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Energy consumption and water production cost of conventional and renewable-energy-powered desalination processes
a r t i c l e i n f o
Keywords:
Water desalination
Distillation processes
Membrane processes
Renewable energy
abstract
Desalination technologies improve water quality, greatly reduce water shortage problems, and improve
quality of life and economic status. Two main technologies are currently used in water desalination:
thermal (phase-change) processes and membrane processes. The primary thermal distillation processes
include multistage ash distillation (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), and vapor compression (VC).
The VC process encompasses two types: mechanical (MVC) and thermal (TVC). The common membrane
desalination processes include reverse osmosis (RO) and electrodialysis (ED and EDR).
Energy cost, operational and maintenance cost, and capital investment are the main contributors to
the water production cost of any of these processes. The energy cost is responsible for about 50% of the
produced water cost. For thermal distillation processes (MSF, MED, and TVC), two energy forms are
required for the operation: (1) low-temperature heat, which represents the main portion of the energy
input and is usually supplied to the system by a number of external sources (e.g., fossil fuel, waste
energy, nuclear, solar) and (2) electricity, which is used to drive the systems pumps and other electrical
components. For the MVC thermal distillation process, only electricity is needed. For membrane
processes (RO and ED), only electricity is required as an energy input.
Renewable energy systems such as solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, and geothermal
technologies are currently used as energy suppliers for desalination systems. These renewable
resources are now a proven technology and remain economically promising for remote regions, where
connection to the public electric grid is either not cost effective or feasible, and where water scarcity is
severe. As the technologies continue to improve, and as fresh water becomes scarce and fossil fuel
energy prices rise, renewable energy desalination becomes more viable economically.
The technical features, energy consumption, environmental considerations, and potential of
renewable energy use in driving the main desalination processes are reviewed and analyzed in this
paper. The current and projected costs of water produced from conventional and renewable-energydriven processes are discussed and compared.
& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Letter to the Editor / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24 (2013) 343356
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345
in the market, with the two most commonly used ones being spiralwound and hollow ne ber. The post-treatment removes gases such
as hydrogen sulde and adjusts pH. Fig. 4 is a schematic diagram
of an RO system. RO is a mature technology that is the most
commonly used desalination technique. Its installed capacity ranges
between 0.1 m3/day (used in marine and household applications) to
395,000 m3/day (for commercial applications) [612].
brine and a diluted channel for the product fresh water [9,12]. An ED
plants typical capacity ranges from 2 to 145,000 m3/day. Fig. 5 shows
the schematic diagram of an ED unit. In EDR, the polarity of the
electrodes is switched periodically. The concentrate stream is then
converted to the feed stream and the feed stream becomes the
concentrate stream. Reversing the ow increases the life of the
electrodes and helps to clean the membranes. When the membranes
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Letter to the Editor / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24 (2013) 343356
are operated in the same direction all the time, precipitant can build
up on the concentrate sides [13].
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347
Table 1
Energy consumption of the main desalination processes.
Sources: Refs. [1424].
Properties
MSF
MED
MVC
TVC
SWRO
BWRO
ED
50,00070,000
2.55
5,00015,000
22.5
1003,000
712
10,00030,000
1.81.6
Up to 98,000
1.52.5
2145,000
2.645.5
190282
15.8323.5
145230
12.219.1
None
None
227
14.5
Up to 128,000
46 with energy
recovery
None
None
None
None
None
None
19.5827.25
14.4521.35
712
16.26
46
1.52.5
E10
E10
E10
E10
400500
200500
2.645.5, 0.72.5
at low TDS
150500
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Letter to the Editor / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24 (2013) 343356
Table 2
Average water production cost of the main desalination processes.
Source: Refs. [2548].
Type of process
Type of water
MSF
23,000528,000 m3/day
MED
91,000320,000 m3/day
Seawater
12,00055,000 m3/day
Less than 100 m3/day
VC
30,000 m3/day
1,000 m3/day
RO
100,000320,000 m3/day
15,00060,000 m3/day
1,0004,800 m3/day
RO
Large capacity: 40,000 m3/day
Medium: 201,200 m3/day
Very small: few m3/day
ED
Large capacity
Small capacity
Seawater
0.521.01
0.951.5
2.08.0
Seawater
0.870.95
2.02.6
Seawater
0.450.66
0.481.62
0.71.72
Brackish water
0.260.54
0.781.33
0.5612.99
Brackish water
0.6
1.05
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Natural
Convection
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In the second type of MEH unit, the water heats and humidies
the cold mixed air entering the evaporator. The warm, moist air
then enters the condensing section and heats the saline water
feed before it is discharged from the system. The MEH principle
offers several advantages, such as exibility in capacity, moderate
installation and operating costs, simplicity, and the possibility of
using low-temperature energy such as solar energy. Two types of
energy low-temperature heat at about 85 1C and electricity
are required in an MEH process [49,53]. The energy is needed for
compensation of sensible heat loss of salt water, pumping salt
water, and blowing the air. The largest application of this type of
distiller is implemented in Dubai, UAE, and has been operating
since 2008. The system consists of a 156-m2 absorber area and
4.8 kW of PV panels.
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351
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Table 3
Energy consumption and water production cost of RE-coupled desalination. Sources: Refs. [4978].
RE-desalination process
Solar still
Solar MEH
o 100
1100
1.36.5
2.66.5
Solar MD
Solar pond/MED
0.1510
20,000200,000
Solar pond/RO
20,000200,000
Solar CSP/MED
45,000
Solar PV/RO
o 100
Solar PV/EDR
Wind/RO
o 100
502,000
Wind/MVC
Geothermal/MED
o 100
80
Solar passive
Thermal: 29.6
Electrical: 1.5
4559
Thermal: 12.424.1
Electrical: 23
Seawater: 46
Brackish water: 1.54
Thermal: 12.424.1
Electrical: 23
Seawater: 46
Brackish water: 1.54
1.54
Seawater: 46
Brackish water:1.54
712
Thermal: 12.424.1
Electrical: 23
10.519.5
0.710.89
0.660.77
2.42.8
11.715.6
6.59.1
10.411.7
6.69.0 small capacity
1.955.2 for 1000 m3/d
5.27.8
22.8
8. Conclusion
Desalination continues to grow due to the increased water
scarcity in many parts of the world, the increase in population,
and industrial and economic growth. Desalination technologies
have been in continuous rapid development during the previous
decades in both system design and operation. This led to a huge
savings in power consumption and a cost reduction in water
Letter to the Editor / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24 (2013) 343356
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