta connected source with Delta-connected load)
Delta-Wye (-Y) Connection (Delta connected source with Wye-connected load)
A. Balanced Wye-Wye connection

A Y-Y connection is a three-phase system in which a balanced Y-connected source is
connected to a balanced Y-connected load. This type of connection is a very useful
connection since all balanced three-phase system can be reduced to this type of
connection.
The circuit above is a balanced four-wire Y-Y system. The impedance ZY is impedance
of the load but also, it can be regarded as the sum of impedance of the source Z S, the
impedance of the line impedance Zl and load impedance ZL. That is:
+ + =
There is also an impedance Zn in the neutral line that is often very small that it can be
neglected. Also, the impedances ZS and Zl are also often small, that is why it can be said
that ZY=ZL.

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In this connection, the following derivations can be made for it to be solved:

Assuming the positive (abc) sequence, the phase voltages are:
= 0 , = 120, = 240 = 120
The voltage between two terminals or the line-to-line voltages or simply line voltages
can be obtained by using the concept of potential difference. That is,
=
= + = =
:
= 0 120
= 3 30
Similarly, the same could be done to the other line voltages:
=
= 120 120
= 3 90
=
= 120 0
= 3 150 = 3 210
From this, we can say that the line voltage VL is 3 of the magnitude of the phase
voltage VP.
= 3
Also:
= | | = | | = | |, = | | = | | = | |
With that, the relationship of the line voltage to their corresponding phase voltage is
that they lead it with30. Having equal leading electrical degrees, it is from this that the
line voltages are leading each other by 120 electrical degrees. This means that the sum
of the line voltages is also equal to zero as also with the phase voltages.
By applying KVL to each phase:
Loop aANn:
Loop bBNn:
= 0
= 0

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Loop cCNn:
= 0
These equations can be furthermore simplified using the relationship that = , =

120, = 120 it can be said that :
120
120
=
=
= ,
= 120, = 120
And with this, having the same leading electrical degrees as with the voltage, it can be
inferred that these currents also sum up to zero.
+ + = 0 ,
Which also means that the neutral line current In,
= ( + + ) = 0
And the voltage across the neutral line,
= = 0
This means that it can now be removed without disrupting the balanced system.
In the Y-Y connection it is also a relation that the current in each line is the same
with the phase current.
There is another way in solving for the current in each line, and that is to do the per
phase basis of analysing a balanced Y-Y system.
After solving for Ia, the other line currents can be obtained by using the phase sequence
of the system.

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B. Balanced Wye-Delta Connection

A balanced Y- system is a connection that consists of a balanced Y-connected
source connected to a balanced -connected load.
Assuming the positive sequence, the voltages in the system are:

= 0 , = 120, = 240 = 120
= 3 30 = , = 3 90 = ,
= 3150 =
In this connection the line voltages are the voltages across the load, which means that:
, =
, =
These currents are also 120 electrical degrees out of phase with each other that is why
ICA and IBC can also be expressed by
= 120, = 120
By applying Kirchhoffs Current Law, the line currents can be obtained from the phase
currents.
= = 120
= 3 30
= = 120
= 3 150
= = 120 120
= 390
This shows that the magnitude of the line current is 3 times the magnitude of the
phase currents. It also shows that the line currents lag the phase current by 30 electrical
degrees.

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Another way of analysing the wye-delta balanced system is to convert the -connected
load into its equivalent Y-connection. After this conversion, the system can now be solved
using the methods used in solving the Y-Y connection. With this, the line currents can now
be solved and the phase currents can be obtained by using the fact that the phase current
leads it corresponding line current by 30 electrical degrees.
C. Balanced Delta-Delta connection
A balanced - system is a connection at which both the source and the load are
delta-connected.
Assuming a positive sequence, the phase voltages for the source are:
= 0 , = 120, = 240 = 120
In this configuration, the phase voltage is also same with the line voltage and since
there are no line impedances, the voltage at the source is effectively the same with the
voltage across the load which is:
= , = , =
Therefore, the phase currents can be solved using Ohms Law, and that is:
, =
, =
By applying Kirchhoffs Current Law to the system as the same as that of a wye-delta
connection, the line currents can now be obtained:
= , = , =
From this, relationship, we know that the line current is 3 times the magnitude of
the phase current and it lags its corresponding phase current by 30 electrical degrees.
Upon knowing this, the other line currents can also be solved by the fact that they are 120
electrical degrees leading with each other.
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Another way to solve this is to convert the three-phase source and the load into an
equivalent Y-Y connection.
To convert the three-phase source into a Y-connected source we make use of the
relationship of the line voltages and the phase voltages in the Y-connected source. In the Yconnected source, the line voltages lead their corresponding phase voltage by 30 electrical
degrees. It is therefore customary that to find the equivalent phase voltage, we just divide
the corresponding line voltage by 3 and shift its phase by -30 electrical degrees. This
would now make the corresponding phase voltages equal to:
=
30
3
=
150
3
=
90
3
After conversion, the system can now be solved analysing it into a per phase basis
and the line currents can now be solved.
D. Balanced Delta-Wye Connection
In a balanced -Y system, a balanced -connected source is connected to a balanced
Y-connected load.
Assuming a positive sequence, the phase voltages, which is also the same as the line
voltages are:
= 0 , = 120, = 240 = 120

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The line currents can be obtained by using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law:

Loop aANBb:
( ) ( ) = 0
0
=
but since Ib lags Ia by 120 electrical degrees, and assuming a positive sequence,
= 120
= 120
=
30
3
Then equating it the to the first obtained equation:
0
30 =
30
3
=
Then to obtain the other line currents, we make use of the relationship of the
currents in positive phase sequence, that is:
= 120, = 120
Another way to solve this type of connection is to convert the three-phase source into
its equivalent wye connection. With that, it can be analysed using the same principles as with
Y-Y connection.

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Examples
1. Given the circuit below, calculate for the line current of each line.
40 + 90
2200
220120
40 + 90
40 + 90
220 120
Solution:
Since the circuit is a balanced Y-Y connection, the line current Ia can be obtained
by single phase analysis.
2200
=
=
= 2.2338 66.0375
40 + 90
Since the source voltages are in positive sequence, it also means that the current is
in positive sequence, in which the relations, = 120, = 120 are
employed which means
= 2.2338173.9625
= 2.233853.9625
2. Given the balanced delta-delta connection below, find the indicated currents.
1100
12 13
110 120
12 13

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Solution :
By using Ohms Law, the phase currents can be solved:
1100
=
= 6.217647.2906
12 13
110 120
=
=
= 6.2176 72.7094
12 13
110120
=
=
= 6.2176167.2906
12 13
By KCL, the line currents can be solved:
= = 10.769117.2906
= = 10.7691 102.7094
= = 10.7691137.2906
=
3. A balanced wye-delta system is in the circuit below, calculate the line currents.
44010
440130
10 + 13
10 + 13
440 110
10 + 13
Solution:
to simplify the analysis of this circuit, the load can be converted into wye
connection:
= 10 + 13
=
= 5.467152.4314
3
44010
=
=
= 80.4818 42.4314
5.467152.4314
440 110
=
=
= 80.4818 162.4314
5.467152.4314

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EE306 B- Notes
=
A.Y. 20142015
440130
=
= 80.481877.4314
5.467152.4314
4. A balanced Y-connected load with an equivalent impedance of 9+j6 is supplied

by a balanced -connected sourced with a voltage of 230 V. Calculate the line
currents.
9 + j6
2300
9 + j6
9 + j6
230 120
Solution
Transforming the delta-connected source into a Y-connected source,
=
30
3
= 132.7906 30
The line currents can be computed as
132.7906 30
=
=
= 12.2765 63.69
9 + 6
= 120 = 12.2765 176.3099
= 120 = 12.276556.3099
5. A balanced abc sequence Y-connetected source with = 110 30 is
connected to a delta-connected balanced load with impedance = 1025 .
Compute for the line current.
Soultion:
to simplify the analysis of this circuit, the load can be converted into wye connection:
= 1025 .
=
= 3.333325
3
110 30
=
=
= 33.0003 55
3.333325
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EE306 B- Notes
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110 150
=
= 33.0003 175
3.333325
11090
=
=
= 33.000365
3.333325
=
Two-Port Networks
A two-port network is a type of a representation of an electrical network or
device having two pairs of terminals to be connected to external circuits. They are
used to designate the relationship between a pair of terminals. Two-port networks
aid us into analysing networks in terms of their terminal characteristics without
regard to what is inside the composition of the network. Knowing this would help us
understand its operation when it is connected in a more complex network. Two-port
networks are important for us to understand more in the modelling of electronic
devices and system components.
In two-port networks, the terminal quantities V1, V2, I1 and I2 are being related. It
can be seen in the figure below that of these four quantities, two of these are
independent depending
on the parameters to be
used. The parameters are
the terms that relate the
voltages and current in
the network such as the
impedance
and
the
admittance parameters.
A. Impedance Parameters (Z- Parameters)

In the impedance parameters, the independent variables or the inputs in the
ports are the currents I1 and I2 and the dependent variables are the voltages V1 and
V2. These parameters are related by the equations and the matrix form shown below:
1 = 11 1 + 12 2
2 = 21 1 + 22 2
[ 1 ] = [ 11
2
21
12 1
] [ ] = [ ] [ 1 ]
22 2
2
Where:
11 = Open circuit input impedance
12 = Open circuit transfer impedance from port 1 to port 2
21 = Open circuit transfer impedance from port 2 to port 1
22 = Open circuit output impedance
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With the definitions above, the values of the impedances can be obtained by
setting the input current I1 equal to 0 (port 1 open-circuited) or the output current I2
equal to 0 (port 2 open-circuited). These results to the following equations:
1 = 11 1 + 12 (0 )
1
11 =
1
1 = 11 (0 ) + 12 2
1
12 =
2
2 = 21 1 + 22 (0 )
2
21 =
1
2 = 21 (0 ) + 22 2
2
22 =
2
These four quantities of impedances can be obtained by connecting a voltage

or current source in one port and setting the other port as open-circuit. By providing
a voltage source V1 or current source I1 in the input port, and setting the output port
as open circuit, the impedances Z11 and Z21 can be obtained. Likewise, by connecting
a voltage source V2 and current source I2 in the output port and setting the input port
as open circuit, Z12 and Z22 can be obtained.
Z11 and Z22 are sometimes regarded as driving-point impedances and Z21 and
Z12 are called transfer impedances. The driving point impedances are the respective
input impedances of a one port device when one port is open-circuited. When these
two impedances are equal, the two-port network is said to be symmetrical that is
interchanging the ports can be done without disturbing the values of the terminal
voltages and currents. In contrast, when the transfer impedances Z21 and Z12 are
equal, the two port network is said to be reciprocal, that is the voltage that is
measured at port 2 due to a current in port 1 would be the same voltage appearing at
port 1 when the same current is measured at port 2. A reciprocal network is possible
if and only if the components that are inside that network are made entirely of
resistors, capacitors and inductors. A reciprocal network is illustrated below.

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A reciprocal network can also be represented by a T-equivalent circuit which

is shown on the figure on the left, while for non-reciprocal networks, it can be
represented with the figure on the right.
B. Admittance Parameters (Y- Parameters)

In the admittance parameters, the independent variables or inputs in the
ports are now the terminal voltages V1 and V2, while the dependent variables or the
outputs in the port are now I1 and I2. The admittance parameters are related by the
following equations and matrix form:
1 = 11 1 + 12 2
2 = 21 1 + 22 2
[ 1 ] = [ 11
2
21
12 1
] [ ] = [ ] [ 1 ]
22 2
2
Where:
11 = Short circuit input admittance
12 = Short circuit transfer admittance from port 2 to port 1
21 = Short circuit transfer admittance from port 1 to port 2
22 = Short circuit output admittance
With these definitions, the parameters Y11 and Y21 can be solved by connecting
a current source I1 to port 1 and short-circuiting port 2. Likewise, the parameters Y12
and Y21 can be obtained by connecting a current source I2 to port 2 and shortcircuiting port 1. These are illustrated by the following equations:
1 = 11 1 + 12 (0 )
1
11 =
1
1 = 11 (0 ) + 12 2
1
12 =
2
2 = 21 1 + 22 (0 )
2
21 =
1
2 = 21 (0 ) + 22 2
2
22 =
2
Relating the impedance and admittance, there is also transfer admittances and
reciprocal networks that can be achieved when Y12 = Y21. Collectively these two
parameters are known as immittance parameters.

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In Y-parameters, a reciprocal network can be represented by a -equivalent

circuit which is shown on the left. A non-reciprocal network can be represented with
the general equivalent circuit on the right.
With circuits having a T-equivalent or -equivalent circuit, they can be

converted from T to -equivalent circuit and vice versa by the same equations that
are used to transform a Y-network into a -network.
Examples:
1. Find the Z-parameters of the given circuit below:
25
3 + 5
2 2
Solution:
To simplify the circuit, it can be converted into its T-equivalent circuit.
(3 + 5 )(2 2)
(3 + 5 ) + (25 ) + (2 2 )
= 0.5413 + 0.0792
(25 )(2 2)
=
(3 + 5 ) + (25 ) + (2 2 )
=

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
= 1.4851 1.8152
(3 + 5 )(25 )
=
(3 + 5 ) + (25 ) + (2 2 )
= 2.8878 + 3.8779
Determining Z11 and Z21:
2 = 0
+
2.8878
+ 3.8779
1.4851
1.8152
0.5413
+ 0.0792
1 1 (2.8878 + 3.8779 + 0.5413 + 0.0792 )

11 = =
1
1
11 = 3.4291 + 3.9571
2 1 (0.5413 + 0.0792 )
21 = =
1
1
21 = 0.5413 + 0.0792
Determining Z12 and Z22:
1 = 0
2.8878
+ 3.8779
1.4851
1.8152
+
1
0.5413
+ 0.0792
1 2 (0.5413 + 0.0792 )
=
2
2
12 = 0.5413 + 0.0792
2 2 (0.5413 + 0.0792 + 1.4851 1.8152 )
22 =
=
2
2
22 = 2.0264 1.7360
12 =

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2. Given the circuit below, solve for I1 and I2.

2
1
+
2200
11 = 3
12 = 12
21 = 12
22 = 3
+
20
2
8
Solution:
Using the equations for the impedance parameters:
1 = 11 1 + 12 2
2 = 21 1 + 22 2
1 = 31 122
2 = 121 + 32
1 = 2200
2 = (20 8)2
2200 = 31 122
(20 8)2 = 121 + 32
1 = 1.7180 104.0362 2
2200 = (12)(1.7180 104.0362 2 ) + 32

2 = 0.0979158.1986
1 = ( 1.7180 104.0362 )(0.0979158.1986 )
1 = 0.168254.1623

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EE306 B- Notes
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3. Obtain the Y-parameters for the circuit below:

30
3
Solution:
Determining Y11 and Y21:
1
+
1
30
+
8
2 = 0
1
1
=
1 1 (3 30 )
11 = 0.0333 0.3333
3
2 1 3 + 30
21 = =
1
1 (3 30 )
21 = 0.0333
11 =
Determining Y22 and Y12:

1
+
1 = 0
30
3
+
8

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EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
2
2
=
2 (8 30)2
22 = 0.1583
8
1 2 (8 + 30 )
12 =
=
(8 30)2
2
12 = 0.0333
22 =
4. Determine the admittance parameters of the circuit shown below:

+
1
24
8
8
+
2
2
Solution:
To get the admittance parameters, short the output terminals, which would lead to :
1
11 = , 2 = 0
1
this would make the two 8 ohm resistors in parallel, and would make V1=28I1,
therefore
1
11 =
(24 + (8 8))I1
1
11 =
28
To get Y12, the input terminals are now shorted, then by current-divider theorem
8
1 = 2 (
)
8 + 24
which would lead to
8
8 + 224
1
1
12 =
=
=
2 2 (8 + 8 24)
56
And since the circuit is reciprocal
1
12 = 21 =
56
To get Y22, the input terminals are shorted which would make the 8 ohm resistor
and the 24 ohm resistor in parallel, and with that,
2
2
1
22 =
=
=
2 2 (8 + (24 8)) 14
Page 70
EE306 B- Notes
A.Y. 20142015
5. Determine the impedance parameters of the preceding circuit.

+
1
24
8
+
2
Solution:
Since the circuit is reciprocal, the following relations of the resistances can be used
to relate them to the impedance parameters:
Therefore,
11 12 = 24
22 12 = 8
12 = 21 = 8
11 = 24 + 8
11 = 32
22 = 8 + 8
22 = 16

Page 71

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EE306 B- Notes

EE306B Circuit Analysis II

In a power distribution system, a power plant generates an AC (alternating current) voltage

o = 108 , where e is the emf in volts

NECES Academics Committee 2014-2015

Image from: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/sinusoidal-waveform.html

In the Philippines, the frequency of the residential supply voltage is 60 Hz.

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Types of Electrical Signals

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2. AC (Alternating Current) flow of current periodically reverses direction.

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Saw tooth Wave

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DC Signal (constant voltage)

Characteristics of a Sinusoidal waveform

Vp= peak voltage, Vp-p = peak-to-peak voltage

For the positive half, the current direction is:

For the negative half, the current direction is:

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Effective value (RMS Value)

T = shows that it is defined over a full cycle

Exploiting the trigonometric identity of sin2(t):

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+60 degree phase shift

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Inductor (Pure , with no resistance)

equating the two equations, we would get:

rearranging and integrating

Exploiting the trigonometric identity of cos(t),

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Capacitor (Pure , with no resistance)

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Ohms Law in AC Circuit

Reactance reaction of the capacitor/inductor based on the signal applied to them. It is

When a resistance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented in rectangular

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When a pure inductive reactance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented

When a pure capacitive reactance is represented in its phasor form, it is represented

When an impedance Z is represented in its phasor form, it is represented in

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In polar form, the impedance can be expressed as:

To convert from polar form to rectangular form:

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For an easier conversion using the calculator (Casio FX991ES)

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Alternating Current Circuit Analysis

Using the store function in the calculator:

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= 150 using cosine law

Angle is obtained by getting the angle of impedance of the sum of VL and VR

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To find angle , cosine law may be used:

d. Power factor of the coil

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For the first condition, the coil can be expressed as impedance Z.

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= cos 1 0.6 = 53.1301

2 = (280)2 + (300)2 2(280)(300) cos(163.7398)