PREPAID ENERGY METER

BASIC IDEA:
A scheme of Electricity billing system called "PREPAID ENERGY METER WITH
TARIFF INDICATOR" can facilitate in improved cash flow management in energy
utilities and can reduces problem associated with billing consumer living in isolated area
and
reduces
deployment
of
manpower
for
taking
meter
readings.
Every consumer can recharge tag assigned and recharge its meter at various ranges (ie. Rs
50, Rs 100, Rs 200 etc).
.
Consumer can check its balance in LCD attached with the module and be prepare for the
next recharge in advance.
For this innovative work we had taken a digital energy meter whose blinking LED
signal is interfaced to a microcontroller of 8051 family through a LDR.. The blinking
LED flashes 3200 times for 1 unit . The LDR sensor gives an interrupt each time the
meter LED flashes to the programmed micro controller, The microcontroller takes this
reading and displays the it on an LCD duly interfaced to the microcontroller. The reading
of the energy meter is also sent to a GSM modem being fed from the microcontroller via
level shifter IC and RS232 link. The power supply consists of a step down transformer
230/12V, which steps down the voltage to 12V AC. This is converted to DC using a
Bridge rectifier and it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 7805 which is
required for the operation of the microcontroller and other components.

Block Diagram

Energy Meter:
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of
electrical energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically
powered device.
Electric meters are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common
one being the kilowatt hour. Periodic readings of electric meters establishes
billing cycles and energy used during a cycle.
In settings when energy savings during certain periods are desired, meters
may measure demand, the maximum use of power in some interval. In some
areas, the electric rates are higher during certain times of day, to encourage
reduction in use. Also, in some areas meters have relays to turn off
nonessential equipment.[1]

Electronic meters
Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and can also
transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used, electronic
meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as maximum
demand, power factor and reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day
billing, for example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak
hours.
Solid state electricity meter used in a home in the Netherlands.
Communication
Remote meter reading is a practical example of telemetry. It saves the cost of a human
meter reader and the resulting mistakes, but it also allows more measurements, and
remote provisioning. Many smart meters now include a switch to interrupt or restore
service.
Historically, rotating meters could report their power information remotely, using a pair
of contact closures attached to a KYZ line.
In a KYZ interface, the Y and Z wires are switch contacts, shorted to K for half of a
rotor's circumference. To measure the rotor direction, the Z signal is offset by 90 degrees
from the Y. When the rotor rotates in the opposite direction, showing export of power, the
sequence reverses. The time between pulses measures the demand. The number of pulses
is total power usage.[17]
KYZ outputs were historically attached to "totalizer relays" feeding a "totalizer" so that
many meters could be read all at once in one place.

KYZ outputs are also the classic way of attaching electric meters to programmable logic
controllers, HVACs or other control systems. Some modern meters also supply a contact
closure that warns when the meter detects a demand near a higher tariff.
Some meters have an open collector output that gives 32-100 ms pulses for a constant
amount of used electrical energy. Usually 1000-10000 pulses per kWh. Output is limited
to max 27 V DC and 27 mA DC. The output usually follows the DIN 43864 standard.[18]
[19]
Often, meters designed for semi-automated reading have a serial port on that
communicates by infrared LED through the faceplate of the meter. In some apartment
buildings, a similar protocol is used, but in a wired bus using a serial current loop to
connect all the meters to a single plug. The plug is often near the mailboxes. In the
European Union, the most common infrared and protocol is "FLAG", a simplified subset
of mode C of IEC 61107. In the U.S. and Canada, the favoured infrared protocol is ANSI
C12.18. Some industrial meters use a protocol for programmable logic controllers
(Modbus).
The most modern protocol proposed for this purpose is DLM/COSEM which can operate
over any medium, including serial ports. The data can be transmitted by Zigbee, WiFi,
telephone lines or over the power lines themselves. Some meters can be read over the
internet.
Electronic meters now use Low Power Radio, GSM, GPRS, Bluetooth, IrDA, as well as
RS-485 wired link. The meters can now store the entire usage profiles with time stamps
and relay them at a click of a button. The demand readings stored with the profiles
accurately indicate the load requirements of the customer. This load profile data is
processed at the utilities for billing and planning purposes.
AMR (Automatic Meter Reading) and RMR (Remote Meter Reading) describe various
systems that allow meters to be checked without the need to send a meter reader out. An
electronic meter can transmit its readings by telephone line or radio to a central billing
office. Automatic meter reading can be done with GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) modems, one is attached to each meter and the other is placed at the
central utility office.
[edit] Solid-state design
Basic block diagram of an electronic energy meter
As in the block diagram, the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a processing
and communication engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as
RTC, LCD display, communication ports/modules and so on.
The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage reference,
samplers and quantisers followed by an ADC section to yield the digitised equivalents of
all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a Digital Signal Processor to
calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.

The largest source of long-term errors in the meter is drift in the preamp, followed by the
precision of the voltage reference. Both of these vary with temperature as well, and vary
wildly because most meters are outdoors. Characterizing and compensating for these is a
major part of meter design.
The processing and communication section has the responsibility of calculating the
various derived quantities from the digital values generated by the metering engine. This
also has the responsibility of communication using various protocols and interface with
other addon modules connected as slaves to it.
RTC and other add-on modules are attached as slaves to the processing and
communication section for various input/output functions. On a modern meter most if not
all of this will be implemented inside the microprocessor, such as the Real Time Clock
(RTC), LCD controller, temperature sensor, memory and analog to digital converters.
Circuit Diagram:

Steps for making Hardware

Layout
Layout is the sizing, spacing, and placement of content within a window or page.
Effective layout is crucial in helping users find what they are looking for quickly, as well
as making the appearance visually appealing. Effective layout can make the difference
between designs that users immediately understand and those that leave users feeling
puzzled and overwhelmed.
The PCB layout can be draw either manually or by Designing software. The manual
process is useful and quick only for very easy PCBs, for more complex PCBs, the second
way is beneficial. Nowadays inexpensive computer software can handle all aspect of
PCBs pre-processing.

Etching
Etching is the most widely used form of the intaglio processes where the line and tone
of an image are created by exposing areas of a metal plate to acid.
Etching is probably the easiest and most cost effective. Etching is the process of
chemically removing the unwanted copper from a plated board. You must put a mask or

resist on the portions of the copper that you want to remain after the etch. These portions
that remain on the board are the traces that carry electrical current between devices.
The process of making a print: The surface of a metal plate is covered in wax and the
artist then creates their image by scratching into the wax. The plate is then immersed in
an acid bath. The areas of the plate not covered by the wax are then eaten away by the
acid creating a grove for the ink to sit in. The plate is then covered with ink most of
which is then rubbed off so only in ink in the groves remains. Dampened paper is then
placed on an etching press and the plate placed ink side down on top of it. All this is
covered with layers of padding and run through the press which looks a bit like a mangle.
The image has now been transferred to the paper. Photo-etching (also called photogravure
or heliogravue) uses a light reactive acid resistant ground. The image is then projected
onto the plate reproducing the photograph.
History: Etching was used for decorating metal from the fourteenth century, but was
probably not used for printmaking much before the early sixteenth century. Since then
many different etching techniques have been developed, which are often used in
conjunction with each other.
Possible etching solutions include the following:
Ferric Chloride
It's messy stuff but easier to get and cheaper than most alternatives. It attacks ANY metal
including stainless steel, so when setting up a PCB etching area, use a plastic or ceramic
sink, with plastic fittings & screws wherever possible, and seal any metal screws etc. with
silicone. If copper water pipes may get splashed or dripped, sleeve or cover them in
plastic. Fume extraction is not normally required, although a cover over the tank or tray
when not in use is a good idea.
You should always use the hexahydrate type of ferric chloride, which is light yellow, and
comes as powder or granules, which should be dissolved in warm water until no more
will dissolve. Adding a teaspoon of table salt helps to make the etchant clearer for easier
inspection.
Anhydrous ferric chloride is sometimes encountered, which is a green-brown powder.
Avoid this stuff if at all possible use extreme caution, as it creates a lot of heat when
dissolved - always add the powder very slowly to water, do not add water to the powder,
and use gloves and safety glasses. You may find that solution made from anhydrous FeCl
doesn't etch at all, if so, you need to add a small amount of hydrochloric acid and leave it
for a day or two.
Always take extreme care to avoid splashing when dissolving either type of FeCl - it
tends to clump together and you often get big chunks coming out of the container &

splashing into the solution. It will damage eyes and permanently stain clothing and pretty
much anything else - use gloves and safety glasses and wash off any skin splashes
immediately.
If you're making PCBs in a professional environment, where time is money, you really
should get a heated bubble-etch tank. With fresh hot ferric chloride, a PCB will etch in
well under 5 minutes, compared to up to an hour without heat or agitation. Fast etching
also produces better edge quality and consistent line widths.
If you aren't using a bubble tank, you need to agitate frequently to ensure even etching.
Warm the etchant by putting the etching tray inside a larger tray filled with boiling water
- you want the etchant to be at least 30-60C for sensible etch times.
Ammonium Persulphate
Sodium Persulphate Etchant is supplied as a dry, easily mixed etchant for copper clad
printed circuit boards and other copper bearing materials. When used in conjunction with
the catalyst, a very constant etch rate can be maintained throughout the life of the bath.
After mixing, the bath has a practical life of about three (3) weeks and a copper capacity
of approximately four to five (4-5) ounces of copper per gallon (29.96 - 37.45 grams /
liter) of etchant.
Sodium Persulphate Etchant, when compared to Ferric Chloride and other copper
etchants, has several distinct advantages.
Cleanliness: Sodium Persulphate will not stain clothes, skin or tanks.
Rinsing: Sodium Persulphate rinses easily and leaves no residue in plain water.
Etching speed: Sodium Persulphate attains a fast etching speed and with regular additions
of the catalyst, maintains a relatively even etching rate throughout its entire mix life.
However, as with all etchants, Sodium Persulphate has several disadvantages:
Short active life: once Sodium Persulphate is mixed, it has a tank life of three (3) weeks,
maximum, whether or not it is used.
Aggressiveness: Sodium Persulphate will attack natural fibers such as cotton, wool and
linen.

Drilling
To make holes on your PCB you need a drill, a good vertical drill stand and drill bits.
To drill fiberglass (FR4) board you must use tungsten carbide drill bits because fiberglass
eats normal high-speed steel (HSS) bits very rapidly. Although HSS drills are good for
odd larger sizes (>2mm) that you only use occasionally where the expense of a carbide
isn't justified. Carbide drill bits are expensive, and the thin ones snap very easily. To
avoid drill bits break you must use a good vertical drill stand. Carbide drill bits are
available as straight-shank (i.e. the whole bit is the diameter of the hole), or thick
(sometimes called 'turbo') shank, where a standard size (typically about 3.5mm) shank

tapers down to the hole size. I much prefer the straight-shank type because they break
less easily, the longer thin section providing more flexibility.
When drilling with carbide bits, it's important to hold the pcb down firmly, as the drill bit
can snatch the board upwards as it breaks through, and this will usually break the bit if
the board isn't held down.
Small drills for PCB usually come with either a set of collets of various sizes or a 3-jaw
chuck - sometimes the 3-jaw chuck is an optional extra, and is worth getting for the time
it saves changing collets. For accuracy, however, 3-jaw chucks aren't brilliant, and small
drill sizes below 1mm quickly form grooves in the jaws, preventing good grip. Below
1mm you should use collets, and buy a few extra of the smallest ones, keeping one collet
per drill size, as using a larger drill in a collet will open it out so it no longer grips smaller
drills well. Some cheap drills come with plastic collets - throw them away and get metal
ones.
You need a good strong light on the board when drilling to ensure accuracy. It can be
useful to raise the working surface about 15 cm above normal desk height for more
comfortable viewing. Dust extraction is nice, but not essential - an occasional blow does
the trick! Note that fiberglass dust & drill swarf is very abrasive and also irritating to the
skin. A foot-pedal control to switch the drill off and on is very convenient, especially
when
frequently
changing
bits.
Typical hole sizes: ICs, resistors etc. 0.8mm. Larger diodes, pin headers etc: 1.0mm,
terminal blocks, trimmers etc. 1.2 to 1.5mm. Avoid hole sizes less than 0.8mm unless you
really need them. Always keep at least 2 spare 0.8mm drill bits, as they always break just
when you need a PCB really urgently. 1.0 and larger are more resilient, but one spare is
always
a
good
idea.
When making two identical boards, it is possible to drill them both together to save time.
To do this, carefully drill a 0.8mm hole in the pad nearest each corner of each of the two
boards, getting the centre as accurate as possible. For larger boards, drill a hole near the
centre of each side as well. Lay the boards on top of each other, and insert an 0.8mm
track pin in 2 opposite corners, using the pins as pegs to line the PCBs up. Squeeze or
hammer the pins into the boards, and then insert and squeeze pins into the remaining
holes. The two PCBs will now have been 'nailed' together accurately, and can be drilled
together. Standard track pins are just the right length to fix the PCBs together without
protruding below the bottom board.

Soldering of Components
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting
and flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting
point than the workpiece.

Safety Precautions
Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.
They are very hot (about 400C) and will give you a nasty burn.
Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron.
The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. Ordinary plastic flex melts
immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a risk of burns and electric shock.
Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use.
Never put it down on your workbench, even for a moment!
Allow joints a minute or so to cool down before you touch them.
Work in a well-ventilated area.
The smoke formed as you melt solder is mostly from the flux and quite irritating. Avoid
breathing it by keeping you head to the side of, not above, your work.
Wash your hands after using solder.
Solder contains lead.
What is solder?
Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically 60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a
temperature of about 200C. Coating a surface with solder is called tinning because of
the tin content of solder.
Lead is poisonous and you should always wash your hands after using solder.
Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux, like the wires inside a mains flex.
The flux is corrosive, like an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts.
This is why you must melt the solder actually on the joint, not on the iron tip. Without
flux most joints would fail because metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not
flow properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal surface.
The best size of solder for electronic circuit boards is 22swg (swg = standard wire gauge).
For plugs, component holders and other larger joints you may prefer to use 18swg solder.

Power supply

AC
DC

Step Down
Transformer

Bridge
Rectifier

Filter

The main work of sections of Power supply is described as:

Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

Regulator

Bridge Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

Smoothing Circuit - Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
Voltage Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

Fig: Circuit of Power supply

1
Transformer:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors the transformer's coils or "windings". Except
for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich
core, or around separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or
"primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the
transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
"voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary circuit, electric charge will flow in the secondary
winding of the transformer and transfer energy from the primary circuit to the load
connected in the secondary circuit.
The secondary induced voltage VS, of an ideal transformer, is scaled from the primary VP
by a factor equal to the ratio of the number of turns of wire in their respective windings:

By appropriate selection of the numbers of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

voltage to be stepped up by making NS more than NP or stepped down, by making
it.
1.1

BASIC PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

In its most basic form a transformer consists of:

A primary coil or winding.

A secondary coil or winding.
A core that supports the coils or windings.

Refer to the transformer circuit in figure as you read the following explanation: The
primary winding is connected to a 60-hertz ac voltage source. The magnetic field (flux)
builds up (expands) and collapses (contracts) about the primary winding. The expanding
and contracting magnetic field around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding
and induces an alternating voltage into the winding. This voltage causes alternating
current to flow through the load. The voltage may be stepped up or down depending on
the design of the primary and secondary windings.
1.2

The Components Of A Transformer

Two coils of wire (called windings) are wound on some type of core material. In some
cases the coils of wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard form. In
effect, the core material is air and the transformer is called an AIR-CORE
TRANSFORMER. Transformers used at low frequencies, such as 60 hertz and 400 hertz,
require a core of low-reluctance magnetic material, usually iron. This type of transformer
is called an IRON-CORE TRANSFORMER. Most power transformers are of the ironcore type. The principle parts of a transformer and their functions are:
The CORE, which provides a path for the magnetic lines of flux.

The PRIMARY WINDING, which receives energy from the ac source.

The SECONDARY WINDING, which receives energy from the primary winding
and delivers it to the load.
The ENCLOSURE, which protects the above components from dirt, moisture,
and mechanical damage.
Bridge Rectifier

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
Basic operation:
According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin
Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow through
electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in
a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast
majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant.
Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained.
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond is
positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the
upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns
to the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

When the input connected to the left corner is negative, and the input connected to the
right corner is positive, current flows from the lower supply terminal to the right along
the red path to the output, and returns to the upper supply terminal via the blue path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative.
Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC
output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". That is, it permits normal functioning of DC-powered equipment when
batteries have been installed backwards, or when the leads (wires) from a DC power
source have been reversed, and protects the equipment from potential damage caused by
reverse polarity.
Prior to availability of integrated electronics, such a bridge rectifier was always
constructed from discrete components. Since about 1950, a single four-terminal
component containing the four diodes connected in the bridge configuration became a
standard commercial component and is now available with various voltage and current
ratings.
3

Output smoothing:

For many applications, especially with single phase AC where the full-wave bridge
serves to convert an AC input into a DC output, the addition of a capacitor may be
desired because the bridge alone supplies an output of fixed polarity but continuously
varying or "pulsating" magnitude (see diagram above).

The function of this capacitor, known as a reservoir capacitor (or smoothing capacitor) is
to lessen the variation in (or 'smooth') the rectified AC output voltage waveform from the
bridge. One explanation of 'smoothing' is that the capacitor provides a low impedance
path to the AC component of the output, reducing the AC voltage across, and AC current
through, the resistive load. In less technical terms, any drop in the output voltage and

current of the bridge tends to be canceled by loss of charge in the capacitor. This charge
flows out as additional current through the load. Thus the change of load current and
voltage is reduced relative to what would occur without the capacitor. Increases of
voltage correspondingly store excess charge in the capacitor, thus moderating the change
in output voltage / current.
The simplified circuit shown has a well-deserved reputation for being dangerous,
because, in some applications, the capacitor can retain a lethal charge after the AC power
source is removed. If supplying a dangerous voltage, a practical circuit should include a
reliable way to safely discharge the capacitor. If the normal load cannot be guaranteed to
perform this function, perhaps because it can be disconnected, the circuit should include a
bleeder resistor connected as close as practical across the capacitor. This resistor should
consume a current large enough to discharge the capacitor in a reasonable time, but small
enough to minimize unnecessary power waste.
Because a bleeder sets a minimum current drain, the regulation of the circuit, defined as
percentage voltage change from minimum to maximum load, is improved. However in
many cases the improvement is of insignificant magnitude.
The capacitor and the load resistance have a typical time constant = RC where C and R
are the capacitance and load resistance respectively. As long as the load resistor is large
enough so that this time constant is much longer than the time of one ripple cycle, the
above configuration will produce a smoothed DC voltage across the load.
In some designs, a series resistor at the load side of the capacitor is added. The smoothing
can then be improved by adding additional stages of capacitorresistor pairs, often done
only for sub-supplies to critical high-gain circuits that tend to be sensitive to supply
voltage noise.
The idealized waveforms shown above are seen for both voltage and current when the
load on the bridge is resistive. When the load includes a smoothing capacitor, both the
voltage and the current waveforms will be greatly changed. While the voltage is
smoothed, as described above, current will flow through the bridge only during the time
when the input voltage is greater than the capacitor voltage. For example, if the load
draws an average current of n Amps, and the diodes conduct for 10% of the time, the
average diode current during conduction must be 10n Amps. This non-sinusoidal current
leads to harmonic distortion and a poor power factor in the AC supply.
In a practical circuit, when a capacitor is directly connected to the output of a bridge, the
bridge diodes must be sized to withstand the current surge that occurs when the power is
turned on at the peak of the AC voltage and the capacitor is fully discharged. Sometimes

a small series resistor is included before the capacitor to limit this current, though in most
applications the power supply transformer's resistance is already sufficient.
Output can also be smoothed using a choke and second capacitor. The choke tends to
keep the current (rather than the voltage) more constant. Due to the relatively high cost of
an effective choke compared to a resistor and capacitor this is not employed in modern
equipment.
Some early console radios created the speaker's constant field with the current from the
high voltage ("B +") power supply, which was then routed to the consuming circuits,
(permanent magnets were then too weak for good performance) to create the speaker's
constant magnetic field. The speaker field coil thus performed 2 jobs in one: it acted as a
choke, filtering the power supply, and it produced the magnetic field to operate the
speaker.
4

REGULATOR IC (78XX)

It is a three pin IC used as a voltage regulator. It converts unregulated DC

current into regulated DC current.
Normally we get fixed output by connecting the voltage regulator at the
output of the filtered DC (see in above diagram). It can also be used in
circuits to get a low DC voltage from a high DC voltage (for example we
use 7805 to get 5V from 12V). There are two types of voltage regulators
1. fixed voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx)
2. variable voltage regulators (LM317)
In fixed voltage regulators there is another classification
1. +ve voltage regulators
2. -ve voltage regulators POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATORS.
This include 78xx voltage regulators. The most commonly used ones are 7805 and 7812.
7805 gives fixed 5V DC voltage if input voltage is in (7.5V, 20V).
5

The Capacitor Filter:

The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The application
of the simple capacitor filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely highvoltage, low-current power supplies for cathode ray and similar electron tubes, which
require very little load current from the supply. The capacitor filter is also used where the
power-supply ripple frequency is not critical; this frequency can be relatively high. The

capacitor (C1) shown in figure 4-15 is a simple filter connected across the output of the
rectifier in parallel with the load.

Full-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter

When this filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor (C1) must be short and
the RC discharge time must be long to eliminate ripple action. In other words, the
capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no discharge at all. Better filtering also
results when the input frequency is high; therefore, the full-wave rectifier output is easier
to filter than that of the half-wave rectifier because of its higher frequency.
For you to have a better understanding of the effect that filtering has on E avg, a
comparison of a rectifier circuit with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views
A and B of figure 4-16. The output waveforms in figure 4-16 represent the unfiltered and
filtered outputs of the half-wave rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow through the load
resistance (RL) each time a diode conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of
output voltage. For the half-wave rectifier, Eavg is less than half (or approximately 0.318)
of the peak output voltage. This value is still much less than that of the applied voltage.
With no capacitor connected across the output of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in
view A has a large pulsating component (ripple) compared with the average or dc
component. When a capacitor is connected across the output (view B), the average value
of output voltage (Eavg) is increased due to the filtering action of capacitor C1.

UNFILTERED

FILTERED

Half-wave rectifier with and without filtering.

The value of the capacitor is fairly large (several microfarads), thus it presents a relatively
low reactance to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge.
The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting
diode, which is relatively low. Therefore, the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively
short. As a result, when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor
charges rapidly and almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first
few cycles. The capacitor attempts to charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage
anytime a diode is conducting, and tends to retain its charge when the rectifier output
falls to zero. (The capacitor cannot discharge immediately.) The capacitor slowly
discharges through the load resistance (RL) during the time the rectifier is nonconducting.
The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the
value of the load resistance. If the capacitance and load-resistance values are large, the
RC discharge time for the circuit is relatively long.
A comparison of the waveforms shown in figure 4-16 (view A and view B) illustrates that
the addition of C1 to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage
(Eavg) and a reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component (E r), which is normally
present across the load resistance.
Now, let's consider a complete cycle of operation using a half-wave rectifier, a capacitive
filter (C1), and a load resistor (RL). As shown in view A of figure 4-17, the capacitive
filter (C1) is assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating
rectified current. The resistance of RL is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of
C1 at the input frequency. When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the
positive half cycle and current flows through the circuit, allowing C1 to charge. C1 will
charge to approximately the peak value of the input voltage. (The charge is less than the
peak value because of the voltage drop across the diode (D1)). In view A of the figure,
the heavy solid line on the waveform indicates the charge on C1. As illustrated in view B,
the diode cannot conduct on the negative half cycle because the anode of D1 is negative
with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C1 discharges through the load resistor
(RL). The discharge of C1 produces the downward slope as indicated by the solid line on
the waveform in view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the applied ac voltage from peak
value to zero, the voltage across C1 (and thus across R L) during the discharge period
gradually decreases until the time of the next half cycle of rectifier operation. Keep in
mind that for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast as possible and
discharge as little as possible.

Figure. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). POSITIVE HALFCYCLE

Figure. - Capacitor filter circuit (positive and negative half cycles). NEGATIVE HALFCYCLE
Since practical values of C1 and RL ensure a more or less gradual decrease of the
discharge voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next
half cycle of operation. As a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising
ac input voltage at the anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on
C1. The charge on C1 is the cathode potential of the diode. When the potential on the
anode exceeds the potential on the cathode (the charge on C1), the diode again conducts,
and C1 begins to charge to approximately the peak value of the applied voltage.
After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off and the capacitor
will start to discharge. Since the fall of the ac input voltage on the anode is considerably
more rapid than the decrease on the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly become more
positive than the anode, and the diode ceases to conduct.
Operation of the simple capacitor filter using a full-wave rectifier is basically the same as
that discussed for the half-wave rectifier. Referring to figure, you should notice that
because one of the diodes is always conducting on alternation, the filter capacitor charges
and discharges during each half cycle. (Note that each diode conducts only for that
portion of time when the peak secondary voltage is greater than the charge across the
capacitor.)

Figure - Full-wave rectifier (with capacitor filter).

Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component (E r) of the output voltage is
an ac voltage and the average output voltage (Eavg) is the dc component of the output.
Since the filter capacitor offers relatively low impedance to ac, the majority of the ac
component flows through the filter capacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed
(shunted) around the load resistance, and the entire dc component (or E avg) flows through
the load resistance. This statement can be clarified by using the formula for X C in a halfwave and full-wave rectifier. First, you must establish some values for the circuit.
As you can see from the calculations, by doubling the frequency of the rectifier, you
reduce the impedance of the capacitor by one-half. This allows the ac component to pass
through the capacitor more easily. As a result, a full-wave rectifier output is much easier
to filter than that of a half-wave rectifier. Remember, the smaller the X C of the filter
capacitor with respects to the load resistance, the better the filtering action. Since the
largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering.

Remember, also, that the load resistance is an important consideration. If load resistance
is made small, the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage (E avg)
decreases. The RC discharge time constant is a direct function of the value of the load
resistance; therefore, the rate of capacitor voltage discharge is a direct function of the
current through the load. Greater the load current, the more rapid discharge of the
capacitor, and the lower the average value of output voltage. For this reason, the simple
capacitive filter is seldom used with rectifier circuits that must supply a relatively large
load current. Using the simple capacitive filter in conjunction with a full-wave or bridge
rectifier provides improved filtering because the increased ripple frequency decreases the
capacitive reactance of the filter capacitor.