SPE 77780

3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores

R. Martinez -Angeles, L Hernndez-Escobedo and C. Perez-Rosales, Instituto Mexicano del Petrleo

Copyright 2002, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.

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Abstract
This paper presents the results of X-ray scans in vuggyfractured limestone core studies to determine porosity rock
distribution and residual oil and water saturations for mexican
core samples. Iodine as the injecting fluid provided a means
for detecting water saturation and residual oil saturation. Xray Computerized Tomography (CT) was applied as an
approach for oil and water saturation determination. The
tracer (iodine) studies indicated that the water invasion
increases with time until to get conduction porosity.
CT
scans measure the density distribution inside of vuggyfractured cores and block models samples during X-ray CT
laboratory experiments. Firstly, an image processing method
for determining, simultaneously, some of basic geometrical
characteristics of homogeneous and vuggy-fractured porous
media such as secondary porosity, specific surface, mean pore
width, mean block thickness, mean fracture width, and
absolute permeability is applied in order to characterize the
core. Then, oil recovery mechanisms from vuggy-fractured
reservoirs were studied because of the large reserves contained
in such formations. The estimation of saturation of residual
oil is fundamental to oil recovery from vuggy-fractured
reservoirs under primary and enhanced recovery processes of
practical interest. Saturation of residual oil depends of several
petrophysical parameters such as conduction porosity,
stagnation porosity, cementation exponent and fluid properties
like viscosity of wetting and nonwetting phases. In this paper
we present our recent work on imaging dynamic
characterization in a vuggy-fractured core (calcareous) with
X-ray tomographic techniques.
We also perform forced
displacement experiment to get two liquid phases inside the
vuggy -fractured limestone core.
Introduction
In this paper some results are presented that the authors

have obtained through their studies in the petrophysics

area of calcareous sedimentary rocks for the technique
of X-rays tomography and considering their results as a
subject of interest for the exploitation of hydrocarbons, it
puts them to the consideration of the oil community.
These studies have led to the conception of a clearer
situation and it completes of what is in fact the interior of
a vuggy-fractured calcareous rock, which has
implications of importance in the area of production in
petroleum engineering.
The ideas here presented they have been the result of
the first ten months of work of investigation of a research
project of the IMP, during which the working group has
carried out diverse theoretical and experimental
experiments on new processes for the analysis and
characterization of limestone cores. Maybe the most
important conclusion that has reached, during that time,
is that the internal geometry of the limestone cores,
coming from the most productive mexican oil reservoirs,
is in fact much more complex that it is usually described
in the specialized literature.
A form of exploring the interior of the limestone cores,
and to reach conclusions about their internal
characteristics, it consists on saturating this rocks with a
fluid of well-known properties and then to pass across
them X-rays. This was the technique used by the
authors in his research works that led directly to the
results reported in the paper.
Porosity
An important characteristic of most sedimentary rocks,
included those of a productive formation of
hydrocarbons, it is that they have porosity. The porosity
of a rock is the relationship between the volume of the
empty space Vv , called also porous volume, to the total
volume Vt that occupies this rock.
Their magnitude depends of many factors, mainly of the
distribution of block sizes, since its complement, the
distribution of the porous space (inter grains,
microfractures and vugs), it impacts directly on porosity.
The volume of solids Vs is the difference of total volume
of rock Vt and empty space Vv . Vs = Vt -Vv . In general,
this volume occupies most of the rock. The porosity is a
dimensionless parameter, generally reported in
percentage and its physical limits, for any porous media

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

are 0 and 1; the expression to calculate it is the

following:

tot =

V v Vcon + Vest + Vais

=
,0 tot 1
Vt
Vt

(1)

For a better understanding, the study of the porosity in

rocks is divided in two main branches: the porosity in
clastic sedimentary rocks and the porosity in vuggyfractured calcareous sedimentary rocks.
The porosity in a clastic sedimentary rock is function of
the size and form distribution of the grains that conform
it, in consequence, in the distribution of the size and way
of the pores that are generated.
The porosity in a calcareous sedimentary rock is function
of the distribution of the size and form of the matrix
blocks and of the processes of breakup of minerals that
conform it, in consequence, of the distribution of the size
and form of the vugs and fractures that are generated.
Saturation of a porous media for one fluid
The fluid saturation Sf of the porous space for a flowing
phase f, is defined as ratio of the volume of flowing fluid
Vf to the volume of the communicated porous space Vpc
to the pressure and temperature to that the porous
media is:

Sf =

Vf
Vpc

(2)

where f represents to the fluid to consider, commonly f

refers to the following cases: oil (o), water (w) and gas
(g). Physically, the sum of the three saturations should
be smaller or equal than 1. In oil reservoirs the Sg can
have values from 0 for the case of wells of oil under
saturated, until 0.70 for the case of wells of saturated oil.

So + S w + S g =

=1

Vo + Vw + Vg
=1
V pc

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theoretical type, was written by Maxwell at the end of the

nineteenth century, it is an electricity and magnetism
book. In one of their chapters, he approaches the
problem of the conduction of the electricity in a system of
dispersed and suspended spheres in an electrolyte. By
means of the use of their mathematical formulations, and
supposing that the spheres are insulating, it can be
demonstrated that the relationship between resistivity
factor FR, and porosity can be expressed as
3
FR =
(4)
2
This expression is known as Maxwells equation.
The second work, also theoretical, was due to Fricke.
He considers a similar system to that of Maxwells, but
with spheroids instead of spheres. Fricke demonstrated
that in this case:
(x + 1)
FR =
.. (5)
x
where x is a parameter that is function of the relationship
of the semi axes of the spheroids, and whose value is
smaller than 2. When x = 2, the Eq. 5 equals the Eq. 4,
indicating with this that the equation of Maxwell is a
special case of the equation of Fricke.
It is interesting to make notice that the Equations 4 and 5
are equilateral hyperbolas that can be written as
p (1 )
FR = 1 +
(6)

If P = 1.5, the previous equation equals Eq. 4, and if P =

(1 + x) /x, becomes the Eq. 5. Eq. 6 is called the
equation of Maxwell-Fricke by Perez-Rosales.
Finally, the third work is the well-known paper of Archie
on the fields of the electricity in natural rocks and well
logs. He established that

FR = m
where m is the cementation factor.

.. (7)

(3)

Internal geometry of the Sedimentary Rocks - Total

Porosity
When we were revising the related bibliography with the
flow of fluids in vuggy -fractured porous media we have
found the pioneer work of Perez -Rosales in 1981 titled
The internal geometry of sedimentary rocks in
connection with the well production", in which we based
our researches to propose a theory that adapts to the
description of the internal geometry of vugged-fractured
porous media by means of X-rays, it is for this reason
that we described some bases proposed by this
researcher and at the same time we propose some
improvements to him model.
For the topic of conduction of electric current in porous
media, we were found three works that ended up being
the main supports for the new ideas. The first work, of

Presentation of Perez-Rosales theory.

We found, experimentally, that zones of micro fractures
zones and blocks regions of solid material both are
registered with two different modes in the image
histogram X-rays data.
As a first step in the experiment, we have founded that,
from of the point of view of the flow of one fluid or one
phase (crude oil as initial fluid), in tests of
multidirectional forced displacement for 7 days, that the
effective porous space was occupied by these fluid,
including all flow channels and traps regions, because of
the core is flooding in numerous directions as it is shown
schematically in the Figure 1a.
In a second part of the experiment, we have been
proven that, from the point of view of the displacement of
one nonwetting fluid by a wetting fluid, in tests of

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
3
unidirectional forced displacement of oil by water (forced
the stagnation porosity tends to zero and where it is not
imibition) like in oil secondary recovery processes that
possible the existence of traps because the blocks of
the total or effective porous space is divided in two great
solids lose cohesion.
domains: fluid flow channels and traps regions, like it is
The third postulate of the theory constituted it the
shown schematically in the Figure 1b.
Fluid flow
discovery that the equation of Maxwell-Fricke, can be
channels, indicated by the blue color, are those parts of
generalized easily, to make it applicable to vuggythe calcareous rock that really participate in the
fractured calcareous rocks, packings of particles in a
conduction of fluids and they are represented on the part
simple ways (cubes, spheres) and consolidated porous
of the vugs and part of the areas of micro fractures,
media, by means of the logical modification, firstly,
while the traps, indicated by the black color or letter T,
proposed by Prez-Rosales, consisting in substituting
are stagnation regions and they are represented as
the effective porosity for the porosity of conduction of
porosity areas, however, they don't participate in the
fkuids defined by the Equations 8 and 9.
In
displacement of the oil by water and they are strongly
consequence, the third postulate can be expressed as
related with the saturation of residual oil at the end of the
folowws:
experiment.
G 1 con
(10)
FR = 1 +

con
The traps are not necessarily constituted by closed vugs
where G is a general form of the parameter P of the
in one of their ends, like one can observe in Figure 1b,
but rather they can also consist on open spaces, but that
Eq.5. Combining the Equations 9 and 10, we arrive to
the interesting relationship
for symmetry reasons they generate stagnation regions,
m
like it is illustrated in the same Figure 1b.
Here the
FR = 1 + G con 1
(11)
region indicated by black color could not drive fluids, due
This
is
a
formula,
proposed
by
Prez
-Rosales
in
1981
to the equality of local conditions of pressure that exist in
that it allows to put on approval the theory developed for
the two nearer channels.
Because of these
vuggy -fractured calcareous rocks, since so much FR as
observations, on the displacement of oil by water, the
con both can be measured in the X-rays tomography
first postulate of the theory establishes that the total
laboratory.
porosity can be divided in two main parts: a porosity of

conduction of fluids, mainly associated with the fluid flow

channels (areas of micro fractures and some parts of
vugs regions), and a stagnation porosity mainly
associated with vugs regions.

tot = con + est = vug + fra + mat

(8)

Due to the geometrical complexity of the interior of

vuggy -fractured calcareous sedimentary rocks, this
division is obvious. However, their implications have
not been taken advantage in petroleum engineering and
reservoir simulation, maybe for ignorance of the
proportion in that both porosities coexist or maybe with
the porosity-permeability correlation that could be.
Usually it is considered that open traps prevail over
closed ones. However, as the total porosity diminishes,
the proportion of closed traps is increased, being
possible that it stops at very low porosities, near to the
percolation porosity.
The second postulate relates the conduction porosity
with the total porosity, by means of the following
equation

con = tot

(9)

where m is named cementation exponent and m>1.

In simple words, this relationship establishes that the
conduction porosity of fluids cannot be bigger than the
total porosity, since that is only a part of the whole.
Also, two conditions should be completed in the existent
limits of porosity for sedimentary rocks, that is to say, in
the inferior limit, is the percolation porosity where the
porosity of conduction of fluids tends to zero while in the
superior limit is associated to the critical porosity, where

Justification of the theory

The experimental tests that give validity to the Eq. 11 are
presented in the reference 9, where they use the electric
current as tool to investigate the homogeneous interior
of a porous media and of packings, which consist on a
comparison among the theory and the laboratory results
obtained by different authors in connection with packings
and suspensions of spheres, packings of cubes and
sandstone rocks.
Also, the Eq. 11 have some important properties that
give a solid support to the three postulates on that the
theory is based, like it will be seen next.
For the case of natural rocks, we have been that the
value of G approaches to unit, so making G = 1, we
arrive to the equation of Archie or Eq. 7.
On the other hand, the Eq. 11 can be expressed as

FR = G con

+ (1 G )

(12)
-m

Since G has a near value to the unit, Gcon

>> (1-G),
therefore an approximate form of the Eq. 12 is

FR = G con

(13)

This is the equation more frequently used in the well logs

interpretation, and it is known as the general equation of
Archie.
In connection with this formula, it should be
made notice that it is fundamentally incorrect, since it
doesn't satisfy the necessary condition that settles down
that FR = 1 when tot = 1. however, in spite of this
limitation, one can say that the Eq. 13 lead to good
results from the practical point of view of well logs
interpretation.

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

-m

Finally, for big values of tot , con is approximately

similar to tot , so that, they take like equal, for that the
Eq. 11 becomes the equation of Maxwell-Fricke (Eq. 6).
Of the previ ous observations, we conclude that the
Eq.11, called equation of Prez-Rosales, unifies the
works of Maxwell, Fricke and Archie, as well as that of
the later investigators, we have postulated the validity of
the Eq. 13. This fact is, maybe, the most solid argument
in favor of the theory here described.
Internal geometry of Calcareous Sedimentary Rocks
Antecedents
One of the main requirements of a numeric simulator is
the estimate of the space distribution (in 3 dimensions)
of the porosity and permeability of a rock-fluids system,
representative of the productive formation of
hydrocarbons. It is for the previous reason that one of
the main objectives of the static and dynamics
characterization of oil reservoirs is the calculation of the
porosity and permeability of the rocks. In a very simple
way it means that, the permeability of a productive
formation is the capacity that possesses a fluid of being
transported through a porous media and it depends on
several parameters, in particular, of a certain quantity of
available porous space to flow.
The quantity of the
available porous space for flow is a fraction of the total
porous space and it is denominated porosity of
conduction of fluids con, also called effective porosity
e f e, term commonly used in the petrophysics laboratory
and in the laboratory of displacement tests.
Porosity of percolation per and critical porosity cri.
The total porosity tot of a sedimentary rock (shale,
sandstone, dolomite or limestone) it is governed by two,
well defined, physical limits: the inferior limit called
percolation threshold or porosity of percolation per and
the superior limit called critical limit or of critical porosity
cri (Wompe, 2000).
As it was already mentioned in the Eq. 14, the total
porosity tot is the sum of the porosity of conduction of
fluids, the porosity of stagnation zones and the isolated
porosity and it is given by the following equation:

tot = con + est + ais ,...,0 tot 1 (14)

tot =

V v Vcon + V est + V ais

=
,0 tot 1 (15)
Vt
Vt

In the laboratory the values of porosity of percolation per

and critical porosity cri have been studied for several
types of sedimentary rocks, being the table 2 that
describes these limits.

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Relationship between porosity of conduction of

fluids con and total porosity tot.
It is known that the permeability is a function that
depends on porosity of conduction of fluids, k = f(con),
for what several authors have developed equations that
relate to the porosity of conduction of fluids con, with the
total porosity tot .
For example, Gal et all, used data of laboratory of total
porosity tot and porosity of conduction of fluids con of
the Fountainebleau Sandstone, they found the following
empiric relationship:

con = 1.3486 ( tot 0.021)1 .4

(16)

Prez -Rosales published a relationship based on the

equation of Archie, in which correlates the porosity of
conduction of fluids with the total porosity, in the
following way:

con = totm

(9)

m
est = tot tot

(17)
Graphing relationships as of the equations 9 and 17, for
different values of the cementation exponent m, it has
been observed that they have problems when they try to
interpret values of total porosity tot in the limits of the
values reported in the literature, mainly for further values
that the critical porosity and smaller than the porosity of
percolation. It influences of the porosity of percolation
and the critical porosity.
The physical limits of porosity, so that the flow of fluids
exists inside sedimentary rocks, they are given by two
porosity limits: the porosity of percolation and the critical
porosity. These limits define three physical regions of
porosity of a porous medium (fractured, vugged or
homogeneous), and they are particular for each
reservoir, well, core or study rock.
These regions can be detected by means of several
techniques in the laboratory of X-rays tomography where
we combine the techniques of X-rays tomography and
those of displacement of fluids.
Physically, the characteristics of these three regions are
separated by the characteristics peculiar of porosity of
conduction of fluids and of the porosity of stagnation for
each case of study. In the same way, had processed of
image, a special study of the analysis of the isolated
porosity would be taken to deduce if it is important or not
to take it into account, mainly in limestone and dolomite
cores that come from fields with information of a strong
dolomitization influence.
Next each one of the three
regions will be described (Wompe,2000):
The region I is defined for smallest porosities that the
porosity of percolation where the porous space is not
connected by nets of conduction of fluids, that is to say,
in this region the porosity of conduction of fluids it is very
low or zero, con=0, therefore, the permeability also is
zero. Here, it is considered that the total porosity is very

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
5
low nevertheless it will be associated to the porosity of
Relationship between porosity of conduction con
stagnation tot = est , inside this region, the fluids cannot
and total porosity tot.
be transported inside the porous media, because the
As it was discussed in the previous section, the region II
total porosity is too small to the required minimum value
is limited by the porosity of percolation and the critical
so that percolation of fluids needs. In this region, the
porosity, this region is the correct one that more interests
value of the factor of electric resistivity is infinite and that
has for the petroleum engineer, since in his work where
of the hydraulic permeability is zero, kw=0.
the porosities of conduction of fluids and that of
stagnation coexist.
The region II is defined by the porosities that are located
Considering the exposed ideas, the relationship between
inside the limits of porosity of percolation and critical
conduction porosity and total porosity, proposed by
porosity, where the total porosity is, partly,
Prez -Rosales, would modify in the following way:
interconnected and it is a growing function. It has been
con = A(tot per ) m ,..., per tot cri
(19)
observed in some cases, mainly in granular clastics
(breccias, sandstones and shales) that the stagnation
per
A=
,..., per tot cri
(20)
porosity exists and it has high values, since values have
tot per
been reported until of 70% of the total porosity. Because
not the whole porosity is available for the flow of fluids in
where
this region, the value of porosity of conduction of fluids
A is numerically a parameter that depends on the
should be considered accurately and as a consequence,
petrophysics of the formation, it is a factor that climbs
that of total porosity and of stagnation for a core in study.
the porosity values inside the limits of percolation
The permeability of the porous media will depend on the
porosity and critical porosity.
It depends strongly on
quantities of porosity of conduction of fluids regarding
measured properties by the petrophysics (forms and
the stagnation porosity, that is to say, of others
distribution of blocks sizes, cementation, dolomitization,
petrophysical parameters of the porous media such as:
compaction,...), of the rock.
clay content, cementation, dolomitization, compaction,
This way, in some authors they show graphic of several
fracturing, deposit of asphaltenes and; sorting (forms
values of the exponent m using the modified expression,
and distribution of pore sizes and matrix blocks).
respecting the initial conditions of the regions I and III in
The region III is defined for higher porosities that the
terms of conduction porosity, stagnation porosity, of
critical porosity, in which, the grains or matrix blocks
permeabilities and of resistivity factors. Also, it is
begins to be in suspension and the whole porous space
demonstrated at same time that the empiric relationship
is not only connected, but rather it participates in the
of Gal et all is a peculiar case of the proposed
conduction of fluids. The above mentioned is translated
relationship, with the following quantities: porosity of
in that the stagnation porosity is very low or zero est =0,
percolation per =0.021: critical porosity cri=0.54: and
the conduction porosity grows lineally from the value
m=1.38. In this same order of ideas the Equation of
Prez.Rosales (Eq. 11), it is conserved in their original
reached in cri up to 1, in this case: m = 1, tot =con, the
terms except that we were put the porosity limits, so the
permeability in this region is infinite and the factor of
electric resistivity only depends on the conduction
modified equation is
porosity of fluids and not of the other parameters of the
For region II
porous space like sorting (forms and distribution of grain
m
size), clay content, dolomitization, fracturing and
FR = 1 + G con 1
per=tot =cri(21)
asphaltenes deposition.
2
In the table 3 it is shown the main characteristics of the
FR = 1 + G A m ( tot per ) m 1
per=tot =cri (22)
three regions of flow of fluids schematically.
where
Taking into account the porosity concepts described
per
above, these model could only be applied to any
A=
,..., per tot cri
(23)
sedimentary rock, for what the modified relationship for
tot per
the estimate of the total porosity tot as the sum of the
porosity of conduction of fluids, the porosity of stagnation
and the isolated porosity, but subject to three porosity
For region I
domains, as it is the region of interest. This relationship
is the following: (Figures 27 and 28).
0=tot =per
(24)
FR =

tot = est + ais ,...,0 tot per

tot = con + est + ais ,..., per tot cri

tot = con ,......, cri tot 1

For region III

(18)

FR = ( A(con per ))

cri=tot =1 (25)

The Eq. 22 represents a contribution from this theory to

the estimate of the resistivity factor, since it is useful for

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

the calibration of electric well logs and this way one

enters to the field of scaling of core data to geophysical
well log data, (Figures 27 and 28).
Comments about flow of fluids in porous media.
As it has been discussed along this paper, the hydraulic
permeability of a formation is the ability that possesses a
fluid of being transported through a rock-fluids system,
the porosity of conduction of fluids defines the quantity of
available porous space so that that flow is carried out.
Also, well-known equations exist as those of Humble
that it correlates the resistivity factor with the total
porosity and that of Koseny-Carman that correlates the
absolute permeability with the total porosity.
Both
equations are broadly used in the interpretation of field
data. Both are empiric equations and they depend on
some petrophysical parameters of the formation (clay
content, cementation, dolomitization, compaction,
fracturing and sorting) and of a semi-exponential term of
total porosity from the equation 19, proposed in this
paper. The equation 19 suggests that the constant A is
related with the constant aH of the equation of Humble,
modified by Sen et all (1979).
Mavko et all (1987), worked with the equation of KosenyCarman, modifying the variable total porosity for the
difference of total and percolation porosities (tot -per )x,
where x=3 for the case of well cemented rocks.
In this paper, if x is equaled to m, then the term A of the
equation 19 would be related with the parameter B of the
equation of Koseny-Carman, with that which would be
been in possibilities of investigating the distribution of
permeabilities through a vuggy-fractured rock by X-rays
tomography.

Experimental Procedure for obtaining stagnation

porosity.
The experimental procedure depends upon oil/air is in
the first step of multidirectional forced displacement to
obtain the total porosity image and water/oil is the
second step of unidirectional forced displacement to
obtain stagnation porosity (or saturation of residual oil) is
performed
The core is exposed to house vacuum and a
temperature of 70C for 48 hours in order to get the dry
core status at the beginning of the experimental study.
Then the core is scanned every 2mm in agreement with
a scans plan (Figure 3).
After, the core was completely saturated with reservoir
oil (nonwetting fluid) for 48 hours. In order to get a
situation of saturated core. Then the core is scanned
every 2mm in same positions as the dry core version
and in agreement with a scans plan. Then the total

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porosity is estimated for every imaged section.

After, we begin the second step with water/oil
unidirectional forced displacement with the core
completely saturated with crude oil (nonwetting phase).
Later, the saturated core is scanned every 2mm in same
positions as the dry core version and in agreement with
a scans plan. Finally, the conduction porosity is
estimated, and then the stagnation porosity (or
saturation of residual oil) is estimated.
Oil-air experiment, first step
For oil-air experiment in the first step, oil is introduced in
multidirectional fashion, in other words the dry core is
exposed to a house vacuum and a temperature of 70C
for a minimum of seven days to get 100% of oil
saturation and total porosity distribution. Thus, the
ample oil is supplied at all core faces and imbibition is
forced. De-aerated oil is pumped through the core, in
one direction displacement after forced imbibition to
ensure that the core is completely filled with oil. Once
the forced imbibition is finished in seven days, CT
images are taken according the tomographic plan, every
2mm (Figure 4).
Because values of 100% air and oil filled core are
available from calibration, an image of total porosity for
each voxel, cross-section or core can be estimated from
the equation

tot =

CTosatob CTdryob
CToil CTair

(26)

where CT denotes the CT value for each voxel, crosssection or core and the subscripts osatob, dryob, oil, air
and tot refer to the oil-saturated core, air-saturated core
or dry core, oil CT number, air CT number and, total
porosity, respectively, (Figure 4).
Partial oil saturation profiles during forced imbibition may
be constructed from raw CT data according to equation

S oil =

CTpsatob CTdryob
CToil CTair

(27)

where CT denotes the CT value for each voxel, crosssection or core and the subscripts posatc, dryob, oil and
air refer to the partially oil-saturated core, air-saturated
core or dry core, oil CT number and air CT number,
respectively. Oil and air CT numbers are calibrated as
0 and 1000, respectively, (Figure 5).
Unidirectional forced displacement of oil by water
experiment
The core is taken as described above when the first step
finished.
For counter-current forced imbibition, pure
water is introduced to the core through the end cap by
pumping water through this end cap at a rate of 10

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
7
cm3/minute, forcing a unidirectional displacement of oil
by means of the injection of solvents during two days
by water with the core completely saturated with crude
and then it was dried in oven at 70C during one day,
oil (as nonwetting phase). Later, after 73 hours, the
until achieving a version of core denominated dry core.
saturated core is scanned every 2mm in same positions
We were carried out a tomographic plan and we
as the dry and oil saturated core versions and in
proceeded to scan each preset distance interval, the
agreement with the scans plan. Finally, the conduction
usual sampling interval is of an image every 2 mm of
porosity is estimated, and then the stagnation porosity
distance, for simplification in the Figure 3, is shown a set
(or saturation of residual oil) is estimated.
of only 10 images, 1 every cm is presented for the dry
As future work, we will collect images periodically
core data. Later on, we proceeded to saturate the core
throughout the duration of the second experiment.
with a reference fluid, in this case, crude oil of the field
was chosen, because in a second saturation experiment
Because values of 100% water and oil filled core are
we proceeded to carry out a displacement of this crude
available from calibration, two images of conduction and
oil by distilled water, until achieving a version of core
stagnation porosity for each voxel, cross-section or core
denominated core saturated with oil to 100%. Then, we
can be estimated from the next equation
proceeded to scan every distance interval preset
according to the tomographic plan and, the sampling
wsatob
osatob
interval was of an image every 2 mm of distance, for
con
(28)
simplification in Figure 4 .the same set of 10 X-rays
water
oil
images of saturated core is presented, one for each cm.
As a following step of the developed methodology,
the distribution of total porosity of each digital image was
(29)
est
tot
con
ro
calculated, this way in the Figure 5 the same set of 10
where CT denotes the CT value for each voxel, crossimages of total porosity is presented, which was
section or core and the subscripts wsatob, osatob,
obtained by means of the arithmetic difference, pixel to
water, oil, con , est and Sro refer to the water-saturated
pixel, between the dry and oil saturated images, (Figures
core, oil-saturated core, water CT number, oil CT
3 and 4), the Figure 5 was the image-result of applying a
number, conduction porosity, stagnation porosity and
porosity equation, it ranges from 0 untol 100 units.
residual oil saturation, respectively.
Then, by means of image processing tools, we
segmented this set of porosity images in three regions
Partial water saturation profiles during forced imbibition
corresponding to different porosity: vugs region, micro
may be constructed from raw CT data according to
fractures zones and unsat urated regions. In Figure 6
equation
the set of 10-segmented images is presented starting
from the set of images of dry core of the Figure 3. The
CT pwsat CT posat
segmentation approach was the way of separating the
S water =
(30)
zero density population because of the contained air
CTwater CToil
3
inside the vugs of dimensions greater than 1x1x2 mm .
where CT denotes the CT value for each voxel, crossWith this resolution, the X-rays scanner is an excellent
section or core and the subscripts pwsat, posat, water
equipment to map vugs population directly. In this way,
and oil refer to the partially water-saturated core,
the vugs cartography is achieved, for what comes off a
partially oil -saturated core, water CT number and oil CT
vugs definition to differentiate it of the micro fractures
number, respectively. Oil and water CT numbers are
population that we establish that a vug is that internal
calibrated as 0 and 3000, respectively.
structure of a calcareous sedimentary rock whose value
The CT scanner is a Picker IQ Premier X-rays scanner,
density is zero and whose dimensions are bigger than
3
with 1200 detectors.
The voxel dimension is
2mm , both parameters are determined in the X-rays
0,4x0,4x2mm3.
The tube current is 120 mA.
The
tomography laboratory.
average level of radiation is 140 keV. The acquisition
In the Figure 7 the set of 10-segmented images is
time of one digital image is 2 seconds while the
presented starting from the set of 10 images of oil
reconstruction time for an image is 22 seconds.
saturated core of the Figure 4.
The segmentation
approach was the one of separating the saturation of
Results on limestone cores
100% of crude oil, associated to the containe d fluids
The analyzed base data for the conclusions it was
inside the vugs micro fractures from of unsaturated
1600 X-rays digital images corresponding to 16 different
areas related with matrix blocks of variable dimensions,
cores.
that is to say, in this Figure 7 the division is presented of
In this section the main results of the exposed
the rock-fluids system in areas of flow of fluids and
theoretical ideas are presented.
As entrance fact we
unsaturated areas.
dispose of rock core like the one shown in the Figure 2,
The two previous results represent the most
whose longitude is 10 cm and its diameter is 5,4 cm.
important conclusions in our investigation, since the
Firstly, we proceeded to carry out a cleaning of the core,
population of areas of flow of fluids can be directly

CT
CT

CT
CT

=S

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

mapped (vugs plus micro fractures regions). Another

numeric image processing tool is represented in the
Figure 8 where the set of 10-segmented binary images
is made from difference between pixel-to-pixel of the
sets of Figures 6 and 7. The segmentation approach
was the one of separating the population of areas of
micro fractures, of those associated to unsaturated
regions and to vugs structures.
With the idea of calculating additional parameter of
the internal geometry of a calcareous sedimentary rock,
such as, specific surface, mean average thickness of
vugs, areas of micro fractures and areas of unsaturat ed
blocks and; absolute permeability.
It is required of
intermediate calculations as they are the vugs areas and
of areas of flow of fluids.
In the Figure 9 we mapped
the set of 10-segmented binary images, representing the
specific surface of the vugs regions, from the Figure 6.
The segmentation approach was the one of separating
the contact between the population of vugs areas and
the remaining ones. In the Figure 10 the set of 10segmented binary images, representing the mapping of
the specific surface of the flow areas, from Figure 7.
The segmentation approach was the one of separating
the contact between the populations of unsaturated
areas of the saturated and may be permeable ones.
Once the previous parameters were calculated, we
process to calculate for each digital image: specific
surface of vugs and specific surface of areas of flow of
fluids, mean average thickness vugs, mean average
thickness of areas of flow and mean average thickness
other fractured areas; we calculated them we were
carried out estimates of absolute permeability.
The specific surface Se is defined as the surface area of the
vugs per unit bulk volume
If we assume that an arbitrarily long line is evenly distribution
over the surface area of a vug. In a system like this, line
segment within a void space occupied by one or several vugs
will be, by definition, the vug width in a given location and
direction.
Consequently, the mean vug width of the image,
denoted by p , is given by

p=

l
c/ 2

(31)

Where l represents the sum of the lengths of the line segments

within void spaces and c is the number of intersections
between the line and the perimeter of vugs.
A functional relationship between the mean vug width and
the mean block thickness is.

g=

1
p

(32)

The mean pore width and the mean grain thickness can be
expressed in terms of the porosity and the specific surface.

p=

4
Ss

(33)

The Koseny equation can be expressed in terms of

as follows

C
C3
3
2
k= p = 2 =
g
16
(1 ) 2
Ss

SPE77780

p and g ,

(34)

Where k is the absolute permeability and C is a constant of

proportionality.
In the Figure 11 a graphic of the set of 10 porosities
is presented: vugs and micro fractures from of set of 10
X-rays images. In the Figure 12 the same set of 10
porosities is presented of the set of 10 X-rays images,
but now regarding the total volume core, while in the
Figure 13 only the average of the core is presented. In
the Figure 14 the distribution of the sets of 10 porosities,
vugs and microfractures is observed, regarding only the
available volume of empty spaces, while in the Figure 15
the average of this sets is presented. In the Figure 16
the distribution of the sets of 10 data of specific surface
of vugs, microfractures and flow areas is presented. In
the Figure 17 leaves the graphic of the set of 10 data of
mean average thickness associated to vugs,
microfractures and flow regions from X-rays images. In
the Figure 18, finally, the spatial distribution of the
absolute permeability of the set of 10 data of
microfractures and flow regions from X-rays images are
presented, where you can appreciate that the high
permeability frequencies and its position are clearly
distributed along the core.
Three -Dimensional quantification of vug networks in
vugged calcareous core. Microscopic processing study.
The role of vugs and microfractures in calcareous
rock and oil by water displacement processes has
motivated many researchers to describe their sizes and
shapes. The objective of this image processing study is
to nondestructively quantify the three-dimensional (3-D)
properties of calcareous rock vugs in the same vugged
and microfractured calcareous core. The geometry and
topology of vug networks were determined using dry
images of CT scanning and 3-D reconstruction
techniques. Our results suggest that the numerical
6
density of vugs varies between 1.22 to 2.334 x10
3
networks/m of calcareous rock, because of we found
575 vugs in the studied core. The majority of the vug
networks had a length of 2.5 mm, a volume of
3
6.6mm ,as it is shown from Figure 19 to 23, and a wall
2
area of 150mm . It was found that the greater the length
of networks, the greater the hydraulic radius. The
inclination of the networks ranged from vertical to an
angle of 75 from vertical. Results for tortuosity
indicated that most vug networks had a 3-D tortuous
length 15% greater than the distance between their
extremities. More than 50% of the vugs networks were
made up of four branches. For studied core, it was found
that 80% of the networks had zero connectivity because

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
9
of we have worked with dry core data. This implies that
performed by an examination of gray level variations
more than 4/5 of the vug networks were composed of
according to the method suggested. We have shown how the
only one independent path between any two points
method for region or contour extraction provides attributes
within the vug space (Figs. 24 and 26). However, when
which allow to distinguish the pixels liable to belong the vugewe worked with oil saturated core data, for the same
grain contact from the rest of the image information.
core, it was found that 90% of the vug networks had
some hydraulic connectivity among them (Figure 25).
Nomenclature
This implied that more than 9/10 of the vug networks
L = total length of the grid lines
were transformed in effective porosity as it was
m =cementation exponent
experimentally previewed.
n =number of grid nodes within pore areas
N =total number of grid nodes or pixels
Conclusions
tot =total porosity
In this paper some results about static and dynamic
con =Porosity od conduction of fluids
characterization
of
vuggy-fractured
calcareous
est =Stagnation porosity
sedimentary rocks were presented, using X-rays
ais =Isolated porosity
tomography and displacement of fluids in laboratory.
per =Percolation porosity
cri =Crirical porosity
The distribution of total porosity of each X-rays digital
Ss =specific surface
image was calculated.
Then, we segmented this
p =average pore width
porosity image in three regions of interest with different
porosity meaning: vugs, microfractures and unsaturated
g =average grain thickness
blocks.
A following process led to the calculation of
k =absolute permeability
specific surface of vugs and flow areas, of average
c =number of intersections between grid lines and
thickness of vugs, flow areas and microfracture areas;
the perimeter of the pores
as a last calculation we carried out estimates of absolute
C
=constant
of proportionality in Koseny equation
permeability.
In a second stage we were carried out unidirectional
displacements of crude oil by pure water in a field core
to estimate the relationship of porous space that
participates in the flow of fluids regarding stagnation
areas, with that which was corroborated and the theory
developed by Prez-Rosales and now adapted to ours
objectives. We arrived to a quantitative estimate of the
saturation of residual oil.
In the part of results, several segmented images
were presented, where it is observed the enormous
influence of the vugs population as oil stocking part and
microfractures system as a fluid conductive part of
matrix-vug-microfracture of calcareous rocks of mexican
offshore productive formations.
The most important
conclusion in this study is that the original volume of
such reservoirs could be increased due to the increment
of the vug porosity from 8 to 25% and of the permeability
magnitude that we report and it represents an
opportunity area for the enhanced oil recovery methods.
The segmentation procedure is very simple. The data required
to calculate the various geometrical characteristics can be
easily measured. The results can be made as precise as
desired. Precision depends upon the resolution of the digital
image. The formulas presented here offer a variety of
functional relationships that can be used to develop other
experimental procedures for analyzing fractured porous media.
The notion of mean pore width, and mean grain thickness, as
defined in the paper, are important because they lead to
correlations of experimental interest. The segmentation into
consistent regions and the contours extraction can be

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express his appreciation to the
management of the Mexican Petroleum Institute for
permission to publish this paper.
References
1.-

Prez-Rosales, C.,1967: A Simplified Method for

Determining Specific Surface, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, (August 1967), pp. 1081-1084.
2.- Prez- Rosales, C, 1969: Simultaneous Determination of
Basic Geometrical Characteristics of Porous Media, Society
of Petroleum Engineers Journal, pp. 413-416.
3.- Prez-Rosales, C. y Martnez de la Rosa, J.J.: Structural
Characteristics of Granular Porous Media, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal, (December 1971), pp. 363366.
4.- Prez-Rosales, C., 1976: Generalization of the Maxwell
Equation for Formations Resistivity Factors, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, (July 1976), pp. 819-824.
5.- Prez-Rosales, C. y Martinez de la Rosa, J.J.: Determination
of Petrophysical Properties by Stereological Techniques,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, (December 1977),
pp. 441-444.
6.- Maxwell, J.C.: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, (1954) vol. 1.
7.- Fricke, H.: A Mathematical Treatment of the Electric
Conductivity and Capacity of Disperse Systems, Physical
Review, (1924), Vol. 24, pp. 575-587.
8.- Archie, G. E.: The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in
Determining some Reservoir Characteristics, Trans.
AIME, (1942), Vol. 146, pp. 54-67.

10

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

9.- Prez-Rosales, C.: On the Relationship Between Formation

Resistivity Factor and Porosity, 56. Annual Fall Meeting
of SPE of AIME, San Antonio, Tex., October 4-7, 1981.
10.- Winsauer, W. O., Shearin, H. M., Jr., Masson, P. H. y
Williams, M.: Resistivity of Brine-Saturated Sands in
Relation to Pore Geometry, Bull., AAPG, (1952), Vol. 36,
No. 2, pp. 253-277.
11.- Wyllie, M. R. J. y Gregory, A. R.: Formation Factors of
Unconsolidated Porous Media: Influence of Particle Shape
and Effect of Cementation, Trans., AIME, (1953) Vol. 198,
pp. 103-110.
12.- Klinkenberg, L. J.: Analogy Between Diffusion and
Electrical Conductivity in Porous Rocks, Bull., GSA (1951),
Vol. 62, pp. 559-563.
13.- Balderas-Joers,, C: Estudio Experimental del Factor de
Resistividad y la Porosidad en Medios no Consolidados de
muy Alta Porosidad, BsThesis, Universidad Nacional
Autnoma de Mxico, (1975).
14.- Wyllie, M. R. J. Y Rose, W. D.: Some Theoretical
Considerations Related to the Quantitative Evaluation of the
Physical Characteristics of Reservoir Rock from Electrical
Log Data, Trans., AIME, (1950), Vol. 189, pp. 105-118.
15.- Sanyal, S. K., Marsden, S. S., Jr., y Ramey, H. J., Jr.: The
Effect of Temperature on Electrical Resistivity of Porous
Media , The Log Analyst, (March 1973), pp. 10-24.
16.- Wyllie, M. R. J. Y Spangler, M. B.: Application of Electrical
Resistivity Measurements to Problem of Fluid Flow in
Porous Media, Bull., AAPG, (1952), Vol. 36, No. 2, pp 359403.
17.- Kyte, J. R., Stanclift, R. J., Jr., Stephan, S. C., Jr., y
Rapaport, L. A.: mechanism of Water Flooding in the
Presence of Free Gas, Reprint series, No. 2, Water
Flooding, Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, Dallas,
Tex. (1959), pp. 135-141.
18.- Elkins, L. F. y Skov, A. M.: Cyclic Waterflooding the
Spraberry Utilizes End Effects to Increase Oil Production
Rate, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (August 1963), pp.
877-883.
19.- Owens, W. W. y Archer, D. L.: Waterflood Pressure
Pulsing for Fractured Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, (Junio 1966), pp. 745-752.
20.- Craig, F. F., Jr.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of
Waterflooding, Monograph Series, Society of Petroleum
Engineers of AIME, Dallas, Tex. (1971), Vol. 3, Phase in
Porous Rock, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (January
1979), pp. 10-18.
21.- Weibrandt, R. M. y Fatt, J.: A Scanning Electron
Microscope Study of the Pore Structure of Sandstone",
Journal of Petroleum Technology, (May 1969), pp. 543-548.
22.- Jennings, A.R., Jr. y Sprawls, B. T.: Successful Stimulation
in the Cotton
Valley Sandstone - A Low-Permeability
Reservoir, Journal of Petroleum Technology, (October
1977), pp. 1267-1276.
23.- Chalkey H.W., Cornfield J., and Park H. (1949), A method
for estimating volume . surface ratios, Science, n. 110, pp
295-297.
24.- Schideger A.E., (1957), The physics of fluids through
porous media, McMillan Ed., New York, 345p.
25.- Wellington S.L. and, Vinegar J., (1987), X-Ray
Computarized Tomography, Journal of Petroleum
Technology, n.8, pp 885-897.

SPE77780

26.- Wempe W.L., (2000), Predicting flow properties using

geophysical data improving aquifer characterization, PhD
thesis, Stanford University, 101p.

SI Metric Conversion
cp
X
ft
X
ft 2
X
ft 3
x
in
X
md
X
psi
X

factors
1.0000*
2.0480*
9.2903*
2.8317*
2.5400*
9.8602*
6.8948*

E-03= Pa s
E-01= m
E-02= m2
E-02= m3
E 00= cm
E-04= m2
E 00= kPa

Figure 1a Result of the first step of the experiment,

the multidirectional displacement with crude oil.
Presentation of a binary image where white color
represents crude oil unsaturated areas while the black
color represents fluid flow areas, it means the union of
both, vugs and microfractures regions.
The white
regions are considered as unsaturated regions, since
any fluid didn't penetrate after the multidirectional
saturation laboratory procedure with crude oil.

Figure 1b
Result of the second step of the
experiment, the unidirectional (from up to down) forced
displacement of crude oil by pure water. Presentation
of a ternary image where white color represents
unsaturated areas, black color represents crude oil
stagnation areas (saturation of residual crude oil), while
the blue color represents water flow areas. The white
regions are considered as unsaturated regions, since

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
11
any fluid (crude oil or water) didn't penetrate after two
the union of both, vugs and microfractures regions.
sessions of saturation laboratory procedures with crude
oil and pure water. The regions marked as blue color
represent the porosity of conduction of fluids.

Figure 2 Picture of vuggy-fractured core to study.

This rock represents the initial data for the experimental
study of the internal geometry of the porous media. The
core is 11 cm long and 5,4 cm wide.

Figure 3 Set of 10 X-rays digital images of the dry

core in gray levels. This figure is the result of procedure
for core Each digital image has 2512 lines, 512 colons
and 256 gray levels where highest levels represent the
rock density while zero level represents vugs regions
(black color).

Figure 4 Set of 10 X-rays digital images of the crude

oil saturated core. This figure is a part of results of the
first step of the experiment, the multidirectional forced
displacement of air by crude oil. Each digital image has
a presentation of 256 gray levels where highest values
or levels represent saturated regions with crude oil it
means that this levels set represent fluid flow areas or

Figure 5
Set of the 10 images of total porosity,
which was obtained by means of the arithmetic
difference between the dry and saturated images from
the figures 3 and 4, this is called porosity image in gray
(arbitrary colors) levels.

Figure 6 Set of 10 segmented images from dry core

images in gray levels.
This figure is the result of
procedure for core cleaning. The segmentation approach
was the one of separating the zero density value
corresponding to contained air inside the vugs from
objects with higher density values, it means, objects with
dimensions bigger than 2mm3 and 0 density (black
color).

Figure 7 Set of 10 segmented digital images of the

crude oil saturated core. This figure was the result of the
first step of the experiment, the multidirectional forced
displacement of air by crude oil. Each binary image has
a presentation of 2 levels where black color represents

12

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

SPE77780

saturated regions with crude oil it means that this level

represents fluid flow areas or the union of both, vugs and
microfractures regions, while the white regions are
considered as unsaturated regions, since any fluid didn't
penetrate after the multidirectional saturation laboratory
procedure with crude oil.

SECONDARY POROSITY
60
POROSITY (%)

Figure 8
Set of 10 segmented binary images
starting from difference between the segmented sets of
Figures 6 and 7.
The segmentation approach was the
one of separating the population of microfractures areas
(black color) from vugs and unsaturated blocks (white
color).

Figure 10
Set of 10 segmented binary images,
representing the specific surface of the flow zones from
Figure 7. The segmentation approach was the one of
separating the contact (lack color) between the
population of unsaturated areas of the permeable ones.
The contour length of fl ow regions Cflow could be
estimated in cm, so the specific surface of the flowing
population is Ss=Cflow/Vu, where Vu=18.323cm3.

50
40

flow zones

30

vugs

20

microfractures

10
0
1

10

X-RAY IMAGE SECTION

Figure 11 Graphical presentation of three porosity

curves from the vuggy-fractured core. 10 data of flow
porosity, vugs porosity and microfractures porosity from
the X-rays images are presented.
Figure 9
Set of 10 segmented binary images,
representing the specific surface of the vugs population
from Figure 6.
The segmentation approach was the
one of separating the contact (black color) between the
population of vugs areas and the remaining ones. The
contour length of vugs zones could be estimated in cm,
so the specific surface of the vugs population is
Ss=Cvug/Vu, where Vu=18.323cm3.

POROSITY DISTRIBUCION IN TOTAL

VOLUME
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
1

vugs

microfractures

11

matrix block

Figure 12 Graphical presentation like histogram bars

of three porosity populations from the vuggy -fractured
core. 10 data of flow porosity, vugs porosity and
microfractures porosity from the digital images are
presented considering the total volume of rock.

SPE 77780

3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores

13
SPECIFIC SURFACE

POROSITY DISTRIBUtION IN
TOTAL CORE VOLUME

0.4
0.3
Ss

1
2
3

flow Ss

0.2

vugs Ss

0.1

Figure 13 Average graphical presentation like cake

bars of three porosity populations from the vuggyfractured core. Average data of flow porosity, vugs
porosity and microfractures porosity from the digital
images are presented considering the total volume of
rock.

POROSITY DISTRIBUtION IN EMPTY

SPACE

microfractures
Ss

X-RAY IMAGE SECTION

Figure 16 Graphical presentation of three specific

surface curves from the vuggy-fractured core. 10 data of
flow specific surface, vugs specific surface and
microfractures specific surface from the X-rays images
are presented.

100%

microfractures

11

matrix-blocks

Figure 14 Graphical presentation like histogram bars

of three porosity populations from the vuggy -fractured
core. 10 data of flow porosity, vugs porosity and
microfractures porosity from the digital images are
presented regarding only the available empty space.

12
10
8
6
4
2
0

flow zones
vugs
microfractures

vugs

0%

MEAN THICKNESS cm

MEAN THICKNESS
50%

X-RAY IMAGE SECTION

Figure 17 Graphical presentation of three thickness

average curves from the vuggy-fractured core. 10
thickness average data of flow, vugs and microfractures
from the X-rays images are presented.

POROSITY DISTRIBUtION IN POROUS

SPACE

1
2
3

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

flow zones
K vugs

microfractures

Figure 15 Average graphical presentation like cake

bars of three porosity populations from the vuggyfractured core. Average data of flow porosity, vugs
porosity and microfractures porosity from the digital
images are presented regarding only the available
porous space.

Permeability
milliDarcy

PERMEABILITY

X-RAY IMAGE SECTION

Figure 18 Graphical presentation of three absolute

permeability curves from the vuggy-fractured core. 10
absolute permeability data of flow , vugs and

14

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

microfractures from the X-rays images are presented.

SPE77780

The mean of vug networks had a value of 1.12mm

3.

vug length distribution

300
frecuency

250
200
150

length vug

100
50

72

45

35

27

22

17

13

mm

Figure 19 Histogram of 575 vug lengths in the studied

core. In this case the mean average of the vug networks
had a volume of 2.52mm.

Figure 23. A sample set of 5 consecutive images with

several labeled vugs, each label is presented as different
color, in the studied core. In this case we found a total
575 vug networks.

Rango 5

180
160
140
Frecuencia

120
100
Rango 4
80
60
40
20
0
0.83

6.60

12.37

18.13

23.90

29.67

35.44

41.20

46.97

52.74

58.51

Rango Volumen

Figure 20 Histogram of 575 vugs, total population, in the

studied core. In this case the mean of the vug networks
3
had a volume of 6.6mm .

Figure 24. A 3-D

consecutive images.

vugs

reconstruction

from

60

Frecuencia

Rango 6

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Rango 6

0.83

0.89

0.95

1.00

1.06

1.12

1.18

1.23

1.29

1.35

1.41

Rango Volumen

Figure 21 Histogram of 320 smallest vugs in the studied

core. In this case the mean of the vug networks had a
3
volume of 1.12mm .
Figure 25. A 3-D reconstruction from 60 consecutive
images with flow zones (vugs and microfractures) in the
studied core. In this case we found 52 flow networks.

VOLUME OF EACH LABELED VUG

551

501

451

401

351

301

251

201

151

101

51

80000
60000
40000
20000
0
1

mm3

volume per vug

number of vug label

Figure 22 Graph of 575 vug volumes in the studied core.

(b)
Figure 26. (a) A second example of 3-D reconstruction
from 100 consecutive segmented images with vug zones
in the limestone core. In this case we found 355 vug

SPE 77780
3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores
15
networks (b) the biggest segmented vug.
limestone
1
51
50
dolomite
1
51
50
Table 3 Description of the characteristics of the three
regions of flow of fluids.

Figure 27.. Relationship between porosity of conduction con

and total porosity tot .

Figure 28. Relationship between stagnation porosity est

(residual oil saturation Sro) and total porosity tot . (After
Wompe,2000)
TABLES
Table 1. - Approximate distribution of channels and traps
in a clastic sedimentary rock.
Process
Channels traps
electric
30%
70%
fluid of one phase
37%
63%
Displacement of oil by water
44%
56%
Table 2 Limits of porosity for sedimentary rocks
rock
Range
per
cri
shale
4
14
10
sandstone
5
30
25

R
I

tot
0=tot<per

con
0

est K, FR
?0
0, 8

II

per=tot =cri

?0

?0

f (tot ),
f (,m,G)

III

cri <tot=1

?0

8 , f(con )

Porous medium
Tie homogeneous
Sedimentary rock
Clastic sedimentary
rock
Vuggy -fractured rock
Some Sediments
Sediments

16

R. Martnez-Angeles, L Hernndez -Escobedo and C. Prez -Rosales

SPE77780

SPE 77780

3 D Quantification of Vugs and Fractures Networks in Limestone Cores

17