Utilization of Food Wastes For Sustainable Development

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Utilization of food wastes for sustainable

development
ARTICLE in ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL, AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY JANUARY 2009
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UTILIZATION OF FOOD WASTES FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Iheanyi Omezuruike Okonko1*, 2Ogunnusi, Tolulope Adeola, 3Fajobi Enobong Aloysius, 4Adejoye, Oluseyi
Damilola and 3Ogunjobi Adeniyi Adewale
1
Department of Virology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, University College
Hospital (UCH), University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
2
Department of Basic Sciences, Federal College of Wildlife Management, New Bussa, Niger State,
3
Enviromental Microbiology and Biotechnology Unit, Department of Botany and Microbiology, University
of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
4
Department of Biology, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria
* mac2finney@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
This review article deals with the alternative means of handling food wastes including the
conversion of wastes from gari industry, cassava peels, shaft from processed cassava,
yam, plaintain, banana agro-waste, corncobs, citrus, pastures and sugar cane, forage,
organic wastes etc. into useful products for human and animal consumption in Nigeria.
The biconversion of waste to useable energy is also a part of utilization of waste, as by
burning solid fuel for heat, by fermenting plant matter to produce fuel, as ethanol, or by
bacterial decomposition of organic waste to produce methanol. Alternative means of
handling food wastes focus more on utilization rather than disposal. Thus, the possibility
of producing a useful product from wastes will greatly ehnance and ensure sustainable
economic development in Nigeria and the world at large.
KEYWORDS
Conversion, quality, product development, sustainable development, wastes utilization.
Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]
INTRODUCTION
More recently the problem of effluent from processing operation and their disposal has
gained public recognition. In many areas of the world, especially the developing
countries, the environmental issues are the same (Okonko et al., 2006; Shittu et al.,
2007). Human beings produce large quantities of wastes as we go about our daily lives.
From our homes come wastes from food preparation, washing machines, baths, toilets,
newspapers, junk mail, packaging, hobbies, auto and home maintenance projects, and the
landscape. In addition, wastes are generated in producing the goods and services we
utilize.
Waste is defined as any material, which has not yet been fully utilized, i.e. the
leftovers from production and consumption. However, waste is an expensive and
sometimes unavoidable result of human activity. It includes plant materials; agricultural,
industrial, and municipal wastes and residues. Waste also refers to liquid or solid
discharged from residences, business premises, small scale industries, and institutions. In
general, waste can be characterized based on its bulk or organic contents, physical
characteristics, and specific contaminants (Okonko et al., 2006). According to Okonko et
al. (2006), each waste contains its unique quality and characteristics, which then suggests
the type of treatment required. The two divisions of waste Domestic and Industrial
effluent have different make-ups and often require various treatment processes. Though,
waste treatment is generally classified into four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and
quaternary treatment with each treatment level aimed at removing a more specific class
of contaminants (Mc Langhlin, 1992; Aririatu et al., 1999; Okonko et al., 2006).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development is a process in which the exploitation of resources, the
direction of investments, the orientation of technological development and the
institutional changes are all made consistent with future as well as the present needs.
Sustainable development helps achieve the necessary balance between the resolution of
social and economic problems and the protection of the environment, the provision of
desirable living conditions for the present generations and measures taken to preserve
these conditions for future generations.
Sustainable development is also a key phrase used by politicians, economists and
environmentalists. Sustainable advancement and development in relation to a nation is
the process of making living, that area of land and/or water more useful or profitable for
mankind. The life sickness affects over 30% of global socio-economic and sustainable
development turnover by way of healthcare, food and energy, agriculture and forestry.
This percentage impact will grow with biotechnological developments which are
increasingly improving the efficiencies of production processes in all spheres of life. This
therefore implies that biotechnology occupy a very strategic position in the socioeconomic advancement and sustainable development of the nation in particular and the
world at large. Scientific advances through the years have relied on the development of
new tools to improve socio-economy such as health care, agricultural production, and
environmental protection (Okonko et al., 2006).
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Sustainable development is a policy which aims to ensure that development meets

the needs of our present society without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs (Okonko et al., 2006). Sustainable development aims to ensure that
the development needs of the present do not compromise the needs of future
generations. A way of addressing this sensitive issue could be through the sustainable
development of waste as an alternative and renewable energy resource.
WASTE UTILIZATION
Wastes are produced by virtually all types of industries, although many cleanup
and disposal options exist, no single process can be applied to all types of waste steams.
The trend in the world today is to convert waste into useful products through the
manipulation of microorganisms and to recycle waste product as much as possible and
the role of microorganisms in waste utilization has been studied extensively by several
authors. Some workers have thus explored ways of minimizing the environmental hazard
posed by the gari industry effluent, not just by getting rid of it but by converting it to
useful products. Waste utilization is another approach in waste management practice.
Waste utilization is an ecologically safe and economically efficient method of waste
management since; the waste is not treated spending money or disposed off in the landfill
causing pollution. Waste utilization could be brought about by the following methods:
Bioconversion
Biological processes for the conversion of wastes to fuels include ethanol
fermentation by yeast or bacteria, and methane production by microbial consortia under
anaerobic conditions. Bioconversion is referred to as the enzyme-mediated conversion of
organic substrates, such as cellulose, to other more valuable substances, such as protein,
by other organisms. The conversion of biomass to useable energy, as by burning solid
fuel for heat, by fermenting plant matter to produce fuel, as ethanol, or by bacterial
decomposition of organic waste to produce methanol is also referred to as bioconversion
(Okonko et al., 2006).
Bioremediation
One of the promising methods for toxic waste cleanup problems is
bioremediation. Bioremediation is a environmental biotechnology process that use either
naturally occurring or deliberately introduced microorganisms, to consume and
breakdown environmental pollutants into harmless by-products such as water, CO2 and
salts, in order to cleanup a polluted site. Naturally occurring bacteria or fungi that
degrade specific substances are isolated, cloned, and manufactured in large quantities and
introduced as combinations of microorganisms into a hazardous waste site to eliminate
specific contaminants. Under carefully controlled conditions, it is a practical and cost
effective method to remove pollutants from contaminated surfaces and subsurfaces.
Biotechnological Processes
In the industry the production processes are now being modified using
biotechnology for reduction in pollution caused by the conventional methods. The
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biotechnological processes also prove to be very economical and also they provide
products, which are better or at least equal in quality to the conventional methods. But in
these processes the cost of pollution eradication is also saved as these processes generally
give out very little or nil pollution and are more efficient than the conventional processes.
Biotechnology serves as a solution to many problems in various fields ranging from fuels
to many other cleaner and innovative clean up technologies. Some examples are:
1. Biotechnological production of biosurfactants
2. Biochemical conversion of lignocelluloses substrates to cellulose, liquid glucose,
and value added chemicals.
Biotechnological, bioremediation or bioconversion process is often successful and
the most inexpensive method, it is only one of many techniques for dealing with
hazardous wastes. This biological waste treatment or bioconversion is desirable because
it is inexpensive, can be done at the site of pollution, and causes minimal physical
disturbance to the surrounding area compared to other methods (Okonko et al., 2006).
Biocatalysis
To develop biocatalytic methods for the conversion of crop derived carbohydrates
to high value polysaccharides or oligosaccharides. The project composed of two major
objectives. Develop biocatalytic methods for the conversion of starch, corn coproducts,
beet sugar, or cane sugar to value-added oligosaccharides.
Biofilm reactors
Nicolella et al. (2000) reported that biofilm reactors are in operation at industrial
scale throughout the world. Use of biofilm reactors is anticipated to be economical for the
production of these industrial chemicals. It has been reported that the best biofilms were
obtained with Pseudomonas fragi, Streptomyces viridosporus, and Thermoactinomyces
vulgaris when used in combination with polypropylene composite chips.
SOURCES AND NATURE OF FOOD WASTE FOR BIOPRODUCT
DEVELOPMENTS
Waste contains three primary constituents: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin,
and can contain other compounds (e.g. extractives). Cellulose and hemicellulose are
carbohydrates that can be broken down by enzymes, acids, or other compounds to simple
sugars, and then fermented to produce ethanol renewable electricity, fuels, and biomassbased products (Puri, 1984; Wyman and Goodman, 1993; van Wyk, 2001). When the
amount of organic agricultural waste, such as corn stalks, leaves and wheat straw from
wheat-processing facilities, sawdust and other residues from wood mills, is also
considered, this component of solid waste could be a principal resource for
biodevelopment (Louwrier, 1998; van Wyk, 2001). Materials of organic origin are known
as biomass (a term that describes energy materials that emanate from biological sources)
and are of major importance to sustainable development because they are renewable as
opposed to non-organic materials and fossil carbohydrates (van Wyk, 2001).
Common farm organic wastes such as maize cobs, banana peels, pawpaw fruit
peels, maize chaff, stumps of palm tree, palm tree inflorescence, maize stem, rice straw
and spinch weeds were earthworm (Eudrilus eugeniae) garden snail (Limicolaria aurora)
and palm grub (Oryctes rhinoceros). It was demonstrated by Omoyinmi et al. (2004) that
animal protein production varied from 0.91g/kg to 1.41g/kg of waste in earthworm, from
1.15g/kg to 1.40g/kg of waste in garden snail and from 0.90g/kg to 1.60g/kg of waste in
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palm grub. It was also shown that the short life cycle and production of large number of
offsprings could be harnessed for the raising of feed for fish/livestock and in some cases
human consumption. This culture of invertebrates offered economic benefits to the
farmer and it improved on the environmental quality by transforming wastes into
beneficial products.
A surveys on the potential for biomass waste to alleviate energy problems in
Tanzania through utilization of agro-industrial residues for anaerobic conversion into
biogas and biodiesel, sisal industry, the largest producer of agro-industrial residues, has a
potential to produce energy that could greatly supplement the current shortfall of
hydropower generation (Kivaisi and Rubindamayugi, 1996).
In 2004, Kareem and Akpan reported that the use of agricultural by-products as
substrate for enzyme production was cheap and could facilitate large scale production of
industrial enzymes in the tropics. Eight isolates of Rhizopus sp. was obtained from the
environment and were grown on solid media for the production of pectinase enzymes.
Three media formulated from agricultural materials were the following: medium A
(Ricebran + Cassava Starch, 10:2w/w); Medium B (Cassava Starch + Soyabean, 1:2
w/w); Medium C (Ricebran + Soyabean + Casein hydrolysate, 10:20.5 w/w). The result
obtained by Kareem and Akpan (2004) showed that medium A gave the highest pectinase
activity of 1533.33u/ml followed by medium A and C with 1,366.66 and 1066.00/ml
respectively after 72hrs fermentation. The three solid media supported profuse mycelial
growth of Rhizopus species and enhanced its pectinase producing potential (Kareem and
Akpan, 2004).
A comparative study of the performance of cow dung and poultry manure as
alternative nutrient sources in a bioremediation process was described by Obire and
Akinde (2005) and Chukwura et al. (2005). Obire and Akinde (2005) also reported that
that amelioration of oil polluted soil with cow dung and poultry manure facilitates the
disappearance of crude oil in the soil thereby increasing the rate of soil recovery. Poultry
manure performed better than Cow dung which will greatly enhanced food productivity
at such a time like this when the world at large is facing food crisis.
Coffee-husk and Pulp
Coffee husk and coffee pulp are coffee processing by-products. Some of the husk is used
as organic fertilizer (Cabezas et al. 1987) while coffee pulp has its application and
utilization in Swine feeding (Jarqun, 1987). The presence of tannins and caffeine
diminishes acceptability and palatability of husk by animals.
Caffeine
Caffeine is also a component of several cola drinks. The addition of caffeine in cola
drinks is responsible for almost 70% of the world's pure caffeine trading (Mazzafera,
2002; Mazzafera et al., 2002). Asano et al (1993) reported a successful microbial
production of theobromine from caffeine while Braham and Bressani (1987) and Bressani
and Braham (1987a,b) have reported the potential uses of coffee berry byproducts and the
composition, technology, and utilization of coffee pulp in other species as well as its antiphysiological factors. The popularity of coffee beverage is also based on the stimulant
effect of caffeine, because of this pharmacological effect; caffeine has long been added to
medical formulations to compensate the depressive effects of other drugs (James, 1991).
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Citrus Pulp
According to Wing (1975) and Wing et al (2003), the Florida Citrus Exchange
established a fellowship for research into uses of citrus waste in 1911 and thus launched
an area of investigation which remains strongly productive. Involved primarily is citrus
pulp, consisting mainly of the rag, peel, and seeds of oranges with minor amounts from
other fruits (Hendrickson and Kesterson, 1965). This waste collects on concrete slabs or
in open pits at canneries. Cattle eat citrus pulp in the fresh state, but it accumulates too
fast for current consumption, and it ferments and spoils too rapidly to save as it is
produced. The feeding value and nutritive properties of citrus by-products proved that the
digestible nutrients of dried grapefruit refuse were good for growing heifers (Neal et al.,
1935).
Citrus Molasses
Citrus molasses also serves as a substrate for fermentation in the beverage-alcohol
industry (Becker et al., 1946). The remaining distillery waste can be condensed to a very
acceptable feedstuff high in pentose sugars and, because of yeast used for fermentation,
high in good quality protein. Large and increasing amounts of citrus molasses are used
for production of beverage alcohol. The remaining sugars, which are pentoses, cannot be
used by the beverage industry, but they are an excellent source of energy for cattle.
Cassava Wastes
Disposal of agricultural byproducts such as cassava wastes from processing activities is
becoming a concern in Nigeria due to its foul dour. Conversion of these low-value
cassava wastes into biosorbent that can remove toxic and valuable metals from industrial
wastewater would increase their market value and ultimately benefit the millions of
cassava starch, garri and fufu producers. Cassava is a major staple food in Nigeria and
therefore produces large volumes of wastes, which has been creating environmental
nuisance in the region (Horsfall et al. 2003)
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), a major staple food in many tropical
countries like Nigeria and therefore produces large volumes of wastes, which has been
creating environmental nuisance in the region (Vlavonou, 1989). Disposal of agricultural
byproducts such as cassava wastes from processing activities is becoming a concern in
Nigeria due to its foul odour. Conversion of these low-value cassava wastes into
biosorbent that can remove toxic and valuable metals from industrial wastewater would
increase their market value and ultimately benefit the millions of cassava starch, garri and
foofoo producers (Horsfall et al. 2003).
Cassava also has to be processed in various ways to reduce its cyanide content to
safe levels for human consumption. One of the traditional forms into which the tuber is
processed is a granular starchy product called gari. In the processing of gari, the
cassava roots are peeled, washed, grated and dewatered with presses. It is sometimes
allowed to ferment in the press bag for 1-4 days for flavour development. The dewatered
meal is sieved to remove large fibres and roasted in large shallow open pots to get garri.
The grating and dewatering are the most important unit processes vital for the
detoxification of the product, though the roasting step also serves to volatize remnant
HCN. Large volumes of starchy effluent are generated during the dewatering or pressing
step as waste.
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In gari-producing communities, huge amounts of this effluent are generated and

constitute an environmental menace. In Nigeria, high levels of gari effluent are produced
daily and carelessly drained onto roads, streets, rivers and agricultural lands, thereby,
constituting a serious environmental hazard. Not only does the effluent result in a strong
stench, it could also result in loss of aquatic life because it is toxic. During the grating of
cassava, cyanohydrins are produced at maceration by action of endogenous linamarase on
the cyanogenic glucosides of cassava, linamarin and lotastrain. Being unstable above pH4
(effluent pH=4.3), these would degrade non-enzymatically to give free cyanide.
There is thus likely to be higher percentage of HCN than cyanohydrin in the
effluent. It is expected that boiling to gelatinize the effluent starch would greatly reduce
the HCN content by volatilization and during fermentation, more HCN would be lost as
the broth is agitated by CO2 released. Also during distillation, if the distillate is collected
only at the boiling point of alcohol, most of the residual HCN would be lost before
ethanol collection. In this way, a distilled alcoholic beverage with acceptable cyanide
content can be prepared from the effluent. The following therefore is a test of hypothesis
and is a report of an attempt to prepare an alcoholic beverage fit for human consumption
from gari industry effluent.
Uzochukwu et al. (2001) carried out an investigation into the possibility of
producing a useful product from gari industry effluent, which is an environmental
menace, using a fermentation process. The effluent starch with an initial HCN
concentration of 9mg/ml was gelatinzed by cooking, hydrolyzed using commercial alpha
and beta amylases and fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae from palm wine. The
fermented broth was distilled in the presence of dry orange peel. HCN concentration in
the final product was reduced by 99.9%, to a level that is safe for human consumption.
Ethanol content was 50.1% (v/v). According to Uzochukwu et al. (2001), sensory
evaluation showed that the product was moderately acceptable, though the ethanol yield
was low. This showed that maximum starch conversion to fermentable sugars by the
commercial alpha and beta amylases occurred at the 90th minutes with sugar
concentration increasing from the initial 3% to 23% suggesting that any residual cyanide
did not inhibit the amylses. They concluded that the environmentally undesirable gari
effluent can be given economic value by being converted to portable spirit which can be
employed for the preparation of various beverages and foods as well as pharmaceuticals
for internal consumption. The process also detoxifies the final effluent, making it safe for
discharge into streams and rivers.
Recently, Cassava starch powder produced locally from Nigerian Cassava Starch
Paste was tested for its ability to serve as a solidifying agent in microbiological nutrient
media by Dabai and Muhammed in 2004 using different aqueous percentage
concentration in pour plate and slants. Ten percent (10%) concentration produced getting
usually associated with solid nutrient media within 30 minutes, though cassava starch has
not been observed to support microbial growth at the concentration used. In view of the
findings of Dabai and Muhammed, (2004), Cassava starch powder can therefore be
suggested as a potential solidifying agent in microbiological nutrient media as an
alternative to Agar-agar.
Pineapple Peels
According to Tran et al. (1998) selection of a strain of Aspergillus for the production of
citric acid from pineapple waste in solid-state fermentation proved valuable.
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Corn Cobs/Local Plant Tubers

Corncobs is waste produced from an agricultural products, it was converted into
fermentable sugars by the pretreatment processes of dilution with distilled water and the
action of concentrated hydrochloric acid respectively (Ashiru, 2005). According to
Ashiru (2005), the presence of these fermentable sugars i.e. hexose sugars and additional
nutrients added to this substrate, were then utilized each by two yeasts, Candida albicans,
Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a mould, Neurospora crassa and converted it into ethanol
after incubation for 96 hours at a temperature of 37OC.
There has been preparation of several useful substances from corn cobs as far
back as 1918 (LaForge and Hudson (1918). Growth culture media has also been
composed from corn cobs and local plant turbers for microbial isolation as reported in a
study by Bankole et al (2006). All media prepared from local plant tubers supported the
growth fungi (Bankole and Aina, 2005). Corncob was also acid hydrolyzed by Ashiru
(2005) to obtained glucose and pentose sugars. At the end of acid hydrolysis, corncob
demonstrated to give high yield in hexose sugars with a brix degree of 26O.
Sugarcane bagasse
Sugarcane bagasse is also waste product generated in large quantities in Nigeria and is
classified as lignocelluloses. It was acid hydrolyzed by Ashiru (2005) to obtained glucose
and pentose sugars. At the end of acid hydrolysis, detoxification was carried out for all
substrates using potassium hydroxide and this was followed by the addition of other
nutrients to increase yield and facilitate better fermentation. The highest yield and
productivity was recorded with the fungus Neurospora crassa using sugarcane bagasse
with values being 77.88g1-1 (Ashiru, 2005).
Sugar Cane Molasses
There has been continuous production of citric acid from sugar cane molasses using a
combination of submerged immobilized and surface stabilized cultures of Aspergillus
niger, KCU520 as reported by Gupta (1994). Molasses are wastes products produced
from sugar refineries and as an agricultural waste respectively, it was converted into
fermentable sugars by the pretreatment processes of dilution with distilled water and the
action of concentrated hydrochloric acid respectively. The presence of these fermentable
sugars i.e. hexose sugars and additional nutrients added to these substrates, were then
utilized each by two yeasts, Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a mould,
Neurospora crassa and converted into ethanol after incubation for 96 hours at a
temperature of 37OC. Neurospora crassa produced the highest percentage yield of
ethanol from the substrates, with 33.65% yield. Candida albicans produced the lowest
percentage yield with 14.46% from molasses. Saccharomyces cerevisiae produced a
percentage 23.59% ethanol from molasses (Ashiru, 2005).
Yam tubers waste
Two species each of Yam (Dioscorea rotundata) and (Dioscorea alata) which are local
common plant tuber in Nigeria was sourced and used for the production of amala flour
which is being consumed as staple food in Southwestern, Nigeria. Different species of
yam has also been sourced and compared with Irish potato for the growth support
capability for fungi (Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus nigicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
in a study by Bankole and Aina in 2004. The raw material was reported to have supported
the growth of inoculated fungi with cooked yam by the 3rd day of growth.
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Cocoyam tubers
Cocoyam (Colocesia esculenta) is an edible root crop belonging to the family Aracea. It
makes significant contribution both as root crops and vegetables in the diet of people,
particularly Nigerians and Africans at large. The percentage of starch (72%) in cocoyam
was exploited in the production of ethanol and vinegar by Braide et al. (2005). This was
achieved by two distinct biochemical processes brought about by the action of
microorganisms under controlled environmental conditions. The first process called
alcoholic fermentation was brought about by yeast (Saccharomyces carlsbergensisi) and
the second process acetic acid fermentation (acetification) was brought about by an acetic
acid bacteria (Acetobacter sp.). Saccharification of gelatinized mash undergo two (2)
stages of enzyme hydrolysis, namely bacteria alpha-amylase (Amylic-TS) and fungal
alpha-amylase (AGM) to produce fermentable sugars. Statistically, there exist a
significant difference in the aroma and colour, but not in taste between cocoyam vinegar
compared with commercial cider and white vinegar at 95% confidence limit.
Soy Whey/Soybean Curd Residue
Agarose-entraped Aspergillus niger cells has been used for the production of citric acid
from soy whey (Khare, 1994). Soybean curd residue supplement has been found to be
very significant for enhancement of methane production from pretreated woody waste
(Take et al., 2005).
Mango Peels
The use of fermented and unfermented mango peels (Mangifera indica-R) as animal
feeds was reported by Ojokoh (2005). Ripe mango peels (Mangifera indica-R) was
naturally fermented for 96 hours at room temperature (30OC). The quality of the
unfermented and fermented mango peels were accessed by determining the proximate
composition, mineral contents, anti-nutritional content as well as the microbiological
quality. The result of the proximate analysis revealed that there was an increase in the
protein content of the ripe mango peels fermented with value of 8.64% contents. Ojokoh
(2005) used the fermented and unfermented samples to feed albino rats and found that
there was an increase in the daily weight of the albino rat feds with these mango peels.
Banana Agro-Waste
Banana is major cash crop of this region generating vast agricultural waste after harvest.
The agro-waste including dried leaves and psuedostem after harvest was used as substrate
for the release of sugars. Thus, under these conditions the agro-waste left behind for
natural degradation can be utilized affectively to yield fermentable sugars which can be
converted into other substances like alcohol (Baig et al., 2003).
Processed Food Waste
Food waste can be defined as any edible material or byproduct that is generated in the
production, processing, transportation, distribution, or consumption of food. The primary
waste products fed to swine are plate and kitchen waste, bakery waste, and food products
from grocery stores and this has proved very valuable as reported by many authors
(MWPS, 1993) and dehydrated restaurant food waste products are used as feedstuffs for
finishing pigs (Myer et al., 1999).
Biosolids
Biosolids are nutrient-rich, predominantly organic materials. Although classified as a
waste material, biosolids can be a beneficial agricultural or horticultural resource because
they contain many essential plant nutrients and organic matter. Following proper
271
treatment and processing, biosolids can be recycled as fertilizers or soil amendments to

improve and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth, with negligible human
health or environmental impacts (MWPS, 1993; Muchovej and Obreza, 2001; Obreza and
O'Connor, 2003).
Decades of worldwide research have demonstrated that biosolids can be safely
used on food crops. In 1996, the National Academy of Sciences (NRC 1996) reviewed
current practices, public health concerns, and regulatory standards, and concluded that the
use of these materials in the production of crops for human consumption when practiced
in accordance with existing federal guidelines and regulations, present negligible risk to
the consumer, to crop production, and to the environment. In addition, an epidemiological
study of the health of farm families using biosolids showed that the use of biosolids was
safe. A report issued by the National Academy of Sciences (NRC 2002) in 2002 found
that there is no documented scientific evidence that this has failed to protect public
health. However, additional scientific work is needed to reduce persistent uncertainty
about the potential for adverse human health effects form exposure to biosolids
(Muchovej and Obreza, 2001; Obreza and O'Connor, 2003).
The Academy report also recommended that the US Environmental Protection
Agency (USEPA) conduct another national sewage sludge survey to confirm the
continuing reduction in biosolids metal concentrations, the negligible concentration of
toxic organics previously identified as problematic, and to expand biosolids analysis to
include compounds recently suggested as potentially troublesome (e.g. antibiotics, flame
retardants, and endocrine-disruptors). Such a survey is welcomed by most people familiar
with biosolids, as it will replace unbridled speculation with fact (MWPS, 1993; Muchovej
and Obreza, 2001; Obreza and O'Connor, 2003; Roka et al., 2004).
Lignocellulose as a Resource for Bioproducts
Lignocellulose consists of lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose; Sun and Cheng (2002)
shows the typical compositions of the three components in various lignocellulosic
materials. Hydrolysis methods have also been used to degrade lignocellulose to alkaline
(Chahal, 1992) and acid (Nguyen, 1999; Grethlein and Converse, 1991). However, many
processes enzymes are preferred to acid or alkaline processes since they are specific
biocatalysts, can operate under much milder reaction conditions, do not produce
undesirable products and are environmentally friendly. The future of fermentation
technology will be greatly enhanced by lignocellulose conversion (Dale, 1987). The
findings of Okeke and Obi (1994, 1995) on the lignocellulose and sugar compositions of
some agro wastes materials showed that saccharification of agro wastes materials by
fungal cellulases and hemicellulases yielded high sugar content.
To develop the carbohydrate potential of biowaste materials, its cellulose content
has to be converted into sugars such as glucose that can be used as starting compounds in
the biosynthesis of many bioproducts. This conversion process could either be acid or
enzyme catalyzed; the concentrated acid process for producing sugars was reported as
early as 1883 (Harris, 1949) and there has been a simultaneous saccharification and
fermentation of cellulose into different useful products (Lastick et al., 1984). This
treatment disrupts the hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains and once it has been
decrystallized it becomes extremely susceptible to hydrolysis. Diluted acid was
introduced in the process as a pretreatment agent to remove the hemicellulose content of
272
biomass before decrystallization and hydrolysis of the cellulose fraction (LaForge and
Hudson, 1918) while Castellonos et al. (1995) reported the comparative evaluation of
hydrolytic efficiency toward microcrystalline cellulose of Penicillium & Trichoderma
cellulases.
Improvements in acidsugar separation and recovery have opened the door for
commercial applications and the current economics of this opportunity are driven by the
availability of a cheap feedstock that usually poses a disposal or waste problem (Sheeman
and Himmal, 1999).
POTENTIAL BIOBASED PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS
Wastes from biomass can also provide raw materials for a diversity of biobased products.
For e.g. plastics from biomass are being produced using polylactic acid from corn.
According to Block (1999) executive order and proposed bill will boost biobased
products and bioenergy in nations that sees the need for it.
Production of Biofuel
The demand for ethanol has the most significant market where ethanol is either used as a
chemical feedstock or as an octane enhancer or petrol additive Brazil produces ethanol
from the fermentation of cane juice whereas in the USA corn is used. In the US, fuel
ethanol has been used in gasohol or oxygenated fuels since the 1980s. These gasoline
fuels contain up to 10% ethanol by volume (Sun and Cheng, 2002). The production of
ethanol from sugars or starch impacts negatively on the economics of the process, thus
making ethanol more expensive compared with fossil fuels. However, the huge amounts
of residual plant biomass considered as waste can potentially be converted into various
different value-added products including biofuels, chemicals, and cheap energy sources
for fermentation, improved animal feeds and human nutrients. High energy liquid fuels
are also derived from plants (Nemethy et al., 1980).
Production of Biogas
Biogas is a renewable fuel and electricity produced from it can be used to attract
renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world (Wikipedia, 2008). Depending on
where it is produced, biogas can also be called swamp, marsh, landfill or digester gas. A
biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or
energy crops. Biogas can be produced utilizing anaerobic digesters. These plants can be
fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage
sludge and food waste. The prospects for biogas cannot be underestimated (Pankhurst,
1983). The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic
digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%.
Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55-75% CH4 (Adelaide,
2007; Kolumbus, 2007; Wikipedia, 2008).
Biogas can be utilized for electricity production, space heating, water heating and
process heating. If compressed, it can replace compressed natural gas for use in vehicles,
where it can fuel an internal combustion engine or fuel cells. Methane within biogas can
be concentrated to the same standards as natural gas, when it is, it is called biomethane. If
concentrated and compressed it can also be used in vehicle transportation (Wikipedia,
2008).
273
Production of Biorefinery Products

The most profitable way to operate a biomass-to-ethanol plant is as a refinery producing a
variety of products from processing all the chemical components (hemicelluloses,
cellulose, lignin, and extractives) of cellulosic feedstock. The plant could make use of
extractives by converting them to resin acids, or pharmaceuticals (taxols from specific
conifers, for example). Cellulose derivatives can be processed into a variety of products
including higher value animal feeds.
Production of Biodiesel
Biodiesel production is a completely renewable resource. Biodiesel product is made from
soya and canola, which is a self-sustaining fuel. Best of all it provides a market for excess
soya bean oil production. Biodiesel is a substitute for fuels that produce a lot of soot and
carbons. These poisonous elements, which are, associated with regular diesel fuel
emissions (especially buses). However, biodiesel has been around for decades as a
supplement that is added to conventional diesel fuel to improve the lubricity of diesel
engines. A Biodiesel fuel consists of methyl esters of soybean oil. Many car
manufacturers are seeing the wisdom of creating vehicles that can accommodate a
biodiesel product by creating a diesel car that is friendly to the use of vegetable oil
blended with diesel fuel. In addition to displacing North America's reliance on imported
petroleum, the use of biodiesel product has been shown to reduce air pollution and
greenhouse gases.
PRODUCTION OF ENZYMES
Production of Cellulases and Hemicellulases
Cellulases and hemicellulases have numerous applications and biotechnological potential
for various industries including chemicals, fuel, food, brewery and wine, animal feed,
textile and laundry, pulp and paper and agriculture (Farooq et al., 1994; Bhat, 2000; Sun
and Cheng, 2002; Wong and Saddler, 1992a, b; Beauchemin et al., 2001, 2003).
Hemicellulases are used for pulping and bleaching in the pulp and paper industry where
they are used to modify the structure of xylan and glucomannan in pulp fibres to enhance
chemical delignification (Suurnkki et al., 1997; van Wyk, 1999a). Goyal et al (1991)
expounded more on the characteristics of fungal cellulases while Kim et al (1998) studied
the factorial optimization of a six cellulase mixture.
Production of Xylanases
In the baking industry xylanases are used for improving desirable texture, loaf volume
and shelf-life of bread. A xylanase has shown excellent performance in the wheat
separation process (Christopherson et al., 1997).
Production of New enzyme systems
Valuable substances produced by organisms can be growing on food processing wastes.
Diacetyl reductase, for example, has been isolated, purified, and characterized by some
researchers. This enzyme is of industrial interest for the production of specialty chemicals
from fats and oils. -glucosidase was produced by Aspergillus niger grown on fruit
pomace. This enzyme is now under investigation for enzymatic release of natural flavors
from food processing residues.
274
PRODUCTION OF OTHER HIGH-VALUE BIOPRODUCTS

Production of Xanthan
Xanthan are produced by fermentation using glucose as the base substrate but
theoretically these same products could be manufactured from lignocellulose waste.
Production of Xylitol
Xylitol used instead of sucrose in food as a sweetner, has odontological applications such
as teeth hardening, remineralisation, and as an antimicrobial agent, it is used in chewing
gum and toothpaste formulations (Roberto et al., 2003; Paraj et al., 1998). Various
bioconversion methods, therefore, have been explored for the production of xylitol from
hemicellulose using microorganisms or their enzymes (Nigam and Singh, 1995).
PRODUCTION OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS
In recent times, many developed countries have returned to carbohydrate based
industries for industrial products (Louwrier, 1998). Renewable fuel production includes
fuels such as ethanol, methanol, and hydrogen, biodiesel, and Fischer-Tropsch (FT)
liquids (fuels derived using the Fischer-Tropsch conversion process). The FT process can
produce diesel, naptha, and other fuels that can be used as substitutes for gasoline.
Landfills produce a methane rich biogas that is most commonly used for power
generation as previously discussed by many authors. Bioconversion of wastes could make
a significant contribution to the production of organic chemicals (Coombs, 1987). Other
examples of production of industrial chemicals produced in biofilm reactors include
acetic acid or vinegar, lactic acid, succinic acid, and fumaric acid.
Production of Ethanol
There have been increased industrial uses of agricultural commodities to produce
different products (Lee, 1994). The production of ethanol from biowaste can improve
energy security and decrease pollution (Forward, 1994). Akpan et al. (1988) produced
ethanol from gari effluents using Aspergillus niger in a one-step fermentation process.
Rajagopal (1977) prepared a beer using cassava. The same can be done using garri
effluent to produce different types of alcoholic beverages. Ethanol has been produced
continuously in an attached biofilm expanded bed bioreactor of Zymomonas mobilis and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae in biofilm reactors (Bland et al., 1982; Kunduru and Pometto,
1996) while Krug and Daugulis (1983) used Zymomonas mobilis immobilized on an ion
exchange resin for ethanol production. Adsorbed cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have
also been used in a packed bed continuous bioreactor to produce ethanol from molasses
(Tyagi and Ghose, 1982). Lynd et al (1991) investigated ethanol yield and tolerance in
continuous culture during thermophilic ethanol production.
Ethanol is an excellent transportation fuel and blends of it have benefits, such as
reduced gasoline use, thus lowering the need for fossil fuels. It also improves the
performance of an ethanolgasoline blend and ethanol provides oxygen for the fuel
resulting in a more complete combustion with a low atmospheric photochemical
reactivity. Even though CO2 is released during the fermentation of sugars to form ethanol
and the burning of ethanol as a fuel, the CO2 is reutilized to grow new biomass replacing
that harvested for ethanol production (Maddox, 1989).
Production of Butanol/2,3-Butanediol
Butanol is an important industrial chemical that can be produced from a number of
carbohydrates using a number of microbial cultures. Butanol can be used as a fuel and
has higher/greater energy content than ethanol (Maddox, 1989). Continuous production
275
of 2, 3-butanediol from whey permeate using cells of Klebsiella pneumoniae immobilized

on to bonechar was reported by Maddox et al (1988).
Production of Acetic Acid/Vinegar
Commercial production of acetic acid or vinegar using biofilm reactors as a
bioconversion technology has been exercised for many years (Maddox, 1989). Production
of these chemicals has been reported by Crueger and Crueger (1989). The percentage of
starch (72%) in cocoyam was exploited in the production of ethanol and vinegar by
Braide et al. (2005). Statistically, there exist a significant difference in the aroma and
colour, but not in taste between cocoyam vinegar compared with commercial cider and
white vinegar at 95% confidence limit. The acetic acid is produced by one of the bacteria
grouped in the two genera, Gluconobacter and Acetobacter. The species that are used
commercially include Acetobacter aceti, A. pasteurianus, and Gluconobacter oxydans.
Production of Fumaric Acid
Biofilm reactors as a bioconversion technology have also been used successfully for the
production of fumaric acid from glucose (Cao et al., 1996) and mineral ore treatment
(Crueger and Crueger, 1989).
Production of Citric Acid
Citric acid (CA) is a carboxylic organic acid that is soluble in water with a pleasant taste.
It is the most important acid used in the food industries. Until about 1920, all commercial
CA was produced from lemon and lime juices. Rohr et al. (1983) reported that CA can be
produced by fermentation process using species of microorganisms namely Aspergillus
niger, a fungus which was used commercially for the first time in 1923 (Xu et al., 1989)
and in solid-substrate fermentation (Lu, 1995). Sugar source has effect on the citric acid
production by Aspergillus niger (Hossain et al., 1984; Murad et al., 2003).
Production of Lactic Acid
Production of lactic acid in biofilm reactors is another example of industrial chemical
production in such reactors as a bioconversion technology. Demirci et al. (1993a, b)
evaluated a number of supports for biofilm formation using lactic acid producing
cultures. Lactic acid was produced in repeated batch cultures in a biofilm reactor.
Production of Succinic Acid
Succinic acid is a chemical that has been produced in biofilm reactors during
bioconversion processes. The industrial potential for succinic acid fermentation was
recognized as early as the late 1970s (Zeikus et al., 1999). Succinic acid
(HOOCCH2CH2COOH) is a dicarboxylic acid, which can be used as a feedstock
chemical for the production of high value products such as 1,4-butanediol,
tetrahydrofuran, adipic acid, -butyrolactone, and n-methylpyrrolidone for applications in
agriculture, food, medicine, plastics, cosmetics, and textiles.
Production of forage
Manures have been used as fertilizer for centuries, but crop fertilization with manure has
received renewed attention in recent years as concern for water pollution potential from
excess manure has increased. However, the content will vary depending on the type of
animal, the feed that was consumed, the way the manure was handled, and other factors.
Large, concentrated animal operations such as dairies and layer houses generally import
more nutrients onto the farm in feed than goes out in milk, eggs, and animals (Johnson et
al., 1991).
276
Forage producers can make good use of many materials considered wastes. Layer
and broiler manure, dairy manure, septage and biosolids, composted urban plant debris,
phosphogypsum, and waste lime from municipal water treatment plants are examples of
materials that can be used for fertilizing and liming pastures and fields. Often these
materials can be obtained at little or no cost to the farmer or rancher. In some
circumstances the land owner may be paid for taking the waste, thus collecting a disposal
fee while the soil and crops benefit from the materials added. Forage crops such as corn
silage and hay are excellent candidates for such application since they remove nutrients
in significant quantities (Kidder, 2002).
APPLICATION POTENTIALS OF BIOPRODUCTS
The question now will be do food wastes pollute the soil? Not if the materials are chosen
carefully and applied properly. A waste in one situation can be a resource in another.
Animal manures have been returned to the land as fertilizer and soil conditioner for
centuries. Yard wastes have much the same composition as crop residues, which are
considered an asset in good soil management. The Center for Biomass Utilization focuses
on developing the following technologies: Cofiring biomass with coal using agricultural
wastes and food-processing wastes to produce transportation fuels and chemical
feedstocks.
A wide variety of biomass resources are available on our planet for conversion
into bioproducts. These may include whole plants, plant parts (e.g. seeds, stalks), plant
constituents (e.g. starch, lipids, protein and fibre), processing byproducts (distillers
grains, corn solubles), materials of marine origin and animal byproducts, municipal and
industrial wastes (Smith et al., 1987). These resources can be used to create new
biomaterials and this will require an intimate understanding of the composition of the raw
material whether it is whole plant or constituents, so that the desired functional elements
can be obtained for bioproduct production (Howard et al., 2003).
Application of biotechnology to the processing of food (including beverages)
produced from agriculture has proved highly valuable (Cooper, 2003). Indeed, the
combination of bio-based feedstock, bio-processes and new products offers the potential
to revolutionize chemical industry structures. In less than 10 years, integrated biorefineries will play a role comparable to today's oil and gas crackers. They will make use
of row crops, energy crops, agricultural waste and food waste as inputs to extract oil and
starch for food, protein for feed, lignin for combustion, cellulose for conversion into
fermentable sugars, as well as other by-products.
Sugar will be the key feedstock of the future, as it can be used to ferment ethanol
for transportation fuel, but also for a whole set of new, basic building blocks. Molecules
such as lactic acids, succinic acid, propylene glycol or 3-hydroxy propionic acid
produced at 20 cents per pound can catalyze the innovation of new chemical product
families, similar to the innovation boost based on the cracker chemicals in the middle of
this 21st century. Indeed, the combination of bio-based feedstock, bio-processes and new
products offers the potential to revolutionize chemical industry structures.
Biogas is used extensively throughout rural China and where wastewater
treatment and industry coincide (Wikipedia, 2008). The Biogas Support Program in
Nepal has installed over 100,000 biogas plants in rural areas. Vietnams Biogas
Programme for Animal Husbandry Sector has led to the installation of over 20,000 plants
277
throughout that country. Biogas is also in use in rural Costa Rica. In Colombia
experiments with diesel engines-generator sets partially fuelled by biogas demonstrated
that biogas could be used for power generation, reducing elecricity costs by 40%
compared with purchase from the regional utility (Wikipedia, 2008). Owing to simplicity
in implementation and use of cheap raw materials in villages, it is one of the most
environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs.
Fossil oil and natural gas are being replaced by carbohydrates from renewable
resources as low-cost, renewable feedstock. in particular, the development of technology
to convert cellulosic biomass from agricultural waste, food waste or energy crops into
fermentable sugars offers the perspective of producing ethanol and other bulk organic
chemicals at low cost. The cost of biomass-based ethanol produced on a commercial
scale, for example, is expected to undercut the cost of gasoline with oil at $30 per barrel.
A first semi-commercial ethanol plant using straw is being operated by Iogen and Shell in
Canada. More companies have started their own endeavors in this field, including
Dupont, John Deere, Genencor, Novozymes, and Abengoa.
Entirely new bio-based products are competing against conventional products on
the basis of a superior cost/performance ratio, or are even fulfilling unmet market needs.
Enzymes, for example, are fast-growing bio-products that make washing powder more
effective, allow softer processing of textiles and pulp and paper, and reduce nitrogen
emissions from animal farming. Other examples are biopolymers; cargill dow's pla
(polylactide) offers a green alternative to pla at similar cost and performance - two largescale plants for further new bio-polymers are under construction - Dupont's Sorona and
Metabolix's phas (polyhydroxyalkanoate).
BENEFITS OF SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION OF FOOD WASTE
Compared to burning fossil fuel, there may be benefits associated with greenhouse gas
reduction with the creation of markets for agricultural waste where its disposal has a
negative effect on the environment. For example, the use of biomass as feedstock reduces
net carbon emissions to the atmosphere and provides reductions in methane emissions
from natural decay processes. The ecologically responsible removal of slash from logged
areas benefits the environment. The use of other agricultural residues also reduces
emissions of volatile organic compounds, odors, dust, and nuisances associated with
agricultural operations such as dairies and animal feeding operations. Improved
management of animal manure and solid wastes also reduces ground water contamination
(MWPS, 1993).
There are economic benefits from the biomass based industrial activities such as
electricity generation, erosion control, and for the production of fuels, animal feed, and
green or renewable chemicals (such as solvents and lubricants, polymers and plastics)
and increased food productivity. Total economic benefits derived from these activities
depend on the mixture of biomass based products generated from it, as well as the state of
maturity of these industries.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE UTILIZATION OF FOOD WASTE
1. The effect of utilization of food waste on the water budget should be considered,
particularly where a shallow ground water table is present or in areas prone to
runoff.
278
2. Minimize the impact of odors of land-applied food wastes by making application

at times when temperatures are cool and when wind direction is away from
neighbors.
3. Food and agricultural wastes contain pathogens. Wastes should be utilized in a
manner that minimizes the disease potential to humans or animals.
4. Flushing of animal wastes offers several advantages for the livestock producer
including labor efficiency and a more pleasant if not actually healthier
environment in animal housing areas (Nordstedt and Baldwin, 2002).
CHALLENGES OF SUSTAINABLE WASTE UTILIZATION
Pollution of surface waters
Pollution of surface waters may result from runoff of applied food waste materials. To
prevent this, one should not apply waste to frozen or saturated soils. Incorporating
surface-applied food waste into soil will limit overland movement of nutrients and
organic matter detrimental to water quality. Check "hydraulic loading" of waste
application to ensure that the volume of liquid applied does not exceed the soil's
percolation and water holding potential (MWPS, 1993).
High Production Costs
The cost of processing cellulosic materials to produce ethanol is high. The development
of new technologies has significantly decreased the cost of producing ethanol,
particularly corn-derived ethanol. However, for some, technologies for cellulosic ethanol
production are currently in the experimental state, while others believe that these
technologies are already sufficiently mature but have not been widely applied due to lack
of capital, which is difficult to attract for the implementation of new technologies
(MWPS, 1993).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
As the current trend in the world today is to utilize and convert waste into useful products
and to recycle waste product as means of achieving sustainable development. Among the
conversion processes and product developments discussed thus far, methane and ethanol
production from various food wastes and energy food crops is economically feasible
within the restraints of scale and location. Although biological processes for the
production of gaseous and liquid fuels have been well demonstrated with cultured
microalgal biomass as reported by most authors, these processes must still be integrated
into a system capable of meeting basic requirements for overall efficiency of converting
solar energy into biofuels. Furthermore, a model system must at least in principle, be
capable of easy scale-up and not be limited by either engineering or economic factors.
Under the current petroleum economy in Nigeria, prospects for the use of H2 or oils
produced by biological processes seem remote in this part of the world.
Bioproduct development would influence the activities of the food,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic and petroleum sectors more in the future as the pressure on
waste management and biodevelopment increases. As with any development, the
sustainable re-use of food waste resources would not be without difficulties, but it would
open up the opportunity for biotechnological developments. The economic environment
would need to foster the type of conditions in which the emergent food industry can
thrive.
279
The same strategic imperatives, socio-economic growth and sustainable

developmental issues, which drove Western countries research into waste utilization
since the 1970s are of even greater and progressing relevance to developing countries
like Nigeria. Although, developing countries are still grappling with socioeconomic
issues including meeting the massive energy shortage demands, food security and
developing biotechnological solutions in the agriculture, agro-processing and other
related manufacturing sectors. Therefore to manage food wastes, the general pathways of
industrial-food waste generation should be reduced, recycled or reused and what is left
must be treated and disposed of in an environmentally acceptable way. If a process is not
environmentally friendly, it should be redesigned such that it becomes so and where a
process cannot be redesigned, then it is necessary to reconsider whether it should be
undertaken at all.
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UTILIZATION OF FOOD WASTES FOR SUSTAINABLE

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Sustainable development is a policy which aims to ensure that development meets

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Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

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In gari-producing communities, huge amounts of this effluent are generated and

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Corn Cobs/Local Plant Tubers

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

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treatment and processing, biosolids can be recycled as fertilizers or soil amendments to

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Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

Production of Biorefinery Products

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PRODUCTION OF OTHER HIGH-VALUE BIOPRODUCTS

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of 2, 3-butanediol from whey permeate using cells of Klebsiella pneumoniae immobilized

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

2. Minimize the impact of odors of land-applied food wastes by making application

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The same strategic imperatives, socio-economic growth and sustainable

Adelaide (2007). Safety Page, Beginners Guide to Biogas, www.adelaide.edu.au/biogas,

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Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

Okonko et al. EJEAFChe, 8 (4), 2009. [263-286]

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