The Meaning of Force

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with
another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects, there is a force
upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no longer
experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an interaction.
Force is a quantity which is measured using the standard metric unit known as the
Newton.

For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two
broad categories:

contact forces, and

forces resulting from action-at-a-distance

Contact forces are those types of forces which result when the two interacting objects
are perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include
frictional forces, tensional forces, normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied
forces.
Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces which result even when the two
interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a
push or pull despite their physical separation. Examples of action-at-a-distance forces
include gravitational forces. For example, the sun and planets exert a gravitational pull
on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth
and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull
between you and the Earth. Electric forces are action-at-a-distance forces. For example,
the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience
an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation. And magnetic
forces are action-at-a-distance forces. Examples of contact and action-at-distance forces
are listed in the table below.

Contact Forces
Frictional Force
Tension Force
Normal Force
Air Resistance Force
Applied Force
Spring Force

Action-at-a-Distance Forces

Gravitational Force
Electrical Force
Magnetic Force

Type of Force
Description of Force
(and Symbol)
Applied Force
Fapp

An applied force is a force which is applied to an object by a

person or another object. If a person is pushing a desk across
the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the object.
The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.

(also known as Weight)

The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or
other massively large object attracts another object towards
itself. By definition, this is the weight of the object. All objects
upon earth experience a force of gravity which is directed
"downward" towards the center of the earth. The force of gravity
on earth is always equal to the weight of the object as found by
the equation:

Fgrav

Fgrav = m * g

Gravity Force

where g = 9.8 m/s2 (on Earth)

and m = mass (in kg)

Normal Force
Fnorm

Friction Force
Ffrict

The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object

which is in contact with another stable object. For example, if a
book is resting upon a surface, then the surface is exerting an
upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the
book. On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally
between two objects which are in contact with each other. For
instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes
horizontally on the person.
The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object
moves across it or makes an effort to move across it. There are
at least two types of friction force - sliding and static friction.
Thought it is not always the cast, the friction force often opposes
the motion of an object. For example, if a book slides across the
surface of a desk, then the desk exerts a friction force in the
opposite direction of its motion.
Friction results from the two surfaces being pressed together
closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces between
molecules of different surfaces. As such, friction depends upon
the nature of the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they
are pressed together.
The maximum amount of friction force which a surface can exert
upon an object can be calculated using the formula below:

Air Resistance Force

Fair

Tension force

Spring Force
Fspring

The air resistance is a special type of frictional force which acts

upon objects as they travel through the air. The force of air
resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an object.
This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible
magnitude (and due to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to
predict its value). It is most noticeable for objects which travel at
high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects
with large surface areas.
The tension force is the force which is transmitted through a
string, rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting
from opposite ends. The tension force is directed along the
length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the
opposite ends of the wire.
The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or
stretched spring upon any object which is attached to it. An
object which compresses or stretches a spring is always acted
upon by a force which restores the object to its rest or equilibrium
position. For most springs (specifically, for those which are said
to obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude of the force is directly
proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the
spring.

Newton's Three Laws of Motion

Newton's three Laws of Motion are the foundation of the theory of motion--e.g., of orbits
and rockets.
I. Newton's First Law of Motion: Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to
remain in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
This we recognize as essentially Galileo's concept of inertia, and this is often termed
simply the "Law of Inertia".
II. Newton's Second Law of Motion: Newton's second law of motion explains how an
object will change velocity if it is pushed or pulled upon.
Firstly, this law states that if you do place a force on an object, it will accelerate, i.e.,
change its velocity, and it will change its velocity in the direction of the force.
It accelerates in the direction..that you push it.

Secondly, this acceleration is directly proportional to the force. For example, if you are
pushing on an object, causing it to accelerate, and then you push, say, three times
harder, the acceleration will be three times greater.

Fa

If you push twice as hard..

It accelerates twice as much.

Thirdly, this acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. For
example, if you are pushing equally on two objects, and one of the objects has five times
more mass than the other, it will accelerate at one fifth the acceleration of the other.
It it gets twice the mass..
It accelerates half as much.

a = F/m

III. Newton's Third Law of Motion: The third law states that for every force there is an
equal and opposite force. For example, if you push on a wall, it will push back on you
as hard as you are pushing on it.
If you push on it
It pushes on you.

FRICTION
Friction is a force that is created whenever two surfaces move or try to move across
each other.

Friction always opposes the motion or attempted motion of one surface across
another surface.
Friction is dependant on the texture of both surfaces.
Friction is also dependant on the amount of contact force pushing the two
surfaces together (normal force).

Uses, Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction

There are advantages and disadvantages of friction. Since friction is a resistance force
that slows down or prevents motion, it is necessary in many applications to prevent
slipping or sliding. But also, it can be a nuisance because it can hinder motion and cause
the need for expending energy. A good compromise is necessary to get just enough
friction.
Questions you may have include:

How is friction necessary?

How is friction a nuisance?
What is a good compromise for using friction?

Important uses
In some situations, friction is very important and beneficial. There are many things that
you could not do without the force of friction.

Walking
You could not walk without the friction between your shoes and the ground. As you try to
step forward, you push your foot backward. Friction holds your shoe to the ground,
allowing you to walk. Consider how difficult it is to walk on slippery ice, where there is
little friction.

Bear did not heed warning sign

Writing
Writing with a pencil requires friction. You could not hold a pencil in your hand without
friction. It would slip out when you tried to hold it to write. The graphite pencil led would
not make a mark on the paper without friction.
A pencil eraser uses friction to rub off mistakes written in pencil lead. Rubbing the eraser
on the lead wears out the eraser due to friction, while the particles worn off gather up the
pencil lead from the paper.

Driving car
Your car would not start moving if it wasn't for the friction of the tires against the street.
With no friction, the tires would just spin. Likewise, you could not stop without the friction
of the brakes and the tires.

Brake pads in your car help produce friction to slow you down.

This is a closeup of the

brake of a boxcar. The
brake causes friction
against the tire, causing
it to slow down or stop.

Problems from friction

Friction can cause problems or be a nuisance that you try to minimize.
Makes movement difficult
Any time you want to move an object, friction can make the job more difficult. Excess
friction can make it difficult to slide a box across the floor, ride a bicycle or walk through
deep snow.
An automobile would not move forward very well unless its friction was not reduced. Oil
is needed to lubricate the engine and allow its parts to move easily. Oil and ball bearings
are also used in the wheels, so they will turn with little friction
Wastes energy
In any type of vehicle--such as a car, boat or airplane--excess friction means that extra
fuel must be used to power the vehicle. In other words, fuel or energy is being wasted
because of the friction.
Fluid friction or air resistance can greatly reduce the gas mileage in an automobile. Cars
are streamlined to reduce friction. But driving at highway speeds with your windows
open can create enough drag on the car to greatly reduce your gas mileage.
Heats parts
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that the amount of energy remains constant.
Thus, the energy that is "lost" to friction in trying to move an object is really turned to
heat energy. The friction of parts rubbing together creates heat.
You've seen how people will try to start a fire by vigorously rubbing two sticks together.
Or perhaps you've seen an automobile spin its wheels so much that the tires start to
smoke. These are examples of friction creating heat energy. Just rub your hands
together to create the same effect.
Besides the problem of losing energy to heat, there is also the threat of a part
overheating due to friction. This can cause damage to a machine.
Wears things out
Any device that has moving parts can wear out rapidly due to friction. Lubrication is used
not only to allow parts to move easier but also to prevent them from wearing out. Some
other examples of materials wearing out due to friction include the soles of your shoes
and a pencil eraser.

Friction can cause problems. When objects rub against each other, the
surfaces are worn away. Friction with the ground causes the heels and
soles of your shoes to wear away.

Compromise
A compromise is needed between too much friction and not enough.
Fro example, if you wanted to slide a heavy box across the floor, you would want to
reduce the friction between the box and the floor, so that it would be easy to move.
Lubrication of some sort is often a way to reduce friction.
But you would also want to increase the friction of your shoes on the floor, so that
you would be able to get good traction and be able to push effectively. Soles
made of rubber material that include treads can reduce slipping when
walking or running.

Causes of Friction
The causes of the resistive force of friction are molecular adhesion, surface roughness,
and the plowing effect.
Adhesion is the molecular force resulting when two materials are brought into close
contact with each other. Trying to slide objects against each other requires breaking
these adhesive bonds. For years, scientists thought that friction was caused by surface
roughness, but recent studies have shown that it is actually a result of adhesive forces
between the materials.

Adhesion
When two objects are brought into contact, many atoms or molecules from one object
are in such close proximity to those in the other object that molecular or electromagnetic
forces attract the molecules of the two materials together. This force is called adhesion.
Trying to slide one object across the other requires breaking these adhesive bonds.
Adhesion is the essence of friction.
You've seen a water drop adhere to a window pane. The force of friction prevents this
liquid from sliding down the solid material. But most cases of friction you see concern a
solid object sliding or moving against another solid.

Sliding objects against each other requires breaking these millions of contact points
where the adhesion force takes effect, only to result in millions of new contact points of
adhesion.

Surface roughness
All solid materials have some degree of surface roughness. If you looked at what seems
to be a smooth surface under a high-powered microscope, you would see bumps, hills
and valleys that could interfere with sliding motion.

Close-up view of surface roughness

At one time it was thought that the surface roughness of materials was the cause for
friction. In reality, it only has a small effect on friction for most materials.
If the surfaces of two hard solids are extremely rough, the high points or asperities can
interfere with sliding and cause friction because of the abrasion or wear that can take
place when you slide one object against the other. This is the "sandpaper effect" where
particles of the materials are dislodged from their surfaces. In such a case, the friction is
caused by surface roughness, although the adhesion effect still plays a part in the
abrasion.

Deformations
Soft materials will deform when under pressure. This also increased the resistance to
motion. For example, when you stand on a rug, you sink in slightly, which causes
resistance when you try to drag your feet along the rug's surface. Another example is
how rubber tires flatten out at the area on contact with the road.

When materials deform, you must "plow" through to move, thus creating a resistive
force.

Pushing object on soft surface

When the deformation becomes large, such that one object sinks into the other,
streamlining can affect the friction, similar to what happens in fluid friction.

Types of friction
The classic law of friction states that friction is the product of a coefficient and a force.
There are two main types of friction: Static and Kinetic

Static and Kinetic Friction

Friction is a key concept when you are attempting to understand car accidents. The
force of friction is a force that resists motion when two objects are in contact. If you look
at the surfaces of all objects, there are tiny bumps and ridges. Those microscopic peaks
and valleys catch on one another when two objects are moving past each other.

This explanation is a little simplified. There are other processes at work, including
chemical bonding and electrical interactions.
The level of friction that different materials exhibit is measured by the coefficient of
friction. The formula is = f / N, where is the coefficient of friction, f is the amount of
force that resists motion, and N is the normal force. Normal force is the force at which
one surface is being pushed into another. If a rock that weighs 50 newtons is lying on the
ground, then the normal force is that 50 newtons of force. The higher is, the more force
resists motion if two objects are sliding past each other.

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Static friction
Static friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving relative to each
other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped
surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as s, is usually higher than
the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can
move. The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins
is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: . When there is no
sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to . Any force
smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional
force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than overcomes the
force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static
friction is no longer applicable and kinetic friction becomes applicable.
An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as
it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in
contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather
than kinetic friction.
The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred
to as limiting friction, although this term is not used universally.

Kinetic friction
Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other
and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically
denoted as k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same
materials.

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Examples of kinetic friction:

Kinetic friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on
a desk and moving it around is an example of kinetic friction. The graphical
representation of static and kinetic friction is shown below.

Some common values of coefficients of kinetic and static friction:

Surfaces

(static)

(kinetic)

Steel on steel

0.74

0.57

Glass on glass

0.94

0.40

Metal on Metal
0.15
(lubricated)

0.06

Ice on ice

0.10

0.03

Teflon on Teflon 0.04

0.04

Tire on concrete 1.00

0.80

Tire on wet road 0.60

0.40

Tire on snow

0.20

0.30

Reducing Friction:
A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, that is placed
between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The
science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Super lubricity, a recentlydiscovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction
between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels - a very small amount of frictional
energy would be dissipated due to electronic and/or atomic vibrations.Lubricants to
overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as
graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant.

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Component of the force acting on the object (Strings, pulleys, and inclines):

Figure: Block dragged over a horizontal surface

Figure: Block sliding down an incline

Figure: Block suspended by a string

Figure: Block suspended by three strings

Figure: Block sliding over a smooth table,

pulled by a second block

Figure: An Atwood machine

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Problems
1. A block of mass m = 15 kg held by a cord on a frictionless inclined plane. What is the
tension in the cord if = 27o? What force does the plane exert on the block?
2. A block rests on an inclined plane surface. The angle of inclination is increased until it
reaches a critical angle of 450, after which the block begins to slide. Find the coefficient of
static friction
3. Two blocks connected by a cord that passes over a mass less, frictionless pulley. Let m =
1.3 kg and M = 2.8 kg. Find the tension in the cord and the magnitude of the acceleration
of the two blocks.
4.

A sphere of mass 3.0x10-4 kg is suspended from a cord. A steady horizontal breeze

pushes the sphere so that the cord makes a constant angle of 37 o with the vertical. Find
(i) the magnitude of the push and (ii) the tension in the cord.

5. A bartender slides a beer stein of mass 0.45 kg horizontally along the bar with an initial
speed of 3.5 m/s. The stein comes to rest near the customer after sliding 2.8 m. find the
coefficient of kinetic friction.
6. A sled is traveling at 4m/s along a horizontal stretch of snow. The coefficient of kinetic
friction is 0.05. How far does the sled go before stopping?
7. An elevator and its load have a combined mass of 1600 kg. Find the tension in the
supporting cable when the elevator, originally moving downward at 12 m/s, is brought to
rest with constant acceleration in a distance of 42 m.
8. An experimental rocket sled can be accelerated at a constant rate from rest to 1600 km/h
in 1.8 s. What is the magnitude of the required net force is the sled has a mass of 500
kg?
9. An electron with a speed of 1.2 X 10 7 m/s moves horizontally into a region where a
constant vertical force 4.5X 10-16 N acts on it. The mass of the electron is 9.11X 10-31 kg.
Determine the vertical distance the electron is deflected the time it has moved 30 mm
horizontally.
10. A woman pulls a loaded sled of mass m = 75 kg along a horizontal surface at constant
velocity. The coefficient of kinetic friction k between the runners and the snow is 0.10,
and the angle is 42o. (i) What is the tension T in the rope? (ii) What is the normal force
with which the snow pushes vertically upward on the sled?
11. A 68 kg crate is dragged across a floor by pulling on a rope attached to the crate and
inclined 24 above the horizontal. (i) If the coefficient of static friction is 0.47, what
minimum force magnitude is required from the rope to start the crate moving? (ii) If the
coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.29, what is the magnitude of the initial acceleration of the
crate?

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