1)

In Martello's treatise on early Opera Seria, we are given insights as to how the sections of
aria and recitative are set in a scene. Martello begins by saying that each scene is made up of
recitative, an aria, or both, which was the norm. He also says that lyrics which are a dialogue or
narration are to be conveyed with recitatives whereas more emotional scenes are conveyed
through aria. Martello writes that recitative should not be too long, as it is not inherently
interesting, but also long enough that the ideas which need to be expressed come through clearly.
He also says that the syntax and sentence complexity be fairly simple and that his is useful for
everyone involved. This allows composers to experiment more with cadences in the recitative in
order to make it more interesting. It also allows for the singer to breathe between lines and for
the audience to better understand the words and the plot. Recitatives are usually to be written in 7
or 11 syllables, with verse lengths varying. Martello believes rhyming at the cadences makes the
music more charming, though this is not an absolute must.
There are several ways to set an aria, either simple or compound. Simple arias have only
one soloist while compound arias are either duets or chorus's. Martello says duets are usually
saved for mid scene, as they involve multiple characters and lead to plot development and tat
chorus's are best at the end to show the audience all of the singers at once. Martello breaks up
arias into three types, each with their own rules and tricks. Arias are either referred to as
entrances, exits, and intermediates depending on where in the scene they occur. Entrances occur
when a character enters the stage and are often used for soliloquies, reflecting the nature of the
characters own self. Intermediates are used in the middle of the scene and are the only arias
which largely feature other actors on the set. Because of this, it is important hat some action is
happening during the scene so ht these characters have something to do while the soloist
performs. Finally, exit arias close scenes and require every singer to perform a canzonetta.
Martello says entrance and intermediate arias should be used sparingly to enhance their dramatic
effect, and also that an entrance aria should not immediately follow an exit aria for the same
reason.
2)
One example of an entrance aria in Giulio Cesare by George Frideric Handel is the first
time Cesare sings in the entire opera. After the chorus, Cesare sings an aria in which he
introduces himself to the people of Egypt and to the audience. This is an entrance aria not only
because it is literally the entrance of this character in the play, but because of the introductory
nature in which Cesare demonstrates his character's qualities. One exit aria is present at the end
of scene IV, where Cornelia, Sesto, and Curo remain on the stage after Cesare exits for the first
time. This is an exception to Martello's rule, as Curo does not sing a canzonetta before exiting
the stage.
3)
The "scena di forza" is a scene with an opposing force, either a character or an event,
unforeseen by the audience. This scene is violent or intense and fast paced. Because of this,
Martello writes that recitative should dominate this section, as it is better suited for the quick
paced back and forth dialogue which moves this type of scene along. We can find a "scena di
forza" in the scene where Cornelia tries to commit suicide. This would have been a shock to the
audience and is set in recitative, much as Martello describes.
4)
"Versimilitude" refers to realness or authenticity, or the likeliness to what is real.
Something is "marvelous" when it is extraordinary or displays qualities of wonder. At the end of
the second act of Giulio Cesare, Cesare is lead to a grove where Cleopatra is dressed as Virtue

and is surrounded by the 9 muses. This is obviously quite marvelous, as it draws on the
metaphysical and displays Cleopatra as Godly. Despite the extraordinary setting of the
characters, the actual content of the verses contains quite a bit of verisimilitude. Cesare's inability
to let Cleopatra even finish her aria because he is so entranced by her is a very human emotion
adding to the realness of the scene.