Numerical Control Production

Systems

Manufacturing?

Development of Machine Tools

Machine Tool Capabilities

Holding and supporting the workpiece
Holding and supporting a cutting tool
Imparting a suitable movement (rotating or
reciprocating) to the cutting tool or the work
Feeding the cutting tool or the work so that the
desired cutting action and accuracy will be achieved

Machine Tool Categories

Four broad categories
Chip-producing machines
Non-chip-producing machines
New-generation machines
Multi-tasking machines

Chip-producing Machine
Form metal to size and shape by cutting away
unwanted sections
Generally alter shape of steel-produced
products
Casting
Forging
Rolling

Non-chip-producing Machines
Form metal to size and shape by pressing,
drawing, punching, or shearing

Produce parts by compressing granular or

powdered metallic materials

New-Generation Machines
Perform operations that cannot be done on
chip- or non-chip-producing machines

They are also known as Non-Traditional

Machining.

Multi-tasking Machines
Combined machining and turning center
Can produce virtually any shape part from
rough to finish
Consists of turning center with two
independent spindles and vertical machining
center with rotary tool spindle
Combine Information Technology (IT) and
Manufacturing Technology (MT)

Numeric Control (NC) Machines

Numerical Control (NC) Defined

Numerical control(NC) can be defined as a form of programmable
automation in which the mechanical actions of machine tool are
controlled by alphanumeric data. In NC, the numbers and
alphabets form a program of instructions designed for a particular
workpart or job.
Operating principle of NC is to control the motion of the
workhead relative to the workpart and to control the sequence in
which the motions are carried out.

John T. Parsons

Development of NC machines :
1949US Air Force asks MIT to develop a "numerically controlled"
machine.
1952Prototype NC machine demonstrated (punched tape input)
1980CNC machines (computer used to link directly to controller)
1990DNC: external computer drip feeds control programmer to
machine tool controller

BASIC COMPONENTS OF NC SYSTEM

1. Program of
instructions
2. Controller unit,
also called a machine
control unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool or
other controlled
process

1. Program of instructions
It is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which tell the
machine tool what to do. It is coded in numerical or symbolic
form on some type of input medium that can be interpreted
by the controller unit. The most common input medium is
punched tape. (Punched Card, Magnetic Tape)

There are two methods of input to the NC system . The first is

by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit
known as Manual Data Input(MDI) and second one is Direct
Numerical Control (DNC)

NC punched tape

2. Controller unit (MCU)

The typical elements of a conventional NC controller

unit include the
Tape reader
Data buffer
Signal output channels to the machine tool
Feedback channels from the machine tool and
The sequence controls to coordinate the overall
operation.

 A block of information usually represents one complete step

in the sequence of processing elements.
The signal output channels are connected to the servomotors
and other controls in the machine tool. Through these
channels, the instructions are sent to the machine tool from
the controller unit.
To make certain that the instructions have been properly
executed by the machine, feedback data are sent back to the
controller via the feedback channels.

 Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the

elements of the controller unit.
The control panel or control console contains the
dials and switches by which the machine operator
runs the NC system.

It may also contain data displays to provide

information to the operator.

3. Machine Tool
It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work.

The machine tool consists of the worktable and spindle as

well as the motors and controls necessary to drive them.

It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other

auxiliary equipment needed in the machining operation.

NC Procedure

Problems with Conventional NC

Part Programming Mistake

Non optimal speeds and feeds
Punched Tape
Tape reader
Controller

Problems with Conventional NC

Punched Tape :
It is an unreliable NC component for repeated use in the shop
because of paper tape is especially fragile and its susceptibility
to wear and tear.

Problems with Conventional NC

Tape Reader:
Tape reader is the least reliable hardware components of the
machine while any breakdown is occurred on an NC machine.

Problems with Conventional NC

Controller:
The hard-wired controller cannot be easily altered to
incorporate improvements
into the unit.

Classification of NC Machine Tools

1.Based on motion type
Point to point
Straight cut
Contouring
2. Based on control loops
Open loop system
Closed loop system
3. Based on positioning system
Absolute system
Incremental system

4. Based on power supply

Electric
Hydraulic
Pneumatic

5. Based on contact
Direct contact machine
Indirect contact machines

Point to point(PTP) or Positioning NC system

In PTP, the objective of the machine tool control system is to move

the cutting tool to a predefined location.

The speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is not

important in PTP NC. Once the tool reaches the desired location,
the machining operation is performed at that position. Example: NC
Drill press
Positioning systems are the simplest machine tool control systems
and are therefore the least expensive of the three types.

PTP SYSTEM

Straight-cut NC
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool
parallel to one of the major axes at a controlled rate suitable for
machining.
It is therefore appropriate for performing milling operations to
fabricate workpieces of rectangular configurations.

With this type of NC system it is not possible to combine movements

in more than a single axis direction. Therefore, angular cuts on the
workpiece would not be possible.

A NC machine capable of straight cut movements is also capable of

PTP movements.

Straight cut NC System

Contouring NC System
Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the
most expensive type of machine tool control.

It is capable of performing both PTP and straight-cut

operations.

The distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is their

capacity for simultaneous control of more than one axis
movement of the tool.

The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate

the desired geometry of the workpiece. For this reason,
contouring systems are also continuous-path NC systems.

Contouring NC System

Open Loop System

Open-loop NC systems
typically make use of
stepper motors.
A stepper motor is a device
whose output shaft rotates
through a fixed angle in
response to an input pulse.
It is used for point to point
system

It is one that does not use

feedback signals to indicate
the table position to the
controller unit.

Closed loop system

It is one that uses feedback signals. The system measures the

actual position and velocity of the axis and compares them
with the desired references.
The difference between the actual and the desired values is
the error. The control is designed in such a way as to eliminate
the error.
It is used for contouring system.

Open loop and closed loop system

Absolute and Incremental Positioning System

Absolute positioning
means that the tool
locations are always
defined in relation to
the zero point.
Incremental positioning
means that the next
tool location must be
defined with reference
to the previous tool
location.

Advantages of NC

Non-productive time is reduced

Greater accuracy and repeatability
Lower scrap rates
Inspection requirements are reduced
More complex part geometries are possible
Simpler fixtures
Shorter lead times
Reduce parts inventory and less floor space
Operator skill-level requirements are reduced

Disadvantages of NC
Higher investment cost
NC machines are more expensive

Higher maintenance effort

NC machines are more technologically sophisticated

Part programming issues

Need for skilled programmers

Computer Numeric Control

General Configuration of CNC

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Additional Features
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Storage of more than one part program

Various forms of program input
Program editing at the machine tool
Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
Interpolation
Acceleration and deceleration computations
Communications interface
Diagnostics

Configuration of CNC Machine Control Unit

Functions of CNC

Machine tool control

In-process compensation
Improved Programming & operating features
Diagnostics

Machine Tool Control

Hybrid CNC
Straight CNC

Hybrid CNC

Straight CNC

DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Direct numerical control (DNC) control of multiple machine tools by
a single (mainframe) computer through direct connection and in real
time
Distributed numerical control (DNC) network consisting of central
computer connected to machine tool MCUs, which are CNC
Components Of DNC

Central Computer
Bulk memory
Telecommunication Lines
Machine Tools

General Configuration of a Direct Numerical

Control System

Types of DNC
BTR System
( Behind the Tape Reader)
Special MCU System
( Machine Control Unit)

BTR System

Special MCU System

Distributed Numerical Control Configurations :

1. Switching Configuration

Distributed Numerical Control Configurations :

2. Satellite Configuration through LAN

ADAPTIVE CONTROL (AC) MACHINING

DEFINITION
The term AC denotes a control system that
measures certain o/p variables and uses these
to control speed and/or feed

AC determines the proper speeds and feeds

during machining as a function of variables in
such factors as work material hardness, width
or depth of cut, air gaps in the part geometry
and so on.

WHERE TO USE AC ?

The following characteristics can be used to

identify situations where AC can be beneficially
applied

1. In-process time consumes a significant portion of

the machining cycle time
2. There are significant sources of variability in job for
which AC can compensate
3. Cost of operating machining tool is high.
4. The typical job involves steel & high strength alloys

SOURCES OF VARIABILITY
1. Variable geometry of cut
2. Variable workpiece hardness & variable
machinability
3. Variable workpiece rigidity
4. Tool wear
5. Air gaps during cutting

In practice the AC systems of machine tools can be

classified into two types
AC with optimization(ACO).
AC with constraints(ACC).

ACO
In this form of AC , an index of performance is
specified for the system.

Example for ACC

Design Consideration of CNC Machines

Some design criteria for CNC machine tool

design
Machine Response
Considerations

Component characteristics

Operating and cost

considerations

Type of command signal

Undamped natural frequency

Reliability

Input configuration

Power requirement

Maintainability

Maximum feed rate

Friction characteristics

Cost of operation

Static accuracy

Inertia

Capital investment

Dynamic accuracy

Stiffness

Installation Requirements

Magnitude of load

Amount of backlash

Range of travel

Speed range

Weight of moving
members

Machine structure (Static load,

Dynamic load and Thermal Load)

Power source

MACHINE STRUCTURE
The machine structure is the load carrying and supporting
member of the machine tool.
All the motors, drive mechanisms and other functional
assemblies of machine tools are aligned to each other and
rigidly fixed to the machine structure.
The machine structure is subjected to static and dynamic
forces and it is, therefore, essential that the structure does
not deform or vibrate beyond the permissible limits under the
action of these forces.

1. Static Load
The static load of a machine tool results from the
weights of slides and the workpiece and the forces
due to cutting.
To keep the deformation of the structure due to
static loading within permissible limits, the structure
should have adequate stiffness and a proper
structural configuration.
Generally there are two basic configurations of
machine tools

2. Dynamic Load
Dynamic load is a term used for the constantly changing forces acting
on the structure while movement is taking place. These forces cause
the whole machine system to vibrate.
The origin of such vibrations is:
Unbalanced rotating parts
Improper meshing of gears
Bearing irregularities
Interrupted cuts while machining

The effect of these vibrations on the machine performance is reduced

by:
Increasing the stiffness of the structure
Improving the damping properties

3. Thermal Load
Thermal Sources:
Electric motor
Friction in mechanical drives and gear boxes
Friction in bearings and guideways
Machining process
Temperature of surrounding objects

Heat sources cause localised deformation, resulting

in considerable inaccuracies in machine
performance.

Steps to be followed to reduce

Thermal Deformation.
External mounting of drives, i.e. motors and gear boxes
Removing frictional heat from bearings and guideways by a
proper lubrication system
Efficient coolant and chip removal system for the dissipation
of heat generated from the machining process
Thermo-symmetric designing of the structure

BASIC COMPONENTS OF
CNC SYSTEMS

CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS

A typical CNC system consists of following six

elements
Part program
Program input device
Machine control unit
Drive system
Machine tool
Feedback system
80

CNC SYSTEM ELEMENTS

81

OPERATIONAL FEATURES of CNC

MACHINES

82

1. PART PROGRAM
A part program is a series of coded instructions required to
produce a part. It controls the movement of the machine tool
and the on/off control of auxiliary functions such as spindle
rotation and coolant. The coded instructions are composed of
letters, numbers and symbols and are arranged in a format of
functional blocks as in the following example
N10 G01 X5.0 Y2.5 F15.0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Feed rate (15 mm/min)
|
|
|
Y-coordinate (2.5mm)
|
| X-coordinate (5.0 mm)
| Linear interpolation mode
Sequence number
83

2. PROGRAM INPUT DEVICE

The program input device is the mechanism for part
programs to be entered into the CNC control. Most
commonly used program input devices are
keyboards, punched tape reader, diskette drivers,
through RS 232 serial ports and networks.

84

3. MACHINE CONTROL UNIT

The machine control unit (MCU) is the heart of a CNC system. It

is used to perform the following functions:
Read coded instructions
Decode coded instructions
Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and helical) to
generate axis motion commands
Feed axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for
driving the axis mechanisms
Receive the feedback signals of position and speed for each
drive axis
Implement auxiliary control functions such as coolant or
spindle on/off, and tool change
85

4. DRIVE SYSTEM
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, stepping
motors or servomotors and ball lead-screws.
The MCU feeds control signals (position and speed)
of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control
signals are augmented to actuate stepping motors
which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to position
the machine table.

86

STEPPING MOTORS
A stepping motor provides open-loop, digital control of the
position of a workpiece in a numerical control machine.
The drive unit receives a direction input (cw or ccw) and pulse
inputs. For each pulse it receives, the drive unit manipulates
the motor voltage and current, causing the motor shaft to
rotate by a fixed angle (one step).

The lead screw converts the rotary motion of the motor shaft
into linear motion of the workpiece .

87

STEPPING MOTOR

88

Guideways
Guideways are used in machine tools to:

Control the direction or line of action of the carriage or

the table on which a tool or a workpiece is held

To absorb all the static and dynamic forces

The following points must be considered while

designing guideways

Rigidity
Damping capability
Geometric and kinematic accuracy
Velocity of slide
Friction characteristics
Wear resistance
Position in relation to work area
Protection against chips and damage

Guideway Types
4.2.1 Friction guideways

4.2.2 Antifriction linear motion (LM) guideways

4.2.1 Friction Guideways

Types:
Vee or Inverted Vee
Flat
Dovetail
Cylindrical
These guideways operate
under conditions of sliding
friction and do not have a
constant
coefficient
of
friction.

 To reduce the possibility of stick slip phenomenon, there

should be a minimum but constant friction between the
surfaces in contact.
This is achieved in friction guideways by using strips of
material such as poly tetra fluoro ethylene (PTFE) or turcite
lining at the guideway interface.
Turcite is a special type of plastic with particles of graphite
embeded on its surface. These materials have a low and
constant co-efficient of friction.

Vee or Inverted Vee Guideways

These are widely used on
machine tools, especially on
lathe beds.
Advantages of this is that parallel
alignment-of the guideways with
the spindle axis is not affected by
wear. There is a closing action as
the upper member settles on the
lower
member,
and
this
automatically maintains the
alignment.
Jibs are, therefore, not required
with the vee guideway to take up
the clearance caused by the wear

Flat and Dovetail Guideways

The flat guideways have better load- bearing

capabilities than the other guideways.
After a period of use, wearing may occur owing to the
sliding of the surfaces over each other. Jibs are used to
ensure accurate fitting of the slide to both the flat and
dovetail guideways.
The jibs are tapered and can be adjusted to reduce
excessive clearance caused by wear.

Cylindrical Guideways
In cylindrical guideways, the bore in
the carriage housing provides support
to all around the guideway.
For relatively short traverses and light
loads, cylindrical guideways are very
efficient.
A limitation on the use of these
guideways for long traverses is that if
the guide bar is supported only at
each end, it may sag or bend in the
centre of the span under a load.

Antifriction Linear Motion (LM)

Guideways
Antifriction linear motion guideways are used on CNC machine tools
to:
(a) Reduce the amount of wear
(b) Improve the smoothness of the movement
(c) Reduce friction
(d) Reduce heat generation.
They use rolling elements in between the moving and the stationary
elements of the machine

Advantages when compared with friction guides are

(a) Low frictional resistance
(b) No stick-slip
(c) Ease of assembly
(e) High load carrying capacity
(g) High traverse speeds

The main disadvantage of these guideways as

compared to friction guideways is their lower damping
capacity.

Two types of thread form

Gothic Arc

Circular Arc

Types of Nut preloding

Selection of Guideways
Load carrying capacity, damping and the traverse speed.
Combination of antifriction and friction guideways with
turcite/PTFE lining.

Other types of Guideways

(a) Hydrostatic guideways
(b) Aerostatic guideways

Hydrostatic Guideways
In hydrostatic guideways, the surface of the slide is separated from the
guideway by a very thin film of fluid supplied at pressures as high as 300
bar.

Frictional wear and stick slip are entirely eliminated.

A high degree of dynamic stiffness and damping is obtained with these
guideways.
Their application is limited due to high cost and difficulty in
assembly.

Linear Bearings with Balls and Rollers

Linear Bearings with Balls

Linear Bearings with Rollers

Recirculating Ball Bearings

Recirculating Ballscrews
The recirculating ballscrews are widely used on CNC
machine tools because of the following advantages:

Low frictional resistance

Low drive power requirement
Little temperature rise
Less wear and hence longer life
No stick-slip effect
High traverse speed
High efficiency

RECIRCULATING BALL SCREWS

111

Recirculating Ball screws

The balls rotate between the screw and the
nut and at some point are returned to the
start of the thread in the nut.
In the arrangement shown in Fig 1 the balls
are returned through an external tube,
whereas, in the arrangement shown in Fig 2
the balls are returned to the start through a
channel inside the nut.

Two types of recirculating

arrangements

Fig 1

Fig 2

114

DRIVE MOTORS( Assignment)

DC servo motors (brush / brushless type)

AC servo motors
Stepper motors
Hydraulic motors

Mechanical Transmission System

(a) Low friction
(b) High stiffness
(c) Sufficient damping
(d) Backlash free operation

Torque Transmission Elements

The torque is transmitted from a prime mover shaft to an output
shaft through torque transmission elements.

The output shaft may be a pinion or a ballscrew.

Various elements are used on CNC machines to transmit the torque.
They are gears, timing belts, flexible couplings, etc.

Timing Belts

Timing Belts
They are becoming more popular due to their following
advantages
Low cost, less noise, elimination of lubrication, less
maintenance and higher efficiency.

Timing Belt

Flexible Couplings

Flexible Coupling
The following three kinds of
errors can be compensated by
using the flexible couplings.
Radial misalignment
Angular misalignment
Axial or Arial shift

Types of Misalignment

SPINDLE/SPINDLE BEARINGS

Material removal using single point or multipoint tool,

workpiece requires rotational speeds of the order of 30-6000
rpm and even higher.
All work or tool carrying spindles rotating at these speeds are
subjected to torsional and radial deflections.

To increase the stiffness and minimise torsional strain on the

spindles they are designed to be as stiff as possible with a
minimum overhang.

SPINDLE/SPINDLE BEARINGS
The rotational accuracy of the spindle is dependent on the

quality and design of the bearings.

Types of Spindle Bearings

(a) Hydrodynamic bearings
(b) Hydrostatic bearings
(c) Antifriction bearings

Hydrodynamic Bearings
These are used where the load
carrying capacities are low and
frequent starting and stopping
of the spindle is not required.
The essential features of these
bearings include simplicity,
good damping properties, and a
good running accuracy.

Hydrostatic Bearings

For a hydrostatic bearing, the spindle is

supported by a relatively thick film of oil
supplied under pressure.
The oil is pressurised by a pump external
to the bearing.
They have high damping properties, high
running accuracy, high wear resistance,
but are very expensive.
These are used only where temperature
effects cause problems in the part
accuracy as in the case of grinding
machines and fine boring machines.

Antifriction Bearings
These are suitable for high speeds and high loads.
They have low friction, moderate dimensions, lesser liability to suffer
from wear or incorrect adjustment, ease of replacement and high
reliability.
Several kinds of ball and roller bearings are used for spindles on CNC
machines.
1. Ball bearings
2. Roller bearings
(i) Deep groove ball bearings
(i) Cylindrical roller bearings
(ii) Angular contact ball bearings (ii) Cylindrical roller bearings
(doublerow) with tapered bore
(iii) Tapered roller bearings

Feedback Devices
Rotary Encoders (optical)
1. Incremental
Quadrature
1. Absolute

Incremental Encoder

Quadrature Encoder

Absolute Encoder

Absolute Encoder

Natural Binary Code

Gray Code

CNC Tooling

Cutting Tool Materials

1. Carbon steel: Carbon steels having carbon percentage as high
as 1.5% are used as tool materials however they are not able to
with stand very high temperature and hence are operational at
low cutting speed.
2. High speed steel (HSS): Alloy of Tungsten, Chromium,
Vanadium, Cobalt and molybdenum with steel. HSS has high hot
hardness, wear resistance and 3 to 4 times higher cutting speed
as compare to carbon steel.

3. Cemented carbide: These are basically carbon cemented

together by a binder. It is a powder metallurgy product and the
binder mostly used is cobalt.

4. Ceramics: It mainly consists of aluminum oxide (Al2O3)

and silicon nitride (Si3N4). They can be used at elevated
temperature and cutting speed 4 times that of cemented
carbide. These have low heat conductivity.
5. Cubic boron nitride (CBN): It is the second hardest
material after diamond and a economical alternative to
the later. It is an excellent cutting tool material because it
combines extreme high hot hardness up to high
temperatures of 2000C.

6. Diamond: It is the hardest known material having

cutting speed 15 times greater than that for high speed
tools.

Types of Cutting tool

Solid Tools
Brazed Tips
Coated Tools
Indexable Inserts

The ISO coding system for tungsten

carbide inserts used in turning

The ISO coding system for Tungsten carbide

turning tool holders used in external turning

Modular system for Turning

Milling tool systems

Automatic Tool Changers (ATC)

Turret
Drum or Disc Type
Chain Type Tool magazine

1. Stopping the spindle at the correct orientation for the tool change
arm to pick the tool from the spindle.
2. Tool change arm to move to the spindle.
3. Tool change arm to pick the tool from the spindle.
4. Tool change arm to index to reach the tool magazine.
5. Tool magazine to index into the correct position where the tool
from the spindle is to be placed.
6. Place the tool in the tool magazine.
7. Indexing the tool magazine to bring the required tool to the tool
change position.
8. Tool change arm to pick the tool from the tool magazine.
9. Tool change arm to index to reach the spindle.
10. New tool is placed in the spindle.
11. Tool change arm moves into its parking position.

Automatic Pallet Changer (APC)

Control loops
Point to Point System
(Incremental open loop control)

Control loops
Contouring System