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Science and research

There are several possible approaches to get answer of the question regarding
nature and social, political, economic, and cultural or some other sort of
phenomena. C.S .Perice , discuss four approaches to finding answers or methods of
knowing which are as under

Four Methods of knowing

1-Tenacity
2-Intution
3-Authority
4-Science

Tenacity
In this method the logic of no change is followed. The users of the method of
tenacity are holding their point of view persistently without accepting any change in
it. The basic idea is that nothing changes; what was good, bad or successful before
will continue to be so in the future. An example is the store owner who says, I do
not advertise because my parents did not believe in advertising.

Intuition/a priori approach

In this method again the reasoning is not based on fact but answer to questions in
this methods stand to reason. Something is true because it is selfevident or stands
to reason.
Examples: the sun revolves around the earth.

Authority
The method of authority seeks to promote a belief in something because a trusted
source such as doctor, teacher ,religious scholar ,etc say it is true. Here the
emphasis is on the source.

Scientific method and research

The scientific method of learning approaches learning as a series of small steps.
that is one study or one source provides only an indication of what may or may not
be true ; the truth is found only through series of objective analysis this means that
the scientific method is self correcting in that change in thought or theory are
appropriate when errors in previous research are found.
The method that is used in science for answering our questions regarding the
universe and the man made problems (social, political, cultural and economic etc) is
called research or a research is all about addressing a problem/issue through in a
scientific way.

Definition
Research is the processes of looking for a specific answer to a specific question in
an organized, objective, reliable way (payton, 1979)
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena
(kerlinger, 1986).

Basic Types of research

Research studies can be categorized on the nature of dominant data (qualitative or

quantitative), the purpose of the research (applied or basic/academic), the type of
research design survey, experimental etc or the type of analysis that will be carried
out (descriptive or analytical).
Note: Most researches have the element of all or most of these categories hence
these modes of classification can be taken as only an aid to broad understanding of
the different types of the research rather than distinct categories.

Purpose of research
As a method of knowledge research in whatever field of inquiry has at least three
major purposes:
1. Describing phenomena,
2. Explaining phenomena,
3. Predicting phenomena,

Characteristics of scientific Method

Five basic characteristics distinguish the scientific method from other methods of
knowing. A research approach that does not follow these cannot be considered to be
a scientific approach. These characteristics are:

Scientific method is public

Research data, knowledge, methods etc are not meant for the personal uses of the
researcher. Whatever the researcher finds is for the public use. Scientific research
information is freely communicated from one researcher to another. Scientists
replicate others works and independently verify a given study and support or refute
the initial research.

Science is objective
Science tries to rule out personal like and dislike. In research there is no room for
subjectivity. When a study is under taken explicit rules and procedures are
constructed and the researcher is bound to follow them. Reliability of the
measurement tool.

Science is Empirical
Researchers deal with a world that is knowable and potentially measurable.
Empiricism derives from a Greek word for experience. Researcher must be able to
classify what they study and to reject metaphysical and irrational explanations of
events. For example, a newspaper publisher claims that declining subscriptions
rates are Gods will would be rejected by scientists. Such statements cannot be
measured and classified. scientists give operational definition to abstract ideas
/notion (concepts).

Science is systematic and cumulative

Researchers use previous study as building blocks for their own work. (Review of
literature)

Science is predictive
Science is concerned with relating to the present to the future. (Hypothesis, theory)

Research Process

What is research process?

Research process is the overall scheme of scientific activities in which scientists
engage from identification of a research problem that needs to be solved to its
logical end.
Variation exists in the number as well as the order of these activities/ steps involved
in the scientific process.

Wimmer and Dominick (1994) = Eight steps

1. Selection of the problem,
2. Review of existing research and theory,
3. Statement of the hypothesis of research question,
4. Determination of appropriate methodology and research design,
5. Data collection,
6. Data analysis,
7. Presentation of results,
8. Replication

Nachmias and Nachmias (1976) enlisted seven steps:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

problem,
Hypothesis(es)
Research design
Measurement
Data collection,
data analysis
Empirical generalization

Smith (1988) viewed that research process consists of:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Identifying the research problem

Formulating the problem statement
Defining the terms in the problem statement
Selecting an appropriate methodology
Observing relevant empirical data
Analyzing observational data

Conceptualization and operationalization of the research

problem:
Conceptualization
Conceptualization of a research problem is the process of formulating and defining
the problem at hand.

Operationalization
Operationalization is the process of observing and measuring the research problem.

Selecting a research topic/ research problem

Criteria
What is the purpose of the study? (Academic or applied)
Who is selecting/ assigning the topic? (The researcher, University/institution, some
organization, etc)

Selecting the research problem

Sources for selecting a research topic (research problem

Research journals
Everyday situations: Every day we are exposed to various types of
communication via radio, TV, newspapers, etc. These exposures can be an
excellent source of research topics for researchers who want to analyze these
situations.
Research summaries (Meta research): examples are, The Communication
Yearbook, A Research Bibliography, etc.
Archive data: Gallup Pakistan, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Libraries, etc.

Criteria for selecting a good Research topic/ problem

Before selection of a research topic the researcher should keep in mind the
following points:

1. Is the topic too broad?

Researchers have to see whether the topic is too broad and general. A problem that
is too general tends to result in a study which is too general, include too many
variables, and produces results that are too difficult to interpret. Research topic
should be very specific. Try to investigate one and only one topic/ problem in one
research study.
Example: The effects of Indian movies on Pakistani society or the effects of
television on children.

2. Can the problem be really investigated?

A topic will be of no use for the researchers that cannot be answered with the
available facilities and information. For example, a researcher who wants to study
internet or cable using habits of people, and he selects a rural are for the study
where these facilities are not available. Another point to be considered is that
whether all concepts of the proposed study are measureable.

3. Can the data be analyzed properly?

i. Reliability and validity of the gathered data
ii. Researchers Knowledge of Statistical methods for data analysis.
iii. Number of collected data

4. Is the problem Significant?

Before a study is conducted, the researcher must determine whether it has some
merit. A major characteristic of a good problem is that it has some theoretical or
practical significance. Are the results will add to knowledge/ information that
already exist?

5. Can the Results of the Study be generalized?

One must be able to generalize the results of the study to other situations.

6. What costs and time are involved?

Costs usually determine the feasibility of a research project. A cost analysis must be
completed very early on. Time is another important point that affects project

feasibility. Research studies must be designed in such a way that they can be
completed in the amount of time.

7. Is the planned approach appropriate to the project?

Mail questionnaire vs telephone survey

Survey vs experimental design
Survey vs content analysis

8. Is there any potential harm to the subjects?

Researchers must carefully analyze whether the project may cause physical
or psychological harm to the subjects under evaluation? For example, will
respondent be frightened in any way? Will they require answering
embarrassing questions?

The problem statement

A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to
be addressed. Problem statement gives direction to the rest of the plan or report. It
should be stated as soon as possible. It provides the context for the research study
and generates the questions which the research aims to answer. This means it
should be stated in the introduction of your thesis.

Criteria of Problem statement

According to Fred N. Kerlinger, there are three criteria of good problems and
problem statements:
1. The problem should express a relation between two or more variables.
Example, is A related to B? How are A and B related to C? How is A related to B
under conditions C?
2. The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously in question form.
Instead of saying, for example, the problem is or the purpose of this study
is
3. The problem should imply the possibilities of empirical testing.
Criterion # 2 of problem statement mentioned by Kerlinger is debatable. Other
scholars don not lend support to this point. Some other scholars are of the view that
the actual statement may be in a declarative form. For example, L. R. Gay in his
book Educational research writes, An example of problem statement might be the
problem to be investigated in this study is (or the purpose of this study is to
investigate...

Significance/ need of the problem statement

A problem statement is the description of an issue currently existing which

needs to be addressed.
The problem statement gives direction to the rest of the plan or report.
It provides the context for the research study and generates the questions
which the research aims to answer.
The problem statements hook the reader and establish a persuasive context.
It also gives rationale of the study.

How to state the problem?

According to Kerlinger, The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously in

question form. Instead of saying, for instance, the problem is or The purpose
of this study is ask a question (1986, p.17).
Kerlingers criterion of problem statement is debatable. Some other scholars are of
the view that the actual statement may be in a declarative form. For example, L. R.
Gay in his book Educational Research writes, An example of problem statement
might be the problem to be investigated in this study is (or the purpose of this
study is to investigate.. (1990, p.34)

Elements of problem statement

Problem statements often have three elements:
1. The problem itself.
2. Objectives, contextual details and scope of the project being proposed.
3. The method of solving the problem

Placement in research proposal/ thesis

A statement of the problem is invariably the first component of the introduction
section of both a research plan (research proposal) and thesis. For example, an
introduction just begins with a problem statement such as the purpose of this
study is to investigate television viewers activity in their TV-using behavior.
It should be followed by:
(i) Background of the problem, including justification for the present
study. This background helps your readers in understanding the
problem.
(ii) Definition/ Explanation of the major concepts.
(iii) Brief introduction about the population/ sample, and research
method that you are going to employ in your study.
In the process of research the problem statement is followed by literature review.

Literature Review
Researchers who conduct studies under the guideline of scientific research never
begin a research project without first consulting available literature. The
review provides information about what was done, how it was done, and what result
was generated. Experienced researchers consider the literature review as one of the
important step in the research process. It not only allows them to learn from
previous research but also saves time, effort and money. A literature review
discusses published as well as unpublished information in a particular subject area.
The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location, and analysis
of documents containing information related to the research problem. These
documents may include research journals, books, and other research reports.

Objectives of literature review

1. The major purpose of reviewing the literature is to determine what has
already been done that relates to your problem.
2. This knowledge avoids unintentional duplication.
3. It gives justification for the present work.
4. It helps the researcher know what needs to be done.

5. It helps the researcher in knowing what methods, measuring instruments and

statistical analyses have been by previous researchers.
6. The information helps the researcher to avoid other researchers mistakes
and to profit from their experiences.
7. Literature review helps the researcher in formulating good hypothesis for
his/her study.
8. Literature review by making the researcher familiar with researcher methods,
procedures, and also with the findings/ results of other researchers facilitates
him/ her in interpretation of results.
9. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the
credibility of the writer.
10.Lit. Review is useful reports that keep scholars/ researchers up-to-date with
what is current in the field.

How to do literature review?

The researcher should ask the following question from himself/ herself before
doing/writing literature review for his own study:
1. What has been done previously relating to the problem in hand?
2. What has not been investigated?
3. What research methods, statistical analyses and measuring instruments were
used?

How broad the literature review should be?

1. A bigger literature review does not mean a better one. Hence, the temptation
to include everything in the literature review should be avoided.
2. There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of
study. The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of
sources you need to read in order to get a good survey of the material.
3. As a criterion for selection of materials for literature review the researcher
should consider the freshness of the materials/ data/ sources.
4. For some disciplines such as medical sciences information that is even two
years old is considered obsolete however, in humanities and social sciences
this may not be the case.

How to write the literature review?

After getting your focus narrowing down the topic and selection of relevant
materials now you are supposed to write the information in a logical way which may
guide and support your present work
Literature review should be written in such a way that may give rationale to your
work. It is not simply the reproduction of others works. It should be written in such
a way that it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major
debates. You should think about headings and sub-headings that may be included in
your review. While writing your review you are supposed to follow certain
referencing manual.

Variable

A variable is something that varies. Empirical counterpart of construct or concept is

called a variable. It may be some social, political, religious, psychological or
demographic characteristic of the population under investigation. Examples:
Gender, political affiliation, age, needs gratification by media (radio, T.V, radio), etc.
All these entities take on different values. Different types of variables
A Variable may be classified as manifest or latent, discrete or continuous,
independent or dependent, predictor or criterion, active or tribute and extraneous/
intervening/control.

Manifest or latent variables

Manifest variables can easily be observed. They have direct empirical

referents.
Latent variables are only indirectly observable. They represent internal states
whose existence must be inferred from overt behavior.
Example: Educational television relates to increase verbal learning among children
but not among adults.In this case Educational television and age are manifest
variables while verbal learning is a latent variable.
Explanation: Educational television and people of different ages can be directly
identified. In contrast, verbal learning, which is the process of acquiring, retaining
and recalling of verbal material is latent. It represents a cognitive state that cannot
be directly observed but is only inferred from behavior.

Discrete or continuous variables

Discrete variable changes in distinct steps. Discrete variable contains a

countable set of values. Discrete variable is also called categorical
variable.
A continuous variable taking on an ordered set of values within a certain
range.For continuous variable it is possible to find an intermediate value
between any two values. They (values) range from low to high.
Example: high intelligence is linked to increased communication
competence among females but not among males.In this case
intelligence and communication competence is continuous variables while
gender is a discrete variable.

Active and attribute variables

Such variables are used in experimental research design.
Any variable that is manipulated is an active variable. Manipulation means
doing different things to different groups of subjects.
Values that cannot be manipulated are attribute variables.
Subjects come to research studies with already having these variables.
Human characteristics fall under the category of attribute variables.

Independent, dependent and intervening variables

Independent variables are input variables that are presumed to predict or

explain other variables.

Dependent variables are presumed to depend on the effects of the

independent variables.
Intervening variables, also called control variables, are boundary
conditions that affect the relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
Example: the higher education (ind.v) typically leads to a higher income
(dep.v) occupation is intervening variables here between education and
income because it is casually effected by education itself effects income.
The distinction between ind. and dep. variables depends on the purposes
of the research. An ind. variable in one study may be a dependent
variable in another study
Independent variable is also called predictor, or antecedent variable, while
dependent variable may be called criterion variable.

Measurement
S.S. Steven defines measurement as the assignment of numerals to objects or
events according to some rules.

Key terms:
Objects/events
Numerals
Assignment
rules
Objects/events are the variables. Numerals are symbols such as 1,2,3,or i, ii,iii or a,
b, c, etc. numerals have no quantitative meaning but may be used simply as
qualitative labeling devices. Numerals that are given quantitative meaning
represent numbers, which can be added, subtracted, divided or multiplied.
Assignment is the designation of numerals or numbers to certain objects/ events.
The rules are guidelines. They specify the way that numerals or numbers are to be
assigned.

Reality Isomorphism
Isomorphism means similarity or identity of form or structure. Reality isomorphism
implies that ones measurement schemes should be similar in structure to the
structure of reality.

Levels of measurement
Scientists have distinguished four different ways to measure things. They are called
levels of measurement which are as under
1) nominal,
2) ordinal,
3) Interval,
4) Ratio,
Researchers are supposed to choose measurement levels on the basis of their
isomorphism (structural similarity) with the variables being measured. Because
statistical operations (data analysis) depend on the level of measurement

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Nominal
Nominal level is the weakest measurement level. In nominal measurement numerals
are used to classify persons, objects, etc. Example, classification of media users on
the basis of the medium (radio, TV, newspaper) they use for news. 1. Radio, (2) TV,
(3) newspaper
Note that the numerals are simply labels that stand for the respective categories
they have no mathematical significance.

Properties of nominal levels

1. Equivalence: Properties of objects in the one category are equal to each
other. a = a, and if a=b then b = a.
2. All categories are exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Means that each
measure accounts for every possible option, and that each measurement is
appropriate to only one category.

Ordinal Level
Objects measured on ordinal level are ranked in a meaningful way, from smaller to
greater. Example, categories of socio-economic status may be like (1) lower, (2)
lower middle (3) middle, (4) upper middle, (5) upper. Here in the example a rank of
1 is assigned to lower, 2 to lower middle, 3 to middle, 4 to upper middle, and 5 to
upper. Here the assignment of numerals has some mathematical meaning. 1 is
lower than 2, 3, 4 and 5. Similarly 2 is greater than 1 but smaller than 3, 4 and 5.
However, ordinal level does not show the distance between two categories.
It is therefore, compared with a horse race without a stopwatch.

Properties of the ordinal level

1. Equivalence
2. Order among the categories .Objects in the same category are identical but
the relation among them is asymmetrical. If a is greater than b, then b is
not greater than a. However, if a is greater than b, and b is greater than
c, then a is greater than c.
3. Exhaustive and mutually excusive

Interval level
When a scale has all the properties of an ordinal scale and the intervals between
adjacent points on the scale are of equal value, the scale is at interval level. In
addition to the intervals between two adjacent categories the interval scale
contains properties of nominal and ordinal measurement levels.
With interval measurement we not only know that some category A is greater than
category B and that B is greater than C, but we also know that the intervals
between A and B and B and C are the same.
We know the magnitude of the distance between the categories.
Interval scales lack a true zero point or condition of nothingness.
Example: communication competence
Categories: 5= high competence, 4= moderate competence, 3= average,
2= below average, 1= minimal, 0= poor
The interval between categories is 1.

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However, the zero point on the scale is not a true zero rather it has been
arbitrarily chosen. The 0, does not represent the absolute absence of
communication competence rather it represents the smallest measureable
quantity of a variable as we used a zero to designate poor comm.
Competence.
For example, it is difficult to conceive of a person having zero intelligence.
Lacking a true zero point means that a researcher cannot make
statements of a proportional nature: a person who scores 30 on a test of
aggression is not three times as aggressive as a person who scores 10.

Ratio Level
Scale that possessing all the properties of interval scale plus one more: the
existence of true zero point. Properties that have natural zero points such as weight,
length, area, etc can be measured on the ratio level of measurement. For example;
since time and distance are ratio measures, one can say that a car traveling at 50
miles per hour is going twice as fast as a car traveling at 25.

Reliability and validity in measurement

Reliability
A measure is reliable if it consistently gives the same answer. If the same scale is
administered repeatedly to the same individuals and it yields roughly the same set
of responses, the scale is said to be reliable.

Techniques of estimating reliability

There are three ways of estimating reliability: the test re-tests method, the
alternative forms method and the split-half method.

1-Test re-tests method

This procedure measures the stability component of reliability. In this technique the
same people are measured at two different points in time. The commonly used
statistic for assessing reliability is correlation coefficient, denoted by r.
In the test re-test procedure the coefficient (r) between the two scores is computed,
and interpreted for the reliability (consistency/ stability) of the measuring
instrument.

Limitations of the test re-test method

1. The initial administration may affect the scores on the second testing. This
may lead to overestimation of the reliability of the instrument.
2. Peoples views may change between the first and second administration of
the instrument (questionnaire). In such a case, reliability of the instrument
will be underestimated.

Solution
1. An appropriate time period between the first and 2 nd administration should be
set.
2. Researchers recommend at least one full day but not more than a month
between the two administrations.

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2-The alternative forms method

This technique requires two parallel versions of the same instrument.
They are administered to the same group of people.
The scores of the two forms/ versions are compared.

Limitations:
It is difficult to construct truly parallel versions of the same instrument.

3-The split half technique

For assessing the internal consistency among the items of a given measuring
instrument the split half procedure technique is used.
The scale is split into two halves, and is scored separately.
The scores are correlated.
Cronbachs alpha coefficient is used for assessing the internal consistency of the
measuring instruments.

Validity
A measuring instrument is said to be valid if it fully and accurately measures the
variable that it supposed to measure.
As in social sciences measurement is usually indirect therefore, researchers are
never completely certain that they are measuring the precise property they intend
to measure. Hence it is necessary to gather some sort of evidence which provides
confidence that a measuring device in fact measures what it appears to measure.

Types of validity
Three basic kinds of validity: I) Content validity (face validity), ii) predictive validity
iii) concurrent validity, each one has a corresponding technique for evaluating the
measuring instrument.

Content validity:
This type of validity deals with whether the instrument contains a representative
sample of a constructs empirical indicators. It is examined on the face.
Example, when students complain that the paper was out of course, they are
questioning content validity of the test (paper). Similarly, if a measuring instrument
is supposed to measure communication competence of the subjects, and by
communication competence the researcher means both writing and speaking skills
but the measure which is being used for measuring this construct contains items
(questions) only about writing skills, the instrument will lacks content validity.

Predictive validity also called Criterion validity

Predictive validity is assessed by checking a measurement instrument against some
future outcome.
The behavior we wish to predict is called the criterion and the measuring instrument
is called the predictor.
For example,
1. Opinion polls and actual results of election.
2. Score of the GRE and prediction of admission.

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Concurrent validity
It is related with the predictive validity however in this case the instrument is being
checked against some present criterion.
Example: A test of proof-reading being administered to two different groups and it
discriminates between the two groups.

SAMPLING
Population: It is a comprehensive and well defined group (a universal set) of the
elements pertinent to a given research question or hypothesis.

Sample: A sample is a sub-set of the population (universal set).

In other words population is the whole and sample is a part of it.

Two Types of Population (Target & Survey)

A Target Population
It is an aggregation of all the elements pertinent to a study.

A Survey Population
It is an aggregation of all the elements from which a researchers sample will
actually be taken. It is the realistic group of elements available to a researcher after
practical constraints has been taken into account.

Census: The process of examining every number of a population is called census.

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting units from a population of interest so that by
studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population
from which they were chosen.

Why to have SAMPLING?

1. To draw conclusions about populations from samples and to determine a
population`s characteristics by directly observing only a portion
2. It is cheaper to observe a part rather than the whole.
3. It is impossible to reach whole of the population
4. Quick information needed in research
5. Because of large population.
6. Convenience: Hard areas to reach every house; To avoid tough climatic
conditions; There are Some populations that are so difficult to get access to for
example, people in prison.

Major Types:
1) Probability sampling and 2) Non-probability

sampling

1) Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein the samples are gathered in a
process that gives all the individuals in the population, equal chances of being

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selected.

Advantage: 1-Scientific, 2-Representative, 3-Generalization, 4- Equal

chance.

Disadvantages: 1-Lengthy, 2-Costly, 3-Complicated.

2) Non-Probability Sampling:
We use non-probability sampling techniques, where participants are selected
deliberately by convenience or haphazardly.
Commonly used in studies where the trait or behavior being investigated occurs so
rarely in the general population that it becomes impractical to use a random
selection process.
The disadvantage is that you will not be able to make broad generalizations
about the entire population of people with the condition.

Criteria to Select a Sampling Method (Non-Probability or

Probability)
1. Purpose of the Study:
2. Some research studies are not designed for generalization to the population,
but rather for investigation of variable relationships or collection of
exploratory data. Here Non-probability Sampling is appropriate.

3. Cost versus Value:

4. The sample should produce the greatest value for the least investment. If the
cost of a probability sample is high in relation to the type and quality of
information collected, a non-probability is the alternative.

5. Time Constraints:
6. In many cases researchers colleting preliminary information operate under
the time constraints imposed by sponsoring agencies. Since probability
sample is often time costing while a Non-probability Sample may provide
temporary relief.

7. Amount of Error Allowed:

8. In initial or Pilot Studies, whether error control is not a prime concern, a non
probability sample is usually adequate.
9. Best to use a probability sample when the result will be generalized to the
population.
10.Any research study conducting to support or repute a significant
question/hypothesis should use a probability sample.

Types of Probability Samples

1- Simple Random Sampling:
The most basic type of probability sampling. Each element in the population has an
equal probability of selection and each combination of elements has an equal
probability of selection.
Examples:Names drawn out of a hat / cap Random numbers to select elements from an
ordered list.

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If a subject or unit is drawn from the population and removed from subsequent
selections, the procedure is known as Random Sampling Without Replacement.
(most widely used).
Returning the subject or unit into the population so that it has a chance of been
chosen another time is called Random Sampling with Replacement. (Often used
in most complicated research studies as nationwide survey) .

2 -Systematic Random Sampling:

Sampling in which every kth (5th,10th ,20th etc.)Subject or unit is selected from a
population.

Example:To get a sample of 15 from a population of 150, or a sampling rate of 1/10, we

randomly select a starting point and sampling interval.

3- Stratified Random Sampling

This approach is used when adequate representation of a sub- sample is desired.
The characteristic of a sub-sample (strata/segment) may include almost any
variable: age, sex, religion, income level. Stratified sample ensures that a sample is
drawn from a homogeneous sub-set of the population-- from a population with
similar characteristics. Homogeneity helps researchers reduce sampling error.

I . Proportionate Stratified Sampling

It includes strata with sizes based on their proportion. If 30% of the population is
comprised of adults18-24, then 30% of the total sample will be subjects in this age
group.

ii . Disproportionate Stratified Sampling

It is used to over sample or over-represents a particular stratum. The approach is
used basically because the stratum is considered important for some reason:
Marketing, advertizing, etc.

4.

Multi-stage Cluster Sampling

In this type the sample is selected in groups or categories.

With cluster sampling one can divide the province into districts, tehsils, union
councils, wards, or some other regions and select groups of people from these
areas. It means that the population is divided into groups, usually geographic or
organizational. In simple multistage cluster, there is random sampling within each
randomly chosen cluster

Non-Probability Sampling
It does not involve random selection as the probability sampling does. Nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least
with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have
represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for
the statistic. With non-probability samples, we may or may not represent the
population well.

Types of non-probability:
1. Accidental, Haphazard, Easily Available or Convenience Sampling

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2. Purposive Sampling
3. Quota Sampling
4. Snowball Sampling
Accidental, Haphazard, Easily Available or Convenience Sampling
One of the most common methods of sampling in this category is the traditional
"man on the street" (person on the street) interviews conducted frequently by
television news programs to get a quick (although non-representative) reading of
public opinion. It is collection of readily accessible subjects for study. The typical use
of college students in much research is primarily a matter of convenience. In clinical
practice, we might use clients who are available to us as our sample. In many
research contexts, we sample simply by asking for volunteers. Clearly, the problem
with all of these types of samples is that we have no evidence that they are
representative of the populations we're interested in generalizing to -- and in many
cases we would clearly suspect that they are not.

Advantages:
1. Easily available 2. Low cost 3.Quick results 4. Useful in pretesting questionnaire
5. Beneficial in Pilot Studies 6. Helpful in eliminating potential problems in research
procedures, testing and methodology before the final research study is attempted

Disadvantages:
1. Contains un-known quantities of error. 2. Available samples do not represent
the population
3. Have no external validity. 4. Biased results. 5. Results
cannot be generalized

Purposive Sampling
Purposive Sampling includes the subjects selected on the basis of specific
characteristics and eliminates those who fail to meet these criteria. It often used in
advertising studies. In it, we sample with a purpose in mind. We usually would have
one or more specific predefined groups we are seeking.
For instance, have you ever run into people in a mall or on the street who are
carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and asking if they could
interview them?
Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample (and most likely they are
engaged in market research). It is must to verify that the respondent does meet the
criteria for being in the sample.
All of the methods that follow can be considered subcategories of purposive
sampling. We might sample for specific groups or types of people as in modal
instance, expert, or quota sampling. We might sample for diversity as in
heterogeneity sampling. In all of these methods we know what we want -- we are
sampling with a purpose.

Quota Sampling (proportional and non-proportional)

We select people non-randomly according to some fixed quota. It has two types.
1. In proportional quota sampling we want to represent the major
characteristics of the population by sampling a proportional amount of each.

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For instance, if we know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that we
want a total sample size of 100, we will continue sampling until get those
percentages and then we will stop. So, if we've already got 40 women for our
sample, but not the 60 men, we will continue to sample men but even if legitimate
women respondents come along, we will not sample them. The problem here (as in
much purposive sampling) is that we have to decide the specific features as gender,
age, education race, religion, etc. on which we will base the quota.
2. Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. We specify the
minimum number of sampled units we want in each category. Here, we're not
concerned with having numbers that match the proportions in the population.
Instead, we simply want to have enough to assure that we will be able to talk about
even small groups in the population. This method is the non-probabilistic analogue
of stratified random sampling in that it is typically used to assure that smaller
groups are adequately represented in sample.

4. Snowball Sampling
The term snowball sampling is used most often in academic research. In private
sector research, this approach is known as referrals. In this method a researcher
randomly contacts a few qualified respondents and then asks these people for the
names of friends, relatives, or acquaintances they know who may also qualify for
the research study. These referrals are then contacted to determine if they qualify
for the research.

Sample size, sampling frame and sampling error

Determining Sample size
Scholars usually suggest the use of large samples. But the question is how large the
sample size would be. How large or small should be the sample size is a
controversial aspect of sampling.
No agreed formula or method for determining the sample size (Wimmer &
Dominick, 1995).
Some suggested procedures/ guidelines.
Some guiding principles for selection of the sample size
While selecting the sample size the following points may be considered:
1. Project type
2. Project purpose
3. Project complexity
4. Amount of error willing to be tolerated
5. Time constraints
6. Financial constraints
7. Previous research in the area
In addition to the above mentioned general principles scholars have pointed out
some other principles for determining the sample size. They are:
1. The research method used:
In focus group technique a sample size of 6-12 respondents is used.
For pilot studies and studies that are not meant for generalization, rather
they are pertaining to exploration and discovery a sample size of 10-15 is
commonly used.
For descriptive research, a sample of 10 % is considered the minimum. For
smaller population 20 % may be required.

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2.
3.

For correlational studies at least 30 subjects are needed to establish the

existence or non-existence of a relationship.
For causal-comparative studies and many experimental studies, a minimum
of 30 subjects per group is generally recommended.
A sample of 100 subjects per demographic group.
Multivariate studies and sample size
50 = very poor
100 = poor
200 = fair
300 = good
500 = very good
1000 = excellent

Subjects drop out and sample size:

Researchers expect 10 % to 25 % sample drop out before the study is completed.

Hence, larger samples should be selected to compensate this drop out.
Relevant Polished research work can guide the researcher about the sample size for
his/her own study.

Sampling frame
Sampling frame is the list that includes all the members of the survey population.
This list identifies each member, and hence makes access to that member of the
population easier if selected as respondent for the study.
The list may exist already or can be made for the purpose of the study. It depends
on the nature of the study. Examples: voters list, telephone directory, attendance
sheet, etc.

Sampling error
In all research studies that involve sampling there are chances of sampling error.
Sampling error is the chance of difference between the characteristics of the sample
(statistics) and that of the population from which the sample is drawn.
The sampling error is also called the standard error.
According to Kerlinger, Standard error is the standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of any given measure (for example the mean).
If there was no chances of error then there would have no need for statistical
tests of significance. The word significance would be meaningless. Any
difference at all would be real difference. But such is never the case.
Non-probability does not need to be computed for sampling error.
The greater the sampling error the greater the chances of misrepresentation
of the population.
Computing standard error is a process of determining with a certain amount
of confidence the difference between a sample and the population.
Sampling error involves two concepts:
Confidence level
Confidence interval