Turbine and nozzle

Introduction to turbines
The basic mechanical principle, that if a fluid with large
kinetic energy content is allowed to hit a set of blades free to
rotate, certain amount of shaft work can be extracted from the
passing fluid, has been known for long.
This energy is available in the form of rotating shaft power and
can be used for various purposes.
Wind turbines also use naturally available wind kinetic energy
to extract power out of it.

Introduction to turbines
It was also understood that for a gas turbine engine to go on an
aircraft it must be compact in size and must weigh as less as
possible.
This requirement translates to the need for a turbine which
produces high energy extraction per unit mass (energy density)
of gas it is working on.
Thus the gas, if it contains sufficient residual energy after the
turbine, can be exited through a jet nozzle to create direct
engine jet thrust.

 It is well known that turbine operates on the momentum principle

part of the energy of the gas during expansion is converted into
kinetic energy in the flow nozzle .
The gas leaves these stationary nozzles at a relatively high velocity.
Then it is made impinge on the blades over the turbine rotor or
wheel. momentum imparted to the blades turns the rotor.
There are two primary parts of turbines are
1.The stator nozzle
2.The turbine rotor blades

1.Flow comes from the combustor

with high internal energy (T01, P01,
Ca1), and is made to go through the
stator-where a large part of its
internal energy is converted to kinetic
energy.

2.The transfer of energy occurs in

rotor as the high kinetic energy flow,
impinging on the rotor blade, is also
made to take huge flow turning
through the passage between the
blades.

Turbine stage
The stage consists of a ring of fixed nozzle
blades followed by the rotor blade ring.
Turbine stage is classified as
1.An impulse stage
2.A reaction stage

 An impulse turbine stage is characterized by the expansion of

the gas which occurs only in the stator nozzles . the rotor
blades act as directional guide vanes to deflect the direction of
air flow.
Further they convert the kinetic energy of gas into work by
changing the momentum of the gas more or less at constant
pressure.
A reaction stage is one in which expansion of the gas takes
place both in the stator and rotor . the function of the stator is
as same as that in the impulse stage, but the function in the
rotor is two fold.
1.To convert the kinetic energy of gas into work
2.contributes a reaction force on the rotor blades.
The reaction force is due to the increase in the velocity of
the gas relative to the blades . This results from the expansion of
the gas during its passage through the rotor.

A SINGLE IMPULSE STAGE

Impulse machines are those in which there is no change of static
or pressure head of the fluid in the rotor.
The rotor blades cause only energy transfer and there is no
energy transformation.
The energy transformation from pressure head to kinetic energy
or vice versa takes place in fixed blades only.
As can be seen from the fig that the rotor blade passages of an
impulse turbine there is no acceleration of the fluid. there is no
energy transformation.
Hence the chances are greater for separation due to boundary
layer growth on the blade surface . due to this the rotor blade
suffers greater losses giving lower stage efficiency.
Examples. Paddle wheel , pelton wheel and curtis steam turbine

A SINGLE REACTION STAGE

The reaction machines are those in which changes in static or
pressure head occurs on both in the rotor and stator blade
passages.
Here the energy transformation occurs both in the fixed as well
a moving blades.
The rotor experiences both energy transfer as well as energy
transformation.
Therefore reaction turbines are considered to be more efficient.
This is mainly due to continuous acceleration of flow with
lower losses.
Examples : Heros turbine , lawn sprinkler , parsons turbine

Turbine Velocity triangle

 In the Impulse turbines described earlier,

V2=V3
In reaction turbinesV3>V2
In the aircraft gas turbines the exit Mach
number from stator-nozzle M2 =1.0
On the other hand, relative exit Mach number
from the rotor M3-rel= V3/a3 < 1.0
The work done in a gas turbines may be
increased by increasing entry temp T01.

Degree of reaction
The degree of reaction of a turbomachine
stage may be defined as the ratio of static or
pressure head changes occurs in the rotor to
the total change across the stage.

Turbine blade cooling

Various blade cooling techniques provide various
amounts of cooling
Maximum cooling is normally applied to first HP
stage stator, which faces the highest temperature
Cooling is also applied to HP rotors. But the
details of this technology is a little more
complicated as the cooling has to be effected
when the blades are rotating at high speeds
Modern LP stage stators are also cooled.
Last stage blades do not require cooling as the
gas temperature is already substantially reduced.

Methods of turbine blade cooling

Cooling of components can be achieved by air or liquid
cooling.
Cooling of components can be achieved by air or liquid
cooling. Liquid cooling seems to be more attractive
because of high specific heat capacity and chances of
evaporative cooling but there can be problem of
leakage, corrosion, choking, etc.
On the other hand air cooling allows the discharged air
into main flow without any problem.
Quantity of air required for this purpose is 13% of
main flow and blade temperature can be reduced by
200300 C.

Methods of turbine blade cooling

Internal cooling
1. Convection cooling
2. Impingement cooling
External cooling
1.Film cooling
2. Cooling effusion

Turbine materials :Inconel, Monel

Coolant flow paths in a modern HP

turbine stator

Nozzles
Nozzles form the exhaust system of gas turbine engines.
It provides the thrust force required for all flight conditions.
In turboprops, nozzles may generate part of the total
thrust.

Main components: tail pipe or tail cone and the exhaust

duct.
Nozzles could be either of fixed geometry or variable
geometry configuration.

Cont.
Besides generating thrust, nozzles have other functions too.
Variable area nozzles are used for adjusting the exit area for
different operating conditions of the engine.
For thrust reversal: nozzle are deflected so as to generate a part of
the thrust component in the forward direction resulting in braking.

For thrust vectoring: vectoring the nozzles to carry out complex

manoeuvres.
Exhaust noise control

Types of nozzles
1.Convergent or Converging-diverging
2.Axisymmetric or two-dimensional
3.Fixed geometry or variable geometry
Simplest is the fixed geometry convergent nozzle
Was used in subsonic commercial aircraft.
Other nozzle geometries are complex and require
sophisticated control mechanisms.

Variable geometry nozzles

Variable area nozzles or adjustable nozzles are
required for matched operation under all
operating conditions.

Exhaust nozzles: Fixed geometry

Subsonic convergent

Tail pipe

Supersonic C-D Nozzle

Nozzle

Tail pipe

C-D
Nozzle

Exhaust nozzles: Variable geometry

subsonic
Supersonic

After burner
C-D Nozzle

Requirements of Nozzle
Be matched with other engine components
Provide optimum expansion ratio

Have minimum losses at design and off-design

Permit afterburner operation
Provide reversed thrust when necessary
Provide necessary vectored thrust
Have minimal weight, cost and maintenance while satisfying the
above.

Nozzles
Convergent nozzles are normally used in subsonic aircraft.
These nozzles operate under choked condition, leading to
incomplete expansion.
This may lead to a pressure thrust.

A C-D nozzle can expand fully to the ambient pressure and

develop greater momentum thrust.
However due to increased weight, geometric complexity
and diameter, it is not used in subsonic transport aircraft.

Thrust vectoring
Directing the thrust in a direction other than that
parallel to the vehicles longitudinal axis.
This allows the aircraft to undergo maneuvers that
conventional control surfaces like ailerons or flaps
cannot provide.
Used in modern day combat aircraft.
Provides exceptional agility and maneuvering
capabilities.
The pilot can move, or vector, the nozzle up and down
by 0-90 degrees.

Thrust vectoring
Thrust vectoring was originally developed as a
means for V/STOL (Vertical or Short Take Off and
Landing).
Thrust vectored aircraft have better climb rates,
besides extreme maneuvers.
Most of the modern day combat aircraft have
thrust vectoring.
Some of the latest aircraft also have axisymmetric
nozzle thrust vectoring.

Thrust reversal
With increasing size and loads of modern day aircraft,
wheel brakes alone cannot brake and aircraft.
Deflecting the exhaust stream to produce a component of
reverse thrust will provide an additional braking
mechanism.

Most of the designs of thrust reversers have a discharge

angle of about 45o
Therefore a component of the thrust will now have a
forward direction and therefore contributes to braking.

Cont..
There are three types of thrust reversal
mechanisms that are used
1. Clamshell type
2. External bucket type
3. Blocker doors
Clamshell type is normally pneumatically operated
system. When deployed, doors rotate and deflect
the primary jet through vanes . These are normally
used in non-afterburning engines.

Cont.
Bucket type system uses bucket type doors to deflect
the gas stream.
In normal operation, the reverser door form part of the
convergent divergent nozzle.
Blocker doors are normally used in high bypass
turbofans.
The cold bypass flow is deflected through cascade
vanes to achieve the required flow deflection.

Noise control
Jet exhaust noise is a major contributor to the overall noise
generated by an aircraft.
Jet exhaust noise is caused by the turbulent mixing of the exhaust
gases with the lower velocity ambient air.
Nozzle geometry can significantly influence the exhaust noise
characteristics.
Better mixing between the jet exhaust and the ambient can be
achieved by properly contouring the nozzle exit.
Corrugations or lobes (multiple tubes) are some of the methods of
achieving lower jet exhaust noise.

Noise control

Noise control using corrugations/serrations

at the nozzle exit

 REFER BOOK FOR FOLLOWING TOPICS.

1.NOZZLE COEFFICIENTS
2.NOZZLE PERFORMANCE.
3. Nozzle flows
(i) Under expansion (ii) Over expansion
(iii) Optimal expansion