Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
a r t i c l e in fo
abstract
Article history:
Received 30 October 2007
Received in revised form
21 February 2008
Accepted 23 February 2008
Available online 18 April 2008
Multivariate statistical techniques, cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were
applied to the data on water quality of Manchar Lake (Pakistan), generated during 200506, with
monitoring at ve different sites for 36 parameters. This study evaluated and interpreted complex water
quality data sets and apportioned of pollution sources to get better information about water quality and
to design a monitoring network. The chemical correlations were observed by PCA, which were used to
classify the samples by CA, based on the PCA scores. Three signicant sampling locations(sites 1 and
2), (site 4) and (sites 3 and 5)were detected on the basis of similarity of their water quality. The results
revealed that the major causes of water quality deterioration were related to inow of efuent from
industrial, domestic, agricultural and saline seeps into the lake at site 1 and also resulting from people
living in boats and shing at sites 2 and 3.
& 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Physico-chemical parameters
Water quality
Cluster analysis
Principal component analysis
Manchar Lake (Pakistan)
1. Introduction
Water quality is considered the main factor controlling health
and the state of disease in both man and animals. Surface water
quality in a region is largely determined both by natural processes
(weathering and soil erosion) and by anthropogenic inputs
(municipal and industrial wastewater discharge). The anthropogenic discharges constitute a constant polluting source, whereas
surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon, largely affected by
climate within the basin (Singh et al., 2004; Vega et al., 1996).
Niemi et al. (1990) reported human activities are a major factor
determining the quality of the surface and groundwater through
atmospheric pollution, efuent discharges, use of agricultural
chemicals, eroded soils and land use. Environmental pollution,
mainly of water sources, has become public interest. The underdeveloped countries have been suffering the impact of pollution
due to disordered economic growth associated with the exploitation of natural resources.
Large investigations have been carried out on anthropogenic
contamination of ecosystems (Szymanowska et al., 1999; Issa
et al., 1996). However, due to spatial and temporal variations in
water quality (which are often difcult to interpret), a monitoring
ARTICLE IN PRESS
302
2. Experimental
2.1. Sampling site
Manchar is the biggest shallow-water natural lake of Pakistan
(Fig. 1) situated at a distance of about 18 km from Sehwan Sharif,
Jamshoro district, Sindh (26130 N: 67160 E). It is a vast natural
depression anked by the Khirthar hills in the west, the Laki hills
in the south and the river Indus in the east. The mean depth of
Manchar Lake is approximately 2.53.75 m and it covers an area of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kazi et al. / Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72 (2009) 301309
303
Table 1
Water quality parameters associated with their abbreviations, units and analytical
methods used
Variables
Abbreviations
Units
Analytical methods
PH
Electrical conductivity
Salinity
Total solids
Total dissolved solids
Total suspended solids
Total hardness
Calcium hardness
Dissolved oxygen
Biochemical oxygen demand
Chemical oxygen demand
Fluoride
Chloride
Total alkalinity
Phosphate
Sulphate
Nitrite nitrogen
Ammonical nitrogen
Total kjeldahl nitrogen
Nitrate nitrogen
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Aluminum
Cadmium
Lead
Arsenic
Chromium
Nickel
Cobalt
Copper
Manganese
Zinc
Selenium
pH
EC
Salinity
TS
TDS
TSS
T-Hard
Ca-Hard
DO
BOD
COD
F
Cl
T-Alk
PO4
SO4
NO2-N
NH4-N
TKN
NO3-N
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Fe
Al
Cd
Pb
As
Cr
Ni
Co
Cu
Mn
Zn
Se
pH unit
mS/cm
%
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
mg/L
pH-meter
Electrometric
Electrometric
Gravimetric
Gravimetric
Gravimetric
Titrimetric
Titrimetric
Prob metod
Winklar azide method
Dichromate method
Ion selective electrode
Titrimetric
Titrimetric
Spectrophotometric
Spectrophotometric
Spectrophotometric
Spectrophotometric
Titrimetric
Spectrophotometric
Flame photometer
Flame photometer
Flame photometer
FAAS
FAAS
FAAS
ETAAS
ETAAS
Hydride generation AAS
ETAAS
ETAAS
ETAAS
FAAS
ETAAS
FAAS
Hydride generation AAS
ARTICLE IN PRESS
304
3. Results
The basic statistics of lake water quality are based on 2160 total
water samples (5 sampling sites 3 replications 6 sampling
frequency 24 months) are summarized in Table 2, which
gives the range, mean and the standard deviation of the results
for each of the 36 parameters. The sampling sites were
the grouping (dependent) variables, while all the measured
parameters constituted the independent variables. The result
of the PCA base on the correlation matrix of chemical components is expressed in Table 3, and station wise shown in Fig. 2.
Three components of PCA analysis showed 97.6% of the variance in
the data set of lake water. The eigenvectors classied the 36
physico-chemical parameters into three groups: in the rst
component all physico-chemical parameters, major, trace
and toxic elements in lake water; the second component is
loaded with trace and toxic metals while the third component
shows TSS, major cations, TKN, NO3, NH4, PO4, Fe, Al, Cd, Pb, Cr, Co
and Zn.
Cluster analysis was applied on lake water quality data, to
detect spatial similarity and dissimilarity for grouping of sampling
sites (spatial variability) spread over the lake stretch. The resulted
dendogram (Fig. 3), grouped all the ve sampling sites into three
statistically signicant clusters, as sites (12) and (35) have low
mutual dissimilarities as compared to site 4 has 28% of total
dissimilarity. The analytical data set was standardized in order to
compare the aspects of the variation of each physico-chemical
parameters on different sampling sites as shown in Fig. 4.
The TDS and EC during the annual season cycle showed no
signicant variations, presenting averages for all sampling sites.
The range of TDS and conductivity in lake water was found in the
range of 35804440 mg/L and 5.016.22 mS/cm, respectively. The
major ions, F, Cl, NO3, SO4, PO4, Na, Ca, Mg and K were higher than
their concentrations in several surface water bodies in the world
(Silva and Rezende, 2002). The range of Na was found in all the
sampling site as 262805 mg/L. The level of Fe and Al were found
in the range of 1.527.21 and 0.914.27 mg/L, respectively,
corresponding to 1020-folds higher than WHO recommended
values for drinking water. High concentrations of toxic elements
(As, Cd and Pb), which were detected in 100% of the samples,
ranged 35.0171, 2.412.1, and 39.0172 mg/L, respectively. The
total phosphate and nitrogen values were found in the range of
0.2620.719 and 44.9128 mg/L, respectively, in lake water
samples. Chloride concentrations ranged in all water samples
found as 8862210 mg/L. Low DO values, in the range of
2.57.4 mg/L, were found while high levels of COD and BOD were
observed in all study sites. The range in BOD and COD of water
samples collected from all sites were found to be 37.1104.8 and
79208 mg/L, respectively.
4. Discussion
4.1. Spatial similarity and site grouping
Principal component analysis was applied to the normalized
data sets (36 variables) separately for the ve different sampling
sites and demarcated by the CA technique to compare the
compositional patterns among the analyzed water samples and
to identify the factors that inuence each one. The rst
component (PC1) accounted for over 78.6% of the total variance
in the data set of the lake water, in other words, the physical
parameters, major cations, anions and heavy metals in the
solution demonstrate similar behavior in the lake water samples
(Table 3). In a macroscopic point of view all the physico-chemical
parameters behave similarly, i.e. high concentration of major
elements as well as toxic metals in main body of whole lake
except minor change at site 4, where the slight variation in
pollution loading has some temporal effects. We have already
mentioned that the wet season in this area is very short, and has
little effect on values of variables at this site. The strong positive
loading on BOD and COD were observed, whereas, a negative
loading on DO. It is, thus, a group of purely organic pollution
indicator parameters. This also suggests that the anthropogenic
pollution, which is the major lake pollution problem, is mainly
due to the discharge of wastewater as a regular source, throughout the year. The trend obtained was also supported by the
analysis of the results on the raw data set. The second component
(PC2), explaining 16.4% of the total variance has strong positive
loadings for trace and toxic metals, thus basically represents the
metals of pollution group. The third component (PC3) of PCA
shows only 2.5% of the total variation has positive loading of major
cations. The high values of Fe, Al and Pb are above the permissible
limit of WHO values for drinking water (WHO, 2004).
The result of CA base on the PCA scores is shown in Fig. 3. The
dendogram claries the abnormality of the sampling sites 1 and 2,
which make one group as cluster 1, which receive polluted
efuents from non-point sources, i.e., from agricultural, industrial
and domestic activities via MNVD as shown in Fig. 1. Besides
cluster 1, the mutual dissimilarity among other sites made as
cluster 2 (site 4) and cluster 3 (sites 3 and 5) correspond to
relatively high pollution, low pollution and moderate pollution
regions, respectively. It implies that for rapid assessment of water
quality, only one site in each cluster may serve as good in spatial
assessment of the water quality as the whole network. It is
evident that the CA technique is useful in offering reliable
classication of surface waters in the whole region and will make
possible to adequately serve for spatial assessment in an optimal
manner. Thus, the number of sampling sites and cost in the
monitoring network will be reduced without loosing any
ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kazi et al. / Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72 (2009) 301309
305
Table 2
Range, mean and standard deviation (Std.) of water quality parameters at different sites of Lake Manchar during 2005 06
Parameters
WHO limits
St1
St2
St3
St4
St5
pH
6.5 8.5
Range
Mean
Std.
7.9 8.7
8.08
0.18
7.4 8.7
8.02
0.24
7.6 8.7
8.17
0.26
8.0 8.9
8.35
0.20
7.4 8.7
8.10
0.27
EC (mS/cm)
1.5
Range
Mean
Std.
4.7 10.8
6.22
1.37
4.60 9.60
5.97
1.23
4.11 9.21
5.58
1.53
3.87 9.00
5.01
1.12
4.11 9.05
5.47
1.09
Salinity (%)
0.1
Range
Mean
Std.
0.301 0.656
0.386
0.080
0.276 0.615
0.366
0.079
0.26 0.60
0.351
0.094
0.202 0.500
0.298
0.071
0.250 0.562
0.334
0.071
TS (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
4300 9742
5753
1274
4088 9128
5489
1161
4074 8811
5293
1485
3319 7813
4630
1066
3755 7620
5027
1017
TDS (mg/L)
1000
Range
Mean
Std.
3362 7136
4440
941
3224 7269
4237
951
2978 6435
4057
1021
2778 5738
3579
750
2822 6422
3842
855
TSS (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
878.5 2606
1113
371
863.9-1859
1035.1
271
716.9-2376
1052
531
468.9 2246
850.9
410
622.7 1939
985.2
311
Ca-Hard (mg/L)
100
Range
Mean
Std.
517.8 1107
667.1
139
465.2 1094
638.8
137
449.5 1080
620.1
176
394.0 910.4
535.9
115
437.4 975.2
589.6
134
DO (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
2.4 5.4
3.7
0.87
3.4 6.5
3.9
0.62
2.5 6.8
4.3
1.33
4.8 7.4
5.2
0.76
3.5 7.2
4.7
1.25
BOD (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
41.4 92.03
58.44
15.53
45.9 104.8
64.08
13.55
41.9 100.2
61.46
13.86
37.1 81.17
50.75
11.55
41.6 97.93
56.49
14.17
COD (mg/L)
10
Range
Mean
Std.
100.1 208.6
131.4
26.70
97.5 196.9
120.9
28.63
93.7 202.7
125.3
26.92
79.7 178.3
106.2
23.69
84.5 190.1
115.2
24.88
F (mg/L)
1.5
Range
Mean
Std.
0.55 1.14
0.71
0.14
0.516 1.084
0.68
0.14
0.50 1.06
0.66
0.17
0.46 0.92
0.57
0.12
0.47 1.00
0.62
0.13
Cl (mg/L)
250
Range
Mean
Std.
1055 2210
1410
279.6
999.9 2097
1333
272.2
925.6 2089
1285
334.6
885.9 1759
1128
220.7
954.7 2006
1223
262.2
T-Alk (mg/L)
200
Range
Mean
Std
132.7 306.9
179.7
40.40
122.5 294.9
171.2
39.04
117.2 268.5
156.7
58.74
100.6 236.0
141.1
31.67
119.5 268.3
157.4
34.39
PO4 (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
0.352 0.716
0.52
0.11
0.322 0.719
0.50
0.11
0.270 0.694
0.48
0.14
0.277 0.645
0.46
0.10
0.262 0.601
0.42
0.09
SO4 (mg/L)
250
Range
Mean
Std.
144.9 313.1
186.1
38.7
139.0 288.09
176.70
37.4
24.78 288.8
162.2
63.50
118.2 245.5
150.4
33.97
125.6 271.9
162.2
35.55
NO2-N (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
2.41 5.50
3.37
0.75
2.28 5.11
3.22
0.71
2.37 4.84
3.09
0.78
2.01 4.21
2.68
0.58
2.11 4.66
2.92
0.65
NH4-N (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
5.85 13.22
8.48
1.7
5.57 12.6
8.04
1.7
5.48 12.10
7.82
2.1
4.77 10.36
6.82
1.4
5.36 12.46
7.35
1.7
TKN (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
58.7 128.1
94.2
21.5
44.9 117.5
86.7
27.5
55.5 120.1
89.3
20.9
52.2 105.4
74.7
16.7
52.7 111.2
81.2
18.2
NO3-N (mg/L)
50
Range
Mean
Std.
5.03 12.7
8.4
1.9
5.31 11.3
8.2
2.1
5.59 13.0
8.8
1.9
4.46 11.0
7.2
1.6
4.72 11.4
7.6
1.7
Na (mg/L)
200
Range
Mean
Std.
355.2 804.7
474.5
109
327.2 760.4
51.9
108
316.2 758.3
433.6
136
262.4 625.2
381.1
93.8
306.1 720.8
418.4
100
ARTICLE IN PRESS
306
Table 2 (continued )
Parameters
WHO limits
St1
St2
St3
St4
St5
K (mg/L)
12
Range
Mean
Std.
18.141.2
23.9
5.1
17.139.2
22.5
4.7
17.835.7
21.6
5.2
14.533.1
18.9
4.3
15.236.9
20.5
4.6
Ca (mg/L)
100
Range
Mean
Std.
181382
245.5
50.9
171377
234.9
49.5
172373
228.3
65.9
143314
197.1
41.3
152370
217.0
49.7
Mg (mg/L)
50
Range
Mean
Std.
129.1291.0
167.2
38.8
119.1268.6
157.7
35.7
120.0280.0
154.3
48.5
106.8257.9
134.0
32.5
105.6248.7
145.6
33.0
Fe (mg/L)
0.3
Range
Mean
Std
1.686.88
3.4
1.7
1.715.52
3.0
1.2
1.586.25
2.8
1.3
1.527.21
3.0
1.7
1.595.28
2.6
1.3
Al (mg/L)
0.2
Range
Mean
Std.
1.014.27
2.1
1.1
0.913.86
1.92
0.93
0.9674.06
1.87
0.96
1.063.92
2.01
0.96
0.9313.83
1.93
0.95
Cd (mg/L)
Range
Mean
Std.
2.9011.8
5.8
3.1
2.712.1
5.3
2.7
2.81.2
5.3
2.9
2.69.1
5.0
2.2
2.48.7
5.1
2.1
Pb (mg/L)
10
Range
Mean
Std.
43.1172.2
89.4
46
43.7171.2
82.3
43
39.2170.7
82.0
44
40.4161.4
81.2
41
43.7142.2
77.2
34
As (mg/L)
10
Range
Mean
Std
43.2171
86.1
47
35.4150
83.8
38
42.7140
77.4
34
42.1158
80.2
38
39.3141
76.5
34
Cr (mg/L)
50
Range
Mean
Std.
4.216.1
8.2
4.0
4.415.4
7.8
3.7
4.315.7
7.4
4.2
4.116.4
7.7
3.2
3.216.2
7.1
3.4
Ni (mg/L)
20
Range
Mean
Std.
20.276.4
38.1
18.1
15.158.5
36.0
15.2
17.267.4
33.4
16.2
15.261.5
34.6
15.2
17.158.5
32.7
14.1
Co (mg/L)
40
Range
Mean
Std.
23.088.0
42.97
21.4
19.084.0
39.32
21.2
17.077.0
38.30
17.4
19.073.0
38.03
17.2
21.064.0
36.06
14.8
Cu (mg/L)
2000
Range
Mean
Std.
11.240.2
21.1
10.2
11.636.1
19.2
8.74
9.440.6
17.2
10.4
9.136.3
18.7
9.24
8.238.4
18.3
10.1
Mn (mg/L)
100
Range
Mean
Std.
34.0151.0
77.0
40.2
3.0143.0
75.3
38.2
35.0141.0
70.1
35.4
32.0137.0
72.1
33.2
29.0131.0
68.3
36.5
Zn (mg/L)
10
Range
Mean
Std.
3771387
788
300
3961580
731
415
3401390
711
335
3641455
721
356
3614240
701
338
Se (mg/L)
10
Range
Mean
Std.
32.7118
81.2
10.4
32.792.4
62.2
10.4
30.677.2
38.5
10.2
32.782.4
43.4
9.1
30.674.5
38.5
8.6
and lower values in the winter season (1228 1C). The pH values of
collected water samples were within those dened by WHO
guidelines of 6.58.5 (WHO, 2004).
The high level of EC, due to signicant amount of dissolved salt,
was observed in all sites of lake under study. The annual rainfall in
this basin is as little as o100 mm, so very little variation was
obtained in values of conductivity in the rainy season. High
conductivity in dry season represents water with high electrolyte
concentration due to evaporation. The EC values exceeding the
WHO (2004) guidelines (Table 2) for drinking water, the 1215folds higher EC is attributed to the high salinity and high mineral
content in all sampling sites. It also corresponds to the highest
concentrations of dominant ions, which are the result of ion
exchange and solubilisation in the aquifer (Sanchez-Perez and
Tremolieres, 2003). The high level of major cations (Na, Ca and
ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kazi et al. / Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72 (2009) 301309
90
Table 3
Eigenvector and eigenvalues on the correlation matrixes of concentration of
physico-chemical parameters in Lake Manchar
0.065
0.112
0.096
0.076
0.180
0.087
0.124
0.312
0.283
0.137
0.114
0.081
0.051
0.088
0.009
0.096
0.092
0.133
0.259
0.107
0.078
0.125
0.100
0.276
0.327
0.100
0.173
0.231
0.260
0.239
0.179
0.268
0.223
0.223
0.182
5.566
16.370
95.023
0.191
0.071
0.047
0.051
0.089
0.066
0.046
0.248
0.205
0.262
0.036
0.033
0.264
0.199
0.239
0.065
0.006
0.237
0.420
0.063
0.039
0.041
0.019
0.075
0.113
0.220
0.336
0.202
0.106
0.069
0.219
0.262
0.143
0.118
0.169
0.871
2.563
97.586
PC2 (16.37 %)
10
5
Site 4
Site 1
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Site 5
0.188
0.186
0.188
0.190
0.172
0.189
0.185
0.024
0.120
0.176
0.186
0.190
0.185
0.169
0.188
0.188
0.189
0.178
0.132
0.186
0.190
0.184
0.188
0.145
0.098
0.183
0.166
0.152
0.142
0.157
0.170
0.135
0.152
0.162
0.172
26.742
78.653
78.653
Site 3
EC
Salinity
TS
TDS
TSS
T-Hard
Ca-Hard
DO
BOD
COD
F
Cl
T-Alk
PO4
SO4
NO2-N
NH4-N
TKN
NO3-N
Na
K
Ca
Mg
Fe
Al
Cd
Pb
As
Cr
Ni
Co
Cu
Mn
Zn
Se
Eigenvalue
Variability (%)
Cumulative %
70
Site 4
PC3
Site 2
PC2
Site 1
PC1
80
Dissimilarity
Parameters
307
Fig. 3. Dendogram for cluster analysis based on the PCA score. The dissimilarity
dened by Euclidean distance and the combination of cluster is based on Ward
method.
0
Site 2
Site 5
Site 3
-5
-10
-5
0
PC1 (78.65 %)
10
Fig. 2. Scores of the rst two principal components (PC1 and PC2) PC1 and PC2
explained 95.02% of the total variance.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
308
TDS
BOD
Alkalinity
COD
TKN
Standard Units
-1
-2
Site 1
Site 2
Na
Site 3
Ca
Site 4
Site 5
Fe
Mg
Al
Standard Units
-1
-2
Site 2
Site 1
Cd
Pb
Site 3
As
Site 4
Site 5
Se
Standard Units
-1
-2
Site 1
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Site 5
Fig 4. Standard unit of chemical concentrations in water of the lake Manchar. The
standard units is dened as z (xu)/S, where x is the raw concentrated data, u is
the mean values and S is the standard deviation. (a) TDS, BOD, COD, Alkalinity and
TKN (b) Major cations, (c) trace and toxic metals.
The data of the physico-chemical parameters were transformed into standard unit (z) to compare the aspects of the
variation in water samples collected from different sites as shown
in Fig. 4. Among the normalized data, except for BOD, all other
parameters were found to be very high at sampling site 1, showing
high pollution at this site; it is the main contributing source of
pollution in the lake (Fig. 4a). The normalized concentrations for
all the physico-chemical parameters are almost equivalent to their
mean values above one standard deviation (1s). All physicochemical parameters show low normalized values at site 4 and 5
(below 0), whereas the values of these parameters are (o1s) at
sites 2 and 3 (Fig. 4b). Se and As have similar behavior at sites 1
and 2, while other toxic metals (Pb, Cd) show moderate variations
at sites 2 and 3 (Fig. 4c).
5. Conclusion
In this study, different multivariate statistical techniques were
used to evaluate variations in surface water quality of the
Manchar Lake. Cluster analysis grouped ve sampling sites into
three clusters of similar water quality characteristics. Based on
obtained information, it is possible to design a future, optimal
sampling strategy, which could reduce the number of sampling
sites and associated cost. Principle component analysis helped in
identifying the factors or sources responsible for water quality
variations. The main cause of degradation of the lake is the
discharge of industrial, agricultural wastes and of municipal
sewage water from the upper northern areas of Sindh, coming
through MNVD (site 1). Fishing and boating activities were also
ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kazi et al. / Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 72 (2009) 301309
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the nancial support from
Higher Education Commission of Pakistan.
References
AOAC, 1995. Association of Ofcial Analytical Chemists. Ofcial Methods of
Analysis, 16 ed. AOAC International, Gaithersburg, MD March 1998 revision.
Barreto, W.J., Ribeiro, M.R., Solci, M.C., Scarminio, I.S., Nozaki, J., de Oliveira, E.,
Barreto, S.R.G., 2005. Interpretation of seasonal variation of metals and abiotic
properties in a tropical lake using multivariate analysis and MINTEQA2
program. Anal. Sci. 21, 209214.
Clesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E., Eaton, A.D. (Eds.), 1998. Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed. American Public Heath
Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA) and Water
Environment Federation (WEF), Washington, DC.
Da Silva, A.M.M., Sacoman, L.B., 2001. Using chemical and physical parameters to
dene the quality of Pardo river water (Botucatu-sp-Brazil). Water Res. 5,
16091616.
Dixon, W., Chiswell, B., 1996. Review of aquatic monitoring program design. Water
Res. 30, 19351948.
Eaton, D.A., Clesceri, L.S., Greenberg, A.E., 1995. Standard Methods, for 14 the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th ed. American Public Health
Association, Washington, DC, p. 1015.
Forbes, W.F., Hill, G.B., 1998. Is exposure to aluminum a risk factor for the
development of Alzheimer disease?yes. Arch. Neurol. 55, 740741.
Galal-Gorchev, H., Ozolins, G., Bonnefoy, X., 1993. Revision of the WHO guidelines
for drinking water quality. Ann. Institutionali. Super Sanit. 29, 335345.
Gardner, M.J., Gunn, A.M., 1991. Bioavailability of Al from food and drinking water.
In: Proceedings of the Royal Society Med. Round Table Series: Alzheimers
Disease and the environment, London, UK.
Helena, B., Pardo, R., Vega, M., Barrado, E., Fernandez, J.M., Fernandez, L., 2000.
Temporal evolution of groundwater composition in an alluvial aquifer (Pisuerga
river, Spain) by principal component analysis. Water Res. 34, 807816.
Ikem, A., Odueyungbo, S., Egiebor, N.O., Nyavor, K., 2002. Chemical quality of
bottled waters from three cities in eastern Alabama. Sci. Total Environ. 285,
165175.
Ikem, A., Egiebor, N.O., Nyavor, K., 2003. Trace elements in water, sh and sediment
from Tuskegee lake, southeastern USA. Water Air Soil Poll. 149, 5175.
Issa, Y.M., Elewa, A.A., Rizk, M.S., Hassouna, A.F.A., 1996. Distribution of some heavy
metals in Qaroun lake and river Nile, Egypt, Menoya. J. Agric. Res. 21, 733746.
Kazi, T.G., Katz, S.A., 1987. Spectrophotometric determination of nitrate nitrogen
and nitrite nitrogen in sewage sludges. Spectrosc. Lett. 20, 509517.
309
Kim, J.H., Kim, R.H., Lee, J., Cheong, T.J., Yum, B.W., Chang, H.W., 2005. Multivariate
statistical analysis to identify the major factors governing groundwater quality
in the coastal area of Kimje, South Korea. Hydrol. Process 19, 12611276.
Liu, C.W., Lin, K.H., Kuo, Y.M., 2003. Application of factor analysis in the assessment
of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan. Sci. Total Environ.
313, 7789.
McCarthy, M.F., 2004. Should we restrict chloride rather than sodium? Med.
Hypotheses 63, 138148.
McKenna Jr., J.E., 2003. An enhanced cluster analysis program with bootstrap
signicance testing for ecological community analysis. Environ. Mode. Softw.
18, 205220.
Niemi, G.J., Devore, P., Detenbeck, N., Taylor, D., Lima, A., 1990. Overview of case
studies on recovery of aquatic systems from disturbance. Environ. Manage. 14,
571587.
Otto, M., 1998. Multivariate methods. In: Kellner, R., Mermet, J.M., Otto, M.,
Widmer, H.M. (Eds.), Analytical Chemistry. Wiley/VCH, Weinheim, Germany,
p. 916.
Reghunath, R., Murthy, T.R.S., Raghavan, B.R., 2002. The utility of multivariate
statistical techniques in hydrogeochemical studies: an example from Karnataka, India. Water Res. 36, 24372442.
Sanchez-Perez, J.M., Tremolieres, M., 2003. Change in groundwater chemistry as a
consequence of suppression of oods: the case of the Rhine oodplain.
J. Hydrol. 270, 89104.
Sarbu, C., Pop, H.F., 2005. Principal component analysis versus fuzzy principal
component analysis. A case study: the quality of Danube water (19851996).
Talanta 65, 12151220.
Siddiq, S., 2004. Annual Report 200304. Sustainable Development Policy Institute.
/www.sdpi.orgS.
Silva, M.A.L., Rezende, C.E., 2002. Behavior of selected micro and trace elements
and organic matter in sediments of freshwater system in southeast Brazil. Sci.
Total Environ. 292, 21128.
Silva, A.M., Novelli, E.L.B., Fascineli, M.L., Almeida, J.A., 1999. Impact of an
environmentally realistic intake of water contaminants and superoxide
formation on tissues of rats. Environ. Poll. 105, 243249.
Simeonov, V., Simeonova, P., Tsitouridou, R., 2004. Chemometric quality assessment of surface waters: two case studies. Chem. Eng. Ecol. 11, 449469.
Singh, K.P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., Sinha, S., 2004. Multivariate statistical techniques
for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti
river (India): a case study. Water Res. 38, 39803992.
Szymanowska, A., Samecka-Cymerman, A., Kempers, A.J., 1999. Heavy metals in
three lakes in West Poland. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 43, 2129.
Thomaz, S.M., Lansac-Toha, F.A., Roberto, M.C., Esteves, F.A., Lima, A.F., 1992.
Seasonal variation of some limnological factors of lagoa do Guarana, a Varzea
lake of the high Rio Parana, State of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Rev. Hydrobiol.
Trop. 25, 269276.
Tsai, S.M., Wang, T.N., Ko, Y.C., 1998. Cancer mortality trends in blackfoot disease
endemic community of Taiwan following water source replacement. J. Toxicol.
Environ. Health Part A 55, 389404.
Vega, M., Pardo, R., Barrado, E., Deban, L., 1996. Assessment of seasonal and
polluting effects on the quality of river water by exploratory data analysis.
Water Res. 32, 35813592.
Versari, A., Parpinello, G.P., Galassi, S., 2002. Chemometric survey of Italian bottled
mineral waters by means of their labelled physicochemical and chemical
composition. J. Food Compos. Anal. 15, 251264.
Watt, G.C.M., Britton, A., Gilmour, H.G., Moore, M.R., Murray, G.D., Robertson, S.J.,
2000. Public health implications of new guidelines for lead in drinking water: a
case study in an area with historically high water lead levels. Food Chem.
Toxicol. 38, 7379.
WHO, 1998. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Addendum to Volume 2:
Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information, 2nd ed. Geneva,
Switzerland.
WHO, 2004. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality, third ed. WHO, Geneva,
Switzerland.
Xia, Y., Liu, J., 2004. An overview of chronic arsenism via drinking water in PR
China. Toxicology 198, 2529.
Zacheus, O.M., Martikainen, P.J., 1997. Physicochemical quality of drinking and hot
waters in Finnish buildings originated from groundwater or surface water
plants. Sci. Total Environ. 204, 110.