GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Properties of matter
The fundamental properties that we use to measure matter in are; Inertia, Mass, Weight, Volume,
Density and Specific Gravity. The periodic table is a visual method of interpreting the chemical
properties of elements which effect the measurements below.
These measurements can be classified into two categories, intrinsic and extrinsic.

Extrinsic Properties
Extrinsic properties (also called extensive), such as volume and weight, are directly related to the
amount of material being measured.

Inertia - the resistance of an object to changes in motion (Newton's first law).

Measured as mass because it is intimately related to mass. Mass has inertia by

virtue of its nature.

Common units: kilograms (kg), grams (g), pounds (lb).

Fundamental property of matter.

Mass - a) the amount of matter in an object; b) a measure of resistance to acceleration that

an object has.

Common units; kilograms (kg), grams(g), pounds (lb), ounces (oz).

Sometimes equated with weight, but only valid when the acceleration due
to gravity is understood to be 9.81 m/s2 (i.e., earthly conditions), or when a different
definition of the word "weight" is used, as is normal in commerce and the medical sciences.

Weight:
1. Mass times the acceleration of gravity.
2. Note that Weight is very different from Mass, a common misconception for students.
However, weight and mass are related. An easy way to remember the difference is that no

matter what planet you are on, you will always be the same mass. However, if you enter a
different planet or go on the moon, your weight will change.
3. The measure of the attraction between two objects, one of which is generally much larger
than the other.
4. Common units: newtons (N), pounds-force (lbf), ounces-force (ozf).

Force:

Common units: pounds-force (lbf) or newtons (N).

Relevant equation(s):
1.

F = m a ( Force = Mass * acceleration )

2.

W = m g ( Weight = Mass * Gravity )

3.

N = 1 kg m/s2 ( newtons = kilograms * meters per second squared )

Notes: The acceleration of gravity near the surface of the earth is 9.81 meters per
second squared or 9.81 m/s2.

Volume - the amount of space that an object occupies.

Common units: liters (l), cubic meters (m), cubic feet (ft), fluid ounces, pints, quarts,
gallons.

Intrinsic Properties
Intrinsic properties (also called intensive) are those which are independent of the quantity of matter
present. For example, the density of gold is the same no matter how much gold you have to
measure. Common intrinsic properties are density and specific gravity.

Density - units of mass per unit of volume.

Common units: g/cm3 and kg/m3

Relevant equation(s):
1.

D = m/v ( Density = mass/volume )

These measurements are relative to temperature. The density of water (at 4 degrees
Celsius) is 1.00 g/cm3. Above and below that temperature, the density will be slightly
different.

Specific Gravity - ratio of a substance's density relative to the density of water. Usually table
values use a water temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. See current reference books for
examples.

Since specific gravity is a ratio with the same numerator as denominator, it has no
units.

Specific gravity is usually measured with a hydrometer.

Specific gravity can be an ambiguous measurement if the temperatures of the two

substances are different.

Specific Heat - the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a pure
substance by one degree Kelvin.

Common units J/(g*K) (Joules per gram-Kelvin).

Atoms and Molecules

Atom

Atoms
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that has the properties of an element. It is composed of a
dense core called the nucleus and a series of outer shells occupied by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus, composed of protons and neutrons, is at the center of an atom. Protons have a positive
electric charge while neutrons are neutral. The atomic number of an atom is dictated by the number
of protons, which in turn, determines the chemical element of the atom. The isotope of the element is
determined by the number of neutrons.
The electron has an electric charge equal but opposite the proton (that is, they cancel). A stable
atom has the same number of electrons orbiting as it does protons in the nucleus; this makes the
atom electrically neutral. Atoms that are missing an electron (that is, have one more proton than
electrons) will tend to attract additional electrons, while atoms that have an excess electron (one
more electron than protons) will tend to eject the outer-most electron. The shell containing the outermost electron is called the valence shell, and is the chemically active shell.
In size the entire atom has been thought to be approximately four-billionths of an inch, meaning that
approximately 250,000,000 atoms of this size must be put into line to span 1 inch. Atoms are not
usually alone, but instead come in groups called molecules.

Molecules (awesome stuff)

A molecule is a single unit created by two or more atoms that are tightly bonded together. Diatomic
molecules are molecules which are made of two atoms. Certain elements are diatomic elements
because they do not naturally occur as single atoms, but as a pair of atoms. The diatomic molecules
are (H2) Hydrogen, (N2) Nitrogen, (O2) Oxygen, (F2) Fluorine, (Cl2) Chlorine, (I2) Iodine and (Br2)
Bromine. Earth's atmosphere is comprised, almost completely, of diatomic oxygen and nitrogen.
Molecules that are found with only one type of element in them, like the diatomic elements, are
known as homoatomic molecules. When a molecule is formed from elements of a different species it

is a heteroatomic molecule. As an atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the
properties of that element, a molecule is the smallest particle of a compound.

Nomenclature
Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds consist of cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions).
The nomenclature, or naming, of ionic compounds is based on the names of the component ions.
Here are the principal naming conventions for ionic compounds, along with examples to show
how they are used:

Roman Numerals
A Roman numeral in parentheses, followed by the name of the element, is used for elements that
can form more than one positive ion.
This is usually seen with metals.
Fe 2+ Iron (II)
Fe 3+ Iron (III)
Cu + Copper (I)
Cu 2+ Copper (II)

-ous and -ic

Although Roman numerals are used to denote the ionic charge of cations, it is still common to
see and use the endings -ous or -ic. These endings are added to the Latin name of the element
(e.g., stannous/stannic for tin) to represent the ions with lesser or greater charge, respectively.
The Roman numeral naming convention has wider appeal because many ions have more than
two valences.
Fe 2+ Ferrous
Fe 3+ Ferric
Cu + Cuprous
Cu 2+ Cupric

-ide
The -ide ending is added to the name of a monoatomic anion of an element.
H - Hydride

F - Fluoride
O 2- Oxide
S 2- Sulphide
N 3- Nitride
P 3- Phosphide

-ite and -ate

Some polyatomic anions contain oxygen. These anions are called oxyanions. When an element
forms two oxyanions, the one with less oxygen is given a name ending in -ite and the one with
more oxgyen is given a name that ends in -ate.
NO2 - Nitrite
NO3 - Nitrate
SO3 2- Sulphite
SO4 2- Sulphate

hypo- and perIn the case where there is a series of four oxyanions, the hypo- and per- prefixes are used in
conjunction with the -ite and -ate suffixes. The hypo- and per- prefixes indicate less oxygen and
more oxygen, respectively.
ClO - Hypochlorite
ClO2 - Chlorite
ClO3 - Chlorate
ClO4 - Perchlorate

bi- and di- hydrogen

Polyatomic anions sometimes gain one or more H+ ions to form anions of a lower charge. These
ions are named by adding the word hydrogen or dihydrogen in front of the name of the anion. It
is still common to see and use the older naming convention in which the prefix bi- is used to
indicate the addition of a single hydrogen ion.
HCO3 - Hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate
HSO4 - Hydrogen sulfate or bisulfate
H2PO4 - Dihydrogen phosphate

Naming Binary Acids

Binary acids are compounds containing Hydrogen and an anion (non-metal ion).
When these compounds are in solution in water, oxonium ions (H3O+) are formed giving rise to
the properties that we associate with 'acids'.

In general, when the binary acid is not in solution the name is as follows: 'Hydrogen' followed by
the anion name ending in '-ide'.
e.g. Hydrogen chloride
When the binary acid is in solution (aq) the name is as follows: 'Hydro-' followed by the anion
name ending in '-ic' then add the word 'acid' to the end.
e.g. Hydrochloric acid

Naming Oxyacids

Acid

As

Per...ic
...ic
...ous

hypo...ous

Br
HBrO4

Cl
HClO4

Cr

Se

HIO4

H3AsO4 HBrO3 H2CO3 HClO3 H2CrO4 HIO3 HNO3 H3PO4 H2SO4 H2SeO4
H3AsO3 HBrO2

HClO2 H2CrO3 HIO2 HNO2 H3PO3 H2SO3 H2SeO3

H3AsO2

HClO

HBrO

HIO

H3PO2

Calculations
Dimensional Analysis
Basically, dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities. So dimensions can be added and
subtracted only if they have the same base. Simple! In chemistry you can use this technique to do
problems you don't understand on multiple choice tests. Look at the answers and see what units
they are in, then look at the question and see what units are given. After that use conversion factors
to try and cancel them out.

Significant Figures
Every measurement entails a degree of uncertainty; this can vary depending on the measure device
and skill with which the device is operated. It is accepted that there is doubt of at least one figure in
the last digit. For example a miniscus occurs when water is stored in glass, it is the thin line that
curves upward. Someone might read the top of the miniscus and another person the bottom, this
would cause an inaccuracy in the measurement.
Significant figures are the digits in any measurement that are known with a certainty plus a digit that
is uncertain on the end. For example a graduated cylinder is labeled in one millimeter increments,
you can be sure of the number to the last line and then guess if the liquid is half way between the
next solid measurement.
The rules for finding significant figures are as follows:
Rule 1: In numbers that do not contain zeros, all the digits are significant. For example the number
3.1228 has 5 significant figures, 3.14 has 3 and 514 has 3 significant figures.
Rule 2: All zeros between significant digits are significant. For example the number 7.05 has 3
significant figures, 6002 has 4 significant figures and 3.0041 has 5 significant figures.
Rule 3: Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit serve only to fix the position of the decimal point
and are not significant. For example 0.00058 has 2 significant figures, 0.0003094 has 4 significant
figures, and 0.000001 has 1 significant figure.

Rule 4: In a number with digits to the right of a decimal point, zeros to the right of the last nonzero
digit are significant. 43 has 2 significant figures, 43.0 has 3 significant figures, 43.00 has 4 significant
figures, and 0.40050 has 5 significant figures.
Rule 5 is harder to explain and needs an example, suppose a 100 gram brick was measured, in this
notation it is impossible to know how precise the measurement was. It could have been measured to
the nearest gram (100 plus or minus 1 g) if so it has 3 significant figures, or it could have only been
weighted to the nearest 10 grams (100 plus or minus 10) in which case it has 2 significant figures.
The mass of the brick should be reported as either 1.00 x 10^2 g (in which case there are 3
significant figures
or
1.0 x 10^2 grams (2 significant figures)
or finally it could be reported as 1 x 10^2 g (only one significant figure)

It is important to remember that when multiplying or dividing, the number of significant figures in the
answer should be the same as the number that had the fewest significant figures when working out
the problem.
Example: A bus leaves a location and arrives in another 8.05 hours later. Lets pretend the distance
between them was 486.9 miles. What is the average speed of the bus in miles per hour?
To solve for speed we need to formulate the following equation, speed = distance traveled/time so
filling in the equation it would be s=486.9 miles/8.05 hours. First calculate the number of significant
figures in both numbers, 486.9 has 4 significant figures, and 8.05 has 3 significant figures, so that
means our answer must have 3 significant figures. Now solve 486.9/8.05 which is equal to
60.48447205, however we are only allowed 3 significant figures so the answer is changed to 60.5
miles per hour.
For addition and subtraction the process is a little different, the number of decimal places in the
result will be the same as the number with the smallest number of decimal places. For example
10.21 + 0.2 + 256 would be equal to 266.

The official way to arrive at that number is to add the numbers normally
and then change the answer
so that it has the corresponding number of significant figures. However
I find it just as simple to
ignore the excess decimals during the equation, so instead of working the
entire equation out I
would simplify it into 10 + 0 + 256, which is equal to 266. The normal
degree of inaccuracy caused
by this faster method is generally considered acceptable.
This can be important because it simplifies chemistry by shaving off
irrelevant information.

Molar Concepts
A mole is a conversion factor to convert from amu (atomic mass units) to grams and back.
Specifically, a mole is 6.02214 x

particles. So, to find the mass of one mole of carbon(12.01

amu) we would use the following equation:

This number is known as Avogadro's number.

Why moles?
Because atoms and molecules are so small, the molar concept provides us with a way to deal with
substances in the laboratory; to measure their properties and observe changes in their
characteristics.
For example, a molecule of water is infintesimally small and weighs 18 amu. It consists of two
hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. However, Avogadro's number of water molecules weighs 18
grams, and has a volume of 18 milliliters. It contains two moles of hydrogen atoms and one mole of
oxygen atoms. The molar weight of an element or molecule is also known as the gram formula
weight, or simply the atomic weight expressed in grams. Just remember that Avogadro's number is

just that -- a number; one can have a mole of anything. A mole of oranges is

oranges.

(Although this quantity of oranges would surely be larger than our entire planet!)

Stoichiometry
The word stoichiometry derives from two Greek words: stoicheion (meaning "element")
and metron (meaning "measure"). Stoichiometry deals with calculations about the masses
(sometimes volumes) of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. It is a very
mathematical part of chemistry, so be prepared for lots of calculator use.
Jeremias Benjaim Richter (1762-1807) was the first to lay down the principles of stoichiometry. In
1792 he wrote: "Die stchyometrie (Stchyometria) ist die Wissenschaft die quantitativen oder
Massenverhltnisse zu messen, in welchen die chymischen Elemente gegen einander stehen."
[Stoichiometry is the science of measuring the quantitative proportions or mass ratios in which
chemical elements stand to one another.]

Molar Calculations

Your Tool: Dimensional Analysis

Luckily, almost all of stoichiometry can be solved relatively easily using dimensional analysis.
Dimensional analysis is just using units, instead of numbers or variables, to do math, usually to see
how they cancel out. For instance, it is easy to see that:

It is this principle that will guide you through solving most of the stoichiometry problems (chemical
reaction problems) you will see in General Chemistry. Before you attempt to solve a problem, ask
yourself: what do I have now? where am I going? As long as you know how many (units) per (other
units), this will make stoichiometry significantly easier.

Moles to Mass
Where can you find the molar mass of these elements? The periodic table.You should always have
one on handdon't expect to get very far without one!
How heavy is 1.5 mol of lead? How many moles in 22.34g of water? Calculating the mass of a
sample from the number of moles it contains is quite simple. We use the molar mass (mass of one
mole) of the substance to convert between mass and moles. When writing calculations, we denote
the molar mass of a substance by an upper case "M" (e.g. M(Ne) means "the molar mass of neon").
As always, "n" stands for the number of moles and "m" indicates the mass of a substance. To find
the solutions to the two questions we just asked, let's apply some dimensional analysis:

Can you see how the units cancel to give you the answer you want? All you needed to know was
that you had 1.5 mol Pb (lead), and that 1 mol Pb weighs 207.2 grams. Thus, multiplying 1.5 mol Pb
by 207.2 g Pb and dividing by 1 mol Pb gives you 310.8 g Pb, your answer.

Mass to Moles
But we had one more question: "How many moles in 22.34g of water?" This is just as easy:

Where did the 18 g H2O come from? We looked at the periodic table and simply added up the atomic
masses of two hydrogens and an oxygen to get the molecular weight of water. This turned out to be
18, and since all the masses on the periodic table are given with respect to 1 mole, we knew that 1
mol of water weighed 18 grams. This gave us the relationship above, which is really just (again)
watching units cancel out!

Calculating Molar Masses

Before we can do these types of calculations, we first have to know the molar mass. Fortunately, this
is not difficult, as the molar mass is exactly the same as the atomic weight of an element. A table of
atomic weights can be used to find the molar mass of elements (this information is often included in
the periodic table). For example, the atomic weight of oxygen is 16.00amu, so its molar mass is
16.00 g/mol.

For species with more than one element, we simply add up the atomic weights of each element to
obtain the molar mass of the compound. For example, sulfur trioxide gas is made up of sulfur and
oxygen, whose atomic weights are 32.06 and 16.00 respectively.

The procedure for more complex compounds is essentially the same. Aluminium carbonate, for
example, contains aluminium, carbon, and oxygen. To find the molar mass, we have to be careful to
find the total number of atoms of each element. Three carbonate ions each containing three oxygen
atoms gives a total of nine oxygens. The atomic weights of aluminium and carbon are 26.98 and
12.01 respectively.

Empirical Formula
The empirical formula of a substance is the simplest ratio of the number of moles of each element in
a compound. The empirical formula is ambiguous, e.g. the formula CH could represent CH, C 2H2,
C3H3 etc. These latter formulae are called molecular formulae. It follows that the molecular formula
is always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula for a compound.
Calculating the empirical formula is easy if the relative amounts of each element in the compound
are known. For example, if a sample contains 1.37 mol oxygen and 2.74 mol hydrogen, we can
calculate the empirical formula. A good strategy to use is to divide all amounts given by the
smallest non-integer amount, then multiply by whole numbers until the simplest ratio is found. We
can make a table showing the successive ratios.

Hydrogen

Oxygen

2.74

1.37

divide by 1.37

ANSWER

The empirical formula of the compound is H2O.

Here's another example. A sample of piperonal contains 1.384 mol carbon, 1.033 mol hydrogen and
0.519 mol oxygen.

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

1.384

1.033

0.519

divide by 0.519

2.666

multiply by 3

ANSWER

The empirical formula of piperonal is C8H6O3.

Converting from Masses

Often, we are given the relative composition by mass of a substance and asked to find the empirical
formula. These masses must first be converted to moles using the techniques outlined above. For
example, a sample of ethanol contains 52.1% carbon, 13.2% hydrogen, and 34.7% oxygen by mass.
Hypothetically, 100g of this substance will contain 52.1 g carbon, 13.2 g hydrogen and 34.7 g
oxygen. Dividing these by their respective molar masses gives the amount in moles of each element
(as we learned above). These are 4.34 mol, 13.1 mol, and 2.17 mol respectively.

Carbon

Hydrogen

4.34

13.1

2.17

divide by 2.17

ANSWER

The empirical formula of ethanol is C2H6O.

Oxygen

Molecular Formula
Beware: In the case of H2O, the whole number multiple is 1, so its empirical formula is the same as
its molecular formula. This is not always the case!
As mentioned above, the molecular formula for a substance equals the count of atoms of each type
in a molecule. This is always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula. To calculate the
molecular formula from the empirical formula, we need to know the molar mass of the substance.
For example, the empirical formula for benzene is CH, and its molar mass is 78.12 g/mol. Divide the
actual molar mass by the mass of the empirical formula, 13.02 g/mol, to determine the multiple of the
empirical formula, "n". The molecular formula equals the empirical formula multiplied by "n".

This shows that the molecular formula for benzene is 6 times the empirical formula of CH. The
molecular formula for benzene is C6H6.

Solving Mass-Mass Equations

A typical mass-mass equation will give you an amount in grams and ask for another answer in
grams.
To solve a mass-mass equation, follow these rules
1. Balance the equation if it is not already.
2. Convert the given quantity to moles.
3. Multiply by the molar ratio of the demanded substance over the given substance.
4. Convert the demanded substance into grams.
For example, given the equation
many grams of silver (Ag) will result from 43.0 grams of copper (Cu) reacting.

Convert the given quantity to moles.

, find out how

Multiply by the molar ratio of the demanded substance and the given substance.

Convert the demanded substance to grams.

Notice how dimensional analysis applies to this technique. All units will cancel except for
the desired one (grams of silver, in this case).