J.

Buongiorno / Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 1
Question 1 Basic Parameters in Two-phase Flow
1.1

Prove that the volumetric flow fraction, , is related to the flow quality, x, by the following
expression:

=
1+

v 1 x

l x

1.2 Prove that for homogeneous flow (i.e., v = vv), the following equations are valid:
a) =
b) m+ = m
c) h +m = h m

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Question 2 Conservation Equations for Two-phase Flow

The boiler of a coal-fired power plant consists of a tube bundle surrounding the combustion
chamber. The tubes are vertical (10-m length) and round (2-cm inner diameter). The operating
conditions for the boiler are as follows:

Pressure: 10 MPa (corresponding to a saturation temperature of 311C)

Water inlet temperature: 300C
Water mass flow rate (per tube): 0.57 kg/s
Wall heat flux: 300 kW/m2 (axially and circumferentially constant)

2.1 Write the steady-state mixture mass, momentum and energy conservation equations for a
boiler tube.
2.2 Using the mass equation, find the mass flux (G) at the tube inlet, middle axial position and
outlet.
2.3 Calculate the equilibrium quality (xe) at the inlet. Using the energy equation, find also the
equilibrium quality at the outlet. Is it reasonable to assume that x = xe at the inlet? At the
outlet?
2.4 Assuming a slip ratio of 1.9, calculate the void fraction, and the vapor and liquid velocities
at the outlet.
Table 1. Properties of saturated water at 10 MPa.
Parameter
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
667 kg/m3
55 kg/m3
1,407 kJ/kg
2,724 kJ/kg
6.2 kJ/(kgC)
7.1 kJ/(kgC)
910-5 Pas
210-5 Pas
0.52 W/(mC)
0.08 W/(mC)
0.012 N/m

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Question 3 Two-phase Flow Map

Consider two-phase flow of water at 6.4 MPa, corresponding to a saturation temperature of

280C (properties in Table 2). The BWR nominal channel (Figure 1) operates at this pressure.
3.1 Generate a flow map for this system, making use of the following assumptions:
-

Use jv and j as the map parameters.

Treat the BWR channel as a round tube of equivalent diameter.
Demonstrate that bubbly flow cannot exist in such small diameter channel.
Then consider only the dispersed bubbly, intermittent and annular flow patterns.
In calculating the transition line from dispersed bubbly-to-intermittent use S=1.

3.2 The coolant mass flux in the BWR channel is 1,800 kg/m2s. Assuming that the coolant
enters the BWR channel as saturated liquid, and leaves it as a steam/water mixture of 14%
quality, sketch the coolant trajectory (i.e., the jv-j line described by the coolant as it
flows from the inlet to the outlet) on the flow map.
3.3 Assuming that the channel is 3.5-m long and the heat flux is axially constant, at what
distance from the inlet does the transition to annular flow occur?

Table 2. Properties of saturated water at 6.4 MPa.

Fuel pin
Coolant
12.3 mm
16.2 mm

Figure 1. Cross-sectional view of the BWR nominal

channel

Parameter
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
769 kg/m3
33 kg/m3
1,237 kJ/kg
2,780 kJ/kg
5.3 kJ/(kgC)
5.0 kJ/(kgC)
9.810-5 Pas
1.910-5 Pas
0.574 W/(mC)
0.061 W/(mC)
0.019 N/m

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 2
Annular and Bubbly Flow in the Riser of a High-Pressure Two-Phase Loop
An engineer at the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) is studying the two-phase flow
behavior of water at 6.4 MPa (properties in Table 1). His data will be used to improve the design
of nuclear and conventional steam generators. The experimental apparatus is a natural
circulation loop comprising an electric heater of variable power, a riser and a downcomer. The
riser is a vertical pipe of hexagonal cross-section, 5.68-cm wide (flat-to-flat) and 6-m long. You
are to analyze the characteristics of the two-phase flow in the riser, at two different power levels
of the electric heater.
Full Power
At full power, the riser receives a two-phase mixture with 2.52 kg/s mass flow rate at 15%
quality.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)

viii)

ix)

Verify that the two-phase flow pattern in the riser is annular.

Verify the condition for the onset of liquid entrainment.
Calculate the equilibrium entrained-liquid fraction with the Ishii-Mishima correlation.
Calculate the void fraction in the riser using the EPRI correlation.
Calculate the vapor velocity.
Estimate the maximum diameter of the entrained droplets. (Hint: use a value of 10
for the critical Weber number)
Calculate the average value of the droplet/steam relative velocity. (Hint: equate
weight and drag forces to find the droplet/steam relative velocity as a function of the
droplet diameter. Then use a flat droplet diameter distribution to compute the average
relative velocity)
How would the result in vii change if a more realistic droplet diameter distribution
(i.e., the upper-limit lognormal distribution) were used instead of a flat distribution?
(Provide only a qualitative answer)
Calculate the velocity of the liquid film on the riser wall. (Hint: assume that the
average liquid velocity in the riser can be expressed as the weighed sum of the film
velocity and the entrained-droplet velocity, with the entrained liquid fraction as the
weight. Then solve for the film velocity)

Reduced Power
At reduced power, the mass flow rate and quality in the riser are 1.5 kg/s and 1%, respectively,
and the flow pattern is bubbly.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

x)
xi)
xii)
xiii)

The bubbles have an equivalent diameter of 1 cm. What is the bubble shape? What is
the bubble velocity relative to the liquid? (Hint: use a Re-Eo-M diagram)
Using the drift-flux model and the relative velocity calculated in x, estimate the void
fraction. (Hint: assume Co=1.2)
Calculate the acceleration and gravity pressure drop in the riser.
Calculate the friction pressure drop using the following correlations:
Friedel
HEM with fTP=ffo
Martinelli-Nelson
Baroczy

Assumptions:
- Adiabatic, fully-developed upflow
- Treat the riser as a round tube of equivalent diameter
3 2
w
2
Hexagon perimeter: p = 2 3w

Hexagon area: A =

Table 1. Properties of saturated water at 6.4 MPa.

Parameter
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
769 kg/m3
33 kg/m3
1,237 kJ/kg
2,780 kJ/kg
5.3 kJ/(kgC)
5.0 kJ/(kgC)
9.810-5 Pas
1.910-5 Pas
0.574 W/(mC)
0.061 W/(mC)
0.019 N/m

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 3
Steam Separation in a PWR U-tube Steam Generators
The schematic of a PWR U-tube Steam Generator (SG) is shown in Figure 1. Saturated steam at
5.7 MPa and 11% quality is generated in the U-tube bundle region. The majority of the liquid is
removed in the steam separator. The residual liquid is removed in the steam dryer. The steam
flow rate to the turbine is 456 kg/s. The properties of steam and water at 5.7 MPa are reported in
Table 1.
Steam to
Turbine
Steam
Dryer
Steam
Separator
Riser

Feedwater

Primary
Water In

Primary
Water Out

Figure 1. U-tube Steam Generator

Steam Separator
You are to consider a steam separator design based on gravity separation.
i)

ii)
iii)

Calculate the minimum height of the region above the free liquid surface that
minimizes carryover. (Hint: the riser has a flow area of 7.07 m2, and is partitioned, so
that its equivalent diameter is 0.2 m)
Calculate the separation efficiency of the gravity separator. (Hint: ignore the effect of
steam carryunder)
Estimate the maximum diameter of the entrained droplets. (Hint: use a value of 22 for
the critical Weber number)

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

iv)

Gravity separators are not actually used in PWR steam generators.

separators are used instead. Why?

Cyclone

Steam Dryer
Now consider a steam dryer design of the chevron type. The height of the chevrons is 1 m, the
spacing is 15 mm, wave amplitude is 12.5 mm, the wavelength is 50 mm and the length is 100
mm (= 2 wavelengths).
v)

vi)
vii)

Calculate the minimum number of chevrons required to obtain a 20% margin to liquid
re-entrainment in the dryer. (Hint: use Figure 2 to calculate the breakthrough velocity
for the dryer)
Calculate the separation efficiency of the dryer, assuming a flat distribution for the
diameter of the entrained droplets.
Repeat vi for chevrons of same height, spacing and wave amplitude, but 86 mm
wavelength and 172 mm length (= 2 wavelengths). Which design would you choose?

Table 1. Properties of saturated water at 5.7 MPa.

Parameter
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
764 kg/m3
29 kg/m3
1,196 kJ/kg
2,788 kJ/kg
5.2 kJ/(kgC)
4.7 kJ/(kgC)
1.010-4 Pas
1.810-5 Pas
0.59 W/(mC)
0.06 W/(mC)
0.021 N/m

Figure 2. Breakthrough velocity in chevron separators.

22.313 - Homework on channel instability in heated laminar helium flow

One of the major challenges of gas cooled fast reactors is removal of the decay heat from
the core after a large loss of coolant accident. One of the Generation IV concepts with
helium coolant uses a passive decay heat removal system, which employs a water-cooled
heat exchanger above the low-pressure drop core enclosed in a guard containment, as
shown in Figure 1. In case of loss of coolant from the primary system, an equilibrium
pressure between the primary system and the containment is reached and natural
circulation of helium at the backup containment pressure ensues. However, in this
situation the helium velocity in the core channels is small, resulting in laminar flow and
core temperatures are high, in excess of 1000C.

Water
cooling

Emergency cooling
Heat Exchanger

Reactor vessel
Guard
containment
Hexagonal blocks
with coolant
channels

reflector
Core

Figure 1 Schematic of passive decay heat removal

Computer code simulations predicted that, once the helium core outlet temperature
exceeds 1200C, the channels start to overheat rapidly. The designer suspects that

Ledinegg type-instabilities may be at work. Your task is to perform an analysis of the

flow in one core channel and confirm his hypothesis.
Assume a helium cooled channel of constant flow area heated by uniform heat flux, as
shown in Figure 2. The channel inlet and outlet parameters are denoted by the subscripts
in and out, respectively, and subscript-less properties denote the values at the channel
midplane. Channel average temperature (bulk) is defined as T=(Tin+Tout)/2 and the
channel-average properties are functions of this temperature as well as the system
pressure. Since helium is an ideal gas with constant specific heat and the channel is
heated by uniform heat flux, the use of channel average properties to characterize the
channel flow should provide good results and allow significant analysis simplification.
Neglect acceleration and form loss (inlet and outlet) pressure drops.
Tout
out, vout

T
, v

m&

d hydraulic diameter
A flow area
T temperature
density
v velocity
L heated length
q heat flux
kinematic viscosity
cp specific heat capacity
p system pressure

Tin
in, vin

Figure 2 Schematic of heated channel with nomenclature

Both density and kinematic viscosity are strong functions of temperature. Density can be
easily expressed using the ideal gas approximation, which holds almost perfectly for
helium, i.e.,
p
=
r (T + 273)
where r is the ratio of universal gas constant R=8314J/kmol-K and molecular weight, M.
Kinematic viscosity (dynamic viscosity divided by density) is increasing with
temperature according to the relation:

= K 1 + K 2T m
where the coefficients and the exponent are given in Table 1. Table 1 also lists the
channel geometry and other parameters important for the analysis.

Table 1 Parameters used for analysis

Parameter
First viscosity coefficient
Second viscosity coefficient
Viscosity exponent
Hydraulic diameter
Channel flow are
Channel heated length
Specific heat capacity
Channel gas inlet temperature
Channel total power
System pressure
Molecular weight

Nomenclature (unit)
K1
K2
M
D (m)
A (m2)
L (m)
cp (J/kg-K)
Ti (C)
Q (W)
P (Pa)
M (g/gmol)

Value
1.70E-05
6.614E-09
1.5
0.0122
1.16899E-04
1.34
5192
127
564.95
0.693E6
4.00E+00

Tasks:
1. Plot a graph of channel pressure drop versus mass flow rate
2. Derive analytically the channel outlet temperature at which the flow becomes
unstable and compare your results with the graph
3. Discuss the reasons for this instability in one-phase gas flow (is it not strange that
such instability occurs in the absence of two-phase flow?)

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 4
Pool Boiling in a Stainless Steel Kettle
You are to analyze the pool boiling characteristics of water at atmospheric pressure in a kettle for
making coffee or tea. The heated surface is horizontal and made of stainless steel. The contact
angle for water on stainless steel, , is 60 degrees in the temperature range of interest. The
saturation properties of water at 0.1 MPa are reported in Table 1.
Bubble nucleation at a small re-entrant cavity
Consider the active cylindrical re-entrant cavity (rc = 1 m) shown in Figure 1.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

First assume that the system is at room temperature, i.e., 20C. This is the situation in
Figure 1(A). Calculate the distance x from the edge of the cavity neck. (The vapor
pressure and the surface tension at 20C are 2.34 kPa and 0.073 N/m, respectively)
Calculate the superheat required for the bubble to rise to the cavity mouth (Figure
1(B)).
Calculate the critical superheat for the cavity, i.e., the minimum superheat needed for
the bubble to grow out of the cavity.
Estimate the bubble diameter at departure.
Estimate the growth period. (Hint: use the solution to the bubble growth equation)
Estimate the departure frequency.
2rc

2rc

v
v

(A)

(B)
Figure 1. Re-entrant cavity

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

Construction of the boiling curve

vii)

viii)

Draw the boiling curve for the kettle. Include all regimes discussed in class, i.e.,
natural convection, nucleate boiling, transition boiling and film boiling. (Simplifying
assumption: in calculating the film boiling heat transfer coefficient, use saturation
properties for both liquid and vapor, and a value of 0.8 for the thermal emissivity of
the heated surface)
Find the wall superheat at the onset of nucleate boiling (i.e., the intersection of the
natural convection and nucleate boiling curves), and compare it with the result in iii
above. Is there a significant discrepancy? If so, explain why.

Table 1. Properties of saturated water at 0.1 MPa.

Parameter
Tsat
f
g

hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Molecular weight

Value
373 K (100C)
958 kg/m3
0.6 kg/m3
7.810-4 1/K
419 kJ/kg
2,676 kJ/kg
4.2 kJ/(kgC)
2.0 kJ/(kgC)
2.810-4 Pas
1.210-5 Pas
0.681 W/(mC)
0.025 W/(mC)
0.059 N/m
0.018 kg/mol

Stefan-Boltzmann constant for radiative heat transfer: = 5.6710-8 W/m2K4

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 5
Simplified Thermal Analysis of the PWR Hot Channel
The fuel pin geometry for a standard Westinghouse PWR is shown in Figure 1. The heated
length is 3.66 m. Consider the following operating conditions, which apply to the hot channel:
Pressure: 15.5 MPa
Inlet temperature: 285C (corresponding to an inlet enthalpy of 1263.4 kJ/kg)
Mass flux: 3,500 kg/m2s
Linear power: 30 kW/m
1) Assuming axially constant linear power, develop a numerical model to calculate the
following parameters in the hot channel:

Axial distribution of the coolant enthalpy

Axial distribution of the bulk temperature
Axial distribution of the equilibrium quality
Axial location of the onset of nucleate boiling (Hint: use the Davis-Anderson model, and
verify that the size of the nucleation sites is reasonable, i.e., <10 m).
Axial distribution of the wall temperature (Hint: use the Dittus-Bolter correlation for
single-phase heat transfer, the Thom correlation for fully-developed boiling and the
Bergles-Rosenhow superposition method for partial boiling)
Axial location of the onset of significant voids (Hint: use the Saha-Zuber correlation)
Axial distribution of the flow quality (Hint: use the Levy model)

2) Are the flow and equilibrium qualities different at the hot channel outlet? If so, why?
3) If the mass flux is increased somewhat, while keeping all other operating conditions
identical, do the axial locations of the onset of nucleate boiling and onset of significant voids
shift towards the inlet or the outlet?
Assumptions:

Treat the channel as a round tube of equivalent diameter

Use the properties in Table 1. Neglect the dependence of the properties on temperature
and pressure.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

Fuel pin
Coolant
9.5 mm
12.6 mm

Figure 1. Cross-sectional view of the PWR hot channel

Table 1. Properties to be used in this homework set.
Parameter
Value
Subcooled liquid properties
Cp,
6.3 kJ/(kgC)

8.610-5 Pas
k
0.516 W/(mC)
Saturation properties
Tsat
617.8 K (344.6C)
593 kg/m3
f
101 kg/m3
g
hf
1,631 kJ/kg
hg
2,596 kJ/kg
Cp,f
9.1 kJ/(kgC)
Cp,g
13.7 kJ/(kgC)
f
7.310-5 Pas
g
2.310-5 Pas
kf
0.448 W/(mC)
kg
0.123 W/(mC)
0.0048 N/m

Molecular weight

0.018 kg/mol

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 6
1. Calculation of the MDNBR in the PWR Hot Channel
Consider the PWR hot channel geometry and operating conditions from Homework Set 5.
i) Find the distribution of the DNBR in the channel. (Hint: use the Tong-68 correlation, and
ignore grid spacer effects)
ii) What is the location of the MDNBR?
iii) If the inlet temperature is decreased, while all other operating conditions are kept
constant, how does the DNBR distribution in the channel change? Provide a qualitative
sketch of the new distribution.
2. Thermal Analysis of the BWR Fuel Assembly
A typical 88 BWR Fuel Assembly (FA) is shown in Figure 1. Only 62 (out of 64) positions are
occupied by fuel pins, the other two positions are occupied by so-called water rods, which
generate no heat. The heated length of the fuel pins is 3.81 m. The FA operating conditions are
as follows:
Pressure: 6.4 MPa
Inlet temperature: 270C (corresponding to an inlet enthalpy of 1183.8 kJ/kg)
Mass flux: 1,741 kg/m2s
Average linear power: 19 kW/m
Assuming a cosine-shape axial power profile, develop a numerical model to calculate the
following parameters:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)

Mass flow rate.

Axial distribution of the equilibrium quality.
Axial location for the onset of saturated boiling.
Axial distribution of the bulk temperature.
Axial distribution of the wall temperature. (Hint: use the Dittus-Boelter correlation
for single-phase heat transfer, and the Chen correlation for two-phase heat transfer)
Axial distribution of the critical quality at the operating power. (Hint: use the CISE-4
correlation)
Critical Power Ratio (CPR) for the FA.

Assumptions:

Treat the FA as a round channel of equivalent diameter.

All fuel pins in the FA generate the same amount of power.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2005

Use the properties in Table 1. Neglect the dependence of the properties on temperature
and pressure.
In answering question v, assume that the onset of nucleate boiling occurs at Tw=Tsat,
and also note that the Chen correlation reduces to the Dittus-Boelter correlation for
Tw<Tsat.
In using the Chen correlation, set x=0 for subcooled boiling and x=xe for saturated
boiling.

Fuel pin

FA duct
Coolant

16.2 mm

12.3 mm

1.7 mm

Figure 1. Cross-section of the BWR FA.

Table 1. Saturation properties of water at 6.4 MPa
Parameter
Tsat
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
279.8C
751 kg/m3
33 kg/m3
1,236 kJ/kg
2,780 kJ/kg
5.3 kJ/(kgC)
5.0 kJ/(kgC)
9.810-5 Pas
1.910-5 Pas
0.574 W/(mC)
0.061 W/(mC)
0.019 N/m

2.57JI22.36J TWO-PHASE FLOW AND BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

PROBLEM J J - 1

HEAT UP AND QUENCH USING THE WHOLE BOILING CURVE (PART 1)

Introduction - This problem is divided into two parts - developing

the whole boiling curve from a quench experiment and then using

a curve like that to predict the temperature-time relation for a

surface in system which undergoing LOCA.

Part 1 - The goal of the experiment described below is to

determine the whole boiling curve from a quench test on the test

section. The test section is short enough so that the fluid

conditions at the point in question hardly change in the course of

the experiment.

A schematic of the loop is shown in Figure 1 while a detail of the

test section and its dimensions is shown in Figure 2. The pre-

heater delivers at constant pressure a constant mass velocity and

quality to the test section. The pressure, mass velocity, and

quality, are all quantities that can be controlled in the loop.

The test section is (hopefully) long enough so that, at the

center, axial conduction is not a problem. It is short enough so

that fluid conditions don't change appreciably at its center during

the transient. It is thick enough so that the transient is sufficiently

slow that the thermocouples welded to the outside give a fair

measure of the inside temperature. It is thin enough so that

- (hopefully) the error in extrapolating the temperature from the

outside to the inside is acceptable.

In order to run this experiment the loop pressure, flow, and inlet

temperature are fixed. The power to the preheater is set giving a

known and controllable quality at the teat section. The test

section is isolated and heated, externally, to the desired initial

temperature. The heat is turned off, the recording equipment

started and the quench undertaken by opening valve 1 and closing

valve 2. Temperature and time for the thermocouples in the

central section of the test section are recorded. For this

experiment we would like you to answer the following questions.

A. What is the most important underlying assumption in the

design of this experiment if we are to use the results to predict
temperature-time in a LOCA? (One sentence should be enough.)

B. Sketch temperature versus radius in the wall of the test

section.

C. Estimate the temperature difference between the inside and

the outside of the test section, assuming (dT/dt) is everywhere the
same in the test section and is l S O Clsec. Do this calculation
assuming the material is first copper and then stainless steel.

D. In terms of the outside temperature and a uniform dTIdt,

develop expression for the inside heat transfer coefficient which
is appropriate

E. Sketch the outside wall temperature-time curve you expect for

an experiment of this kind. Identify the various critical points
and heat transfer regimes on this curve.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Homework Set 7
1. Natural circulation BWR
Solve Problem 3-1 in Nuclear Systems, Vol. II.
Hint:
1) Neglect subcooled boiling effects, i.e., no steam is generated in the core before the
location at which Tb=Tsat.
2) To calculate the friction pressure drop in the core and chimney use HEM with
fTP=fo=0.02.
3) Use the properties in Table 1.
Table 1. Saturation properties of water at 7.1 MPa
Parameter
Tsat
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
286.6C
738.4 kg/m3
36.9 kg/m3
1,272 kJ/kg
2,771 kJ/kg
5.45 kJ/(kgC)
5.33 kJ/(kgC)
9.510-5 Pas
1.910-5 Pas
0.563 W/(mC)
0.064 W/(mC)
0.0175 N/m

2. Pump seizure in a single-phase loop

A water flow loop is used to generate heat transfer and pressure drop data in single-phase flow.
The loop, shown in Figure 1, operates at atmospheric pressure and consists of four identical
round tubes of 3 cm ID and 4 m length. The fluid is heated to 60C at the bottom of the right
vertical tube and cooled down to 20C at the top of the left vertical tube. The relative elevation
of the thermal centers of the heated and cooled sections is 3.5 m. The properties of water in the
temperature range of interest are reported in Table 2.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

At normal operating conditions, the fluid is circulated by a pump with a characteristic curve
described by the following equation:
Ppump = a (1

m
)
b

where Ppump is the pump head, m is the mass flow rate, a=1 kPa and b=1.3 kg/s.
4m

3.5 m

4m

g
Q

Pump

Figure 1. Schematic of the flow loop.

i) Calculate the mass flow rate in the loop at steady-state.
ii) Now suppose that at t=0 a pump seizure occurs, so that the pump head vanishes
instantaneously. Calculate the mass flow rate in the loop for t>0. (Hint: assume that
during the transient the control system maintains the same temperatures of the steadystate situation)
Assumptions:
-

Neglect the acceleration terms (Facc) and form terms (Fform) in the momentum equation.
To calculate the friction pressure drop (Ffric), use f = 0.316/Re0.25.
To calculate the gravity term (Fgrav), use the Boussinesq assumption.

Table 2. Water properties in the temperature range of interest.

Parameter

Cp
k

Value
992.2 kg/m3
4.2 kJ/(kgK)
0.63 W/(mK)
6.510-4 Pas
3.7410-4 1/K

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

3. Flow distribution in the BWR core

The canned design of the BWR Fuel Assemblies (FAs) makes it reasonable to model the BWR
core as an array of multiple heated channels connected only at the inlet and outlet plena. The
total number of FAs is 748, of which it is assumed that 740 operate at the nominal power of 4.0
MW per assembly, and 8 (the hot FAs) at 5.5 MW. You are to analyze the steady-state behavior
of this system. In doing this, consider also the effect of coolant bypass, i.e., not all the coolant
flows in the FAs; some coolant flows in the gap between the fuel assemblies. Model coolant
bypass as an unheated channel connected to the inlet and outlet plena (Figure 2). The geometry
of all channels is reported in Table 3.
OUTLET PLENUM
Hot FAs

Nominal FAs
1 2 740

1 2 8

Bypass
channel

INLET PLENUM

Figure 2. The BWR core as an array of parallel channels connected at plena.

The boundary conditions for this problem are as follows:

Total mass flow rate: 13,000 kg/s

Outlet plenum pressure: 7.1 MPa
Inlet plenum temperature: 280C (corresponding to an inlet enthalpy of 1236.8 kJ/kg)

Question
Write a complete set of equations that would allow you to calculate the mass flow rate in the hot
FAs. Write all equations explicitly, i.e., do not just indicate functional dependencies. Make sure
to clearly identify all known and unknown parameters. You will receive extra-credit, if you
actually solve the equations to provide a numerical value for the mass flow rate in the hot FAs.
Assumptions:
-

Steady-state upflow in all channels.

Axially constant heating in the fuel assemblies.
Neglect subcooled boiling effects, i.e., no steam is generated in the core before the
location at which Tb=Tsat.
Use the properties from Table 1 of Problem 1. Neglect the dependence of the properties
on temperature and pressure.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Neglect acceleration and form terms in the momentum equation for the FAs.
To calculate the friction pressure drop, use f =0.184/Re0.2 and HEM with fTP=fo
To calculate the gravity pressure drop, use HEM.
Neglect acceleration and friction terms in the momentum equation for the bypass
channel.
Consider the form term in the momentum equation for the bypass channel. Assume a
form coefficient equal to 40.

Table 3. Geometry.
Number of channels
Flow area (m2/channel)
Equivalent diameter (cm)
Length (m)

Nominal FAs
740
0.0091
1.22
3.8

Hot FAs
8
0.0091
1.22
3.8

Bypass channel
1
2.0
1.0
3.8

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, May 22nd, 2007, 9 a.m. 12 p.m.
OPEN BOOK

FINAL

3 HOURS

Problem 1 (35%) Steady-state natural circulation in a steam generation system

Saturated steam at 3 MPa (properties in Table 1) is used in a certain factory. The steam is
generated by the system shown in Figure 1, which consists of a natural gas-fired heater, a riser of
height L, a steam separator of form loss K, and a downcomer. The makeup flow can be assumed
to be saturated water at 3 MPa. The riser and the steam separator have the same flow area, A.
Dry saturated steam to the factory
Steam
separator

Makeup water

Riser

L
Downcomer
Q&
Heater
Figure 1. Schematic of the steam generation loop
i)

Using the conservation equations and their constitutive relations, find a single equation
from which the mass flow rate in the loop, m& , could be found as a function of the heat
rate, Q& , and the parameters A, L and K, i.e., f( m& , Q& ,A,L,K)=0. (20%)

ii)

Find m& for the two limit cases Q& =0 and Q& = m& hfg. Do you think the m& vs Q& curve
(with fixed A, L and K) could have a maximum between these two limits? Explain your
answer qualitatively. (10%)

iii)

For a given Q& , how does m& change if K increases or L increases or A increases? (5%)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

Assumptions:
- Steady state

- Steam separator efficiency is one

- Use HEM for the void fraction in the riser

- Neglect all acceleration and friction terms in the loop momentum equation

- Use the HEM multiplier for the form loss in the separator, l2o = 1+ x f 1

Table 1. Properties of saturated water at 3 MPa.

Parameter
Tsat
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

Value
234C (507 K)
822 kg/m3
15 kg/m3
1,008 kJ/kg
2,803 kJ/kg
4.7 kJ/(kgC)
3.6 kJ/(kgC)
1.110-4 Pas
1.710-5 Pas
0.638 W/(mC)
0.047 W/(mC)
0.030 N/m

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

Problem 2 (55%) Water boiling during a loss-of-flow transient in a home heating system

A large condo building uses a water forced-convection heating system. The heater consists of
hundreds of round channels of diameter D=2.54 cm and length L=1 m in which water is heated
by an axially uniform heat flux, q=200 kW/m2 (see Figure 2). The system operates at 1 MPa
and the water temperature at the inlet of the heater channel is Tin=90C (hin=365.6 kJ/kg). Under
normal operating conditions the mass flux is Go=1000 kg/m2s and no boiling occurs in the
channel. A pump malfunction occurs at t=0, so that the mass flux in the heater channel starts to
decay exponentially, i.e., G(t) = Go e t / , where =10 s. Assume that the heat flux, pressure and
inlet temperature remain constant throughout the transient.

q
D

G
z
Figure 2. A heater channel.

Table 2. Properties of saturated water at 1 MPa.

Parameter
Tsat
f
g
hf
hg
Cp,f
Cp,g
f
g
kf
kg

R*

Value
180C (453 K)
887 kg/m3
5.1 kg/m3
763 kJ/kg
2,778 kJ/kg
4.4 kJ/(kgC)
2.6 kJ/(kgC)
1.510-4 Pas
1.410-5 Pas
0.677 W/(mC)
0.034 W/(mC)
0.042 N/m

462 J/kgK

h q"Ph
=
,
z
A
calculate the fluid enthalpy and equilibrium quality as functions of z and t. (5%)

i)

Using a simplified version of the energy conservation equation, G

ii)

At what time does the bulk temperature reach saturation? Assume the specific heat
does not change with temperature. (5%)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

iii)

At what time does nucleate boiling start? Use the Davis and Anderson model for
ONB and assume that the single-phase forced convection heat transfer coefficient, H,
G(t)
, where Ho=9.3 kW/m2K. (10%)
is proportional to the mass flux, i.e., H = H o
Go

iv)

At what time does a significant amount of vapor first appear in the channel? (10%)

v)

Qualitatively sketch the MDNBR vs. time. (5%)

vi)

Qualitatively sketch the bulk and wall temperatures vs. time at the channel outlet.

(10%)

vii)

Estimate the time at which two-phase density-wave oscillations appear in the channel.
Use the stability map of Figure 3 below. (10%)
Nsub

Nsub=Npch - 4
Stable

Unstable

2
0

12

Npch

Figure 3. Stability map for the heater channel.

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

Problem 3 (10%) Short questions on bubble nucleation

i)

A steam bubble grows at a cavity with the geometry shown in Figure 4. What can
you say about the steam temperature in this situation? (5%)

Figure 4. Steam bubble growing within a wall cavity.

ii)

To obtain bubble nucleation at a cavity of radius 1 m on a copper surface, a certain

fluid (of contact angle 135 with copper) requires a 2C superheat. What would the
required superheat be for bubble nucleation at a cavity of radius 3 m on steel, if the
fluid contact angle with steel were 45? (5%)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, May 22nd, 2007, 9 a.m. 12 p.m.
OPEN BOOK

FINAL (solutions)

Problem 1 (35%) Steady-state natural circulation in a steam generation system

i) The flow in the loop is due to natural circulation, driven by the density difference between the
two-phase riser and the single-phase downcomer. The momentum equation for the loop is:

( down riser )gL = l2o K

m& 2
2 f A2

(1)

where the friction and acceleration terms have been neglected, as per the problem assumptions.
The fluid in the downcomer is saturated water therefore its density is down=f, while the density
in the riser is:

riser = g + (1 ) f

(2)

where is the void fraction. If HEM is used:

(3)

1 x
1+ g
f x

where x is the flow quality in the riser. The two-phase multiplier for the form loss in the steam
separator is:

lo2 = 1+ x

(4)

per the problem assumption. The flow quality x can be found from the energy balance for the
heater:
Q& = xh fg m&

x = Q& /(h fg m& )

(5)

where it was assumed that the equilibrium quality is equal to the flow quality, a very good
assumption since the riser is a saturated mixture of steam and water. Eliminating x in Eqs. (3)
and (4) by means of Eq. (5), and substituting Eqs. (2) and (5) into Eq. (1), one gets the answer:

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

f
( f g )
m& 2
&

&
gL = 1+ Q /(mh fg )
1 K
2 A2

1 Q& /(m& h fg ) g
g
f

1+ &
Q /(m& h fg ) f

(6)

which could be solved to find m& = m& ( Q& ,A,L,K).

ii) If Q& =0 (no steam), one has x=0, =0, riser=f, and therefore m& =0.

For Q& = m& hfg (complete vaporization), one has x=1, =1, riser=g, l2o = f and From Eq. (1):
g

m& =

2 g A2 ( f g )gL

(7)

An increase in heat rate, Q& , increases the density difference between the riser and the
downcomer, which would tend to increase the flow. However, an increase in Q& also increases
the quality and thus the two-phase form loss multiplier, which of course would tend to reduce the
flow. Because there are two conflicting effects, a maximum in the m& vs Q& curve is possible.
bThis curve is shown for some representative values of A, K and L in Figure 1, and it does in fact
have a maximum.

Q& /(m& h fg )

Figure 1. m& vs Q& curve

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

iii) For a given Q& , m& :

- decreases with increasing K because the resistance to the flow is higher
- increases with increasing L because the gravity head driving the flow is higher
- increases with A because a larger flow area reduces the velocity and thus reduces the
form pressure loss in the separator.

Problem 2 (55%) Water boiling during a loss-of-flow transient in a home heating system

i) The energy equation can be readily integrated to give:

h(z,t) = hin +

q"Ph t /
ze
AGo

(8)

where Ph=D=7.98 cm and A=/4D2=5.1 cm2. Then the equilibrium quality, xe, is:
xe
(z,t)

h hf
h fg

hin h f
h fg

q"Ph
zet /
h fg AGo

(9)

ii) Before reaching saturation h-hin can be expressed as Cp,f(Tb-Tin), where it is was assumed that
the specific heat is independent of temperature, as per the hint. Thus, from Eq. (8) one gets:
Tb (z,t) = Tin +

q"Ph
zet /
C p, f AGo

(10)

Obviously, saturation is first reached at the channel outlet, so setting Tb=Tsat and z=L in Eq. (10)
and solving for t, one gets the time at which saturation first occurs in the channel:
C (T T ) AGo
t sat = ln p, f sat in
25.3 s
q"Ph L

(11)

An identical result would have been obtained by setting h=hf in Eq. (8) or xe=0 in Eq. (9).
iii) The Davis and Anderson model for the Onset of Nucleate Boiling (ONB) gives a relation
between the heat flux and the wall superheat, Tw-Tsat, at ONB, as follows:

(Tw Tsat )ONB =

8R*Tsat2
q" 2.2C a
k f h fg P

Tw,ONB=182.2C

2R *Tsat2 k f
The corresponding cavity radius is r
3.7m , which is reasonable.
c,ONB =
Ph fg q"

(12)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

where P=1 MPa is the system pressure. To find the time at which the wall temperature reaches
182.2C, we can use Newtons law of cooling:
q"= H (Tw Tb )

(13)

G(t)
is the heat transfer coefficient, as per the problem statement. Substituting
Go
Eq. (10) into Eq. (13), setting Tw=Tw,ONB, recognizing that at any given time the maximum wall
temperature is at z=L, and solving for t, one gets the time at which ONB first occurs in the
channel:
where H = H o

tONB

T
T
= ln w,ONB in 11.7 s
q"Ph L + q"

AGoC p, f H o

(14)

Note that tONB<tsat, which justifies the use of Eq. (10) for Tb in Eq. (13).
iv) The Onset of Significant Void (OSV) will first occur at z=L, and can be predicted with the
Saha and Zuber correlation:

(Tsat Tb )OSV

q"D

0.0022 k
f

q"
154
GC
p , f

Pe < 7 10 4
(15)
Pe 7 10

where Pe(GDCp,f)/kf. Since OSV will occur after ONB, and Pe5104 at ONB, we can
conclude that Pe<5104 and thus, from the first expression in Eq. (15), Tb,OSV163.4C. Setting
Tb=Tb,OSV and z=L in Eq.(10) and solving for t, one gets the time at which OSV first occurs in the
channel:
C p , f (Tb ,OSV Tin ) AGo
t OSV = ln
23.3 s
q"P
L
h

(16)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

/ q at any location in the channel. Since qDNB

decreases with
v) The DNBR is defined as qDNB
increasing xe, the minimum DNBR (MDNBR) is at the channel outlet at any given time. The
MDNBR vs time is sketched qualitatively in Figure 2 below. Note that the MDNBR decreases
rapidly with time because of the combined effect of the mass flux exponential decay
( G (t ) = Go e t / ) and xe exponential growth (Eq. 9). Therefore, DNB will occur (MDNBR=1)
soon after ONB. This can be avoided if the normal mass flux is re-established or the heat flux is
significantly reduced.
MDNBR

tONB

tDNB

t (s)

Figure 2. MDNBR vs t curve.

vi) The bulk temperature increases exponentially per Eq. (10) until it reaches Tsat; then it stays at
Tsat until xe=1. The wall temperature is found from Newtons law of cooling as
Tw = Tb + q"/ H

(17)

where H is the heat transfer coefficient at time t. For t<tONB H is the single-phase heat transfer
coefficient, but for t>tONB H increases as the heat transfer regime becomes partial and then fullydeveloped subcooled nucleate boiling. However, at t=tDNB H drops dramatically because the
transition to film boiling occurs. Failure (burnout) of the heater channel is expected soon after
this transition. The qualitative time history of the bulk and wall temperatures at the channel
vs. time, it is not
outlet is shown in Figure 3. Note that without a quantitative calculation of qDNB
possible to determine a priori whether tDNB>tsat or vice versa.

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

Temperature

Tw
Tw,ONB
Tsat

Tb
0

tONB tDNB tsat

Time

Figure 3. Time history of the bulk and wall temperatures at the channel outlet (not to scale)

vii) To determine the onset of dynamic instability, one first has to calculate the subcooling
number, Nsub:
N sub =

f g h f hin

g
h fg

(18)

and the phase change number, Npch:

N pch =

f g q"Ph L

g
GAh fg

(19)

At normal operating conditions the values for the heater channel are Nsub34 and Npch3, which
identify a stable point on the stability map. However, for t>0 the phase change number increases
because the mass flux decreases, while Nsub remains constant because the inlet enthalpy and
pressure are fixed throughout the transient. Therefore, the channel trajectory on the stability
map is a straight horizontal line (see Figure 4 below). The Npch value at which instability occurs
is 38, found by intersecting the trajectory with the stability line, Nsub=Npch - 4. Then, solving Eq.
(19) for G, one gets Gunst70.5 kg/m2s. The time at which G=Gunst is:
G
tcr = ln o
Gunst

26.5 s

(20)

Buongiorno, Spring 2007

Nsub
(3,34)

t
Onset of instability
(38,34)
Nsub=Npch - 4

2
0

12

Npch

Figure 4. Trajectory of the channel on the stability map.

Problem 3 (10%) Miscellaneous short questions

i) Since the steam/liquid interface is flat (i.e., the radius of curvature is infinite), the steam
pressure is equal to the liquid pressure. This can happen only if the steam is at the saturation
temperature corresponding to the liquid pressure, i.e., 100C assuming the liquid is at 1 atm.
ii) The critical (or maximum) superheat, Tsat,cr, is inversely proportional to the minimum radius
of curvature of the bubble, as it grows at the cavity mouth:

Tsat ,cr =

K
rmin

(21)

where K is the proportionality constant (K=2Tsat2 R*/(hfgP)), which depends on fluid and
pressure, and rmin depends on the cavity radius, rc, and the contact angle, , as follows:

rmin

rc
sin

=
r
c

> 90o
(22)

90

Using Eqs. (21) and (22) for Tsat,cr=2C, rc=1 m and =135, one finds K2.828 mC. Thus,
for rc=3 m and =45, Tsat,cr0.94C.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, April 3rd, 2007, 2:00 3:30 p.m.
OPEN BOOK

MID-TERM QUIZ

1.5 HOURS

Problem 1 (50%) Bubbly flow of air in a vinegar fermentation tank

To cut production time, a vinegar-making company is experimenting with air injection in
an aerobic fermentation tank. The tank consists of a vertical cylindrical pool of 1.2 m
diameter, whose bottom plate has thousands of 0.5-mm holes, through which the air is
injected. The equivalent diameter of the bubbles generated at the holes is 1 mm. The
mass flow rate of air is 0.02 kg/s. The tank contains 1500 kg of vinegar.
i) Calculate the rise velocity of the air bubbles in the tank. Assumption: ignore bubble
coalescence and breakup. (10%)
ii) Calculate the increase of the pool free level due to air injection. Hint: To calculate
the void fraction, use the drift flux model with Co=1 (uniform air injection) and Vvj
equal to the bubble rise velocity calculated in question i. (30%)
iii) How would the pool free level change, if the air injection holes were larger (for
constant air mass flow rate)? Which hole design would you recommend for this
application? Large holes or small holes? (10%)
Re-E-M diagram for bubbly flow
Table 1. Properties of vinegar and air.
Parameter
Vinegar

Air
v
v

Value
1,000 kg/m3
0.001 Pas
0.07 N/m
1.2 kg/m3
1.710-5 Pas

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Problem 2 (45%) Droplets generation and removal in a steam turbine

A significant amount of moisture is generated by steam expansion in the steam turbine of
a large power plant. This moisture mostly deposits on the turbine blades forming liquid
rivulets, which creep on the surface of the blade and reach the blade tip, where reentrainment by steam occurs (see Figure 1).
i) Steam at 1.2 MPa and 100 m/s flows around a certain blade. Give an upper bound
estimate for the diameter of the droplets that are entrained at the tip of the blades.
Hint: the critical Weber number is 22 for this application. (5%)
To prevent erosion of the turbine internals, it is desired to remove the droplets by means
of a wire separator. The wire diameter, D, is 1 mm and the wire-mesh pitch, L, is 5 mm.
ii) Assuming all entrained droplets are of the size calculated in i, calculate the
minimum number of wire screens, N, needed to reduce the amount of droplets in
the steam by a factor 4. The maximum allowable steam velocity (to prevent
breakthrough) is 10 m/s for this wire separator. (30%)
iii) Would you recommend this separator design? If yes, list its attractive features. If
not, recommend another type of separator that you expect to perform better in this
application. (10%)

Liquid rivulets

Steam

Droplet re-entrainment
at blade tip

Blade

Figure 1. A steam turbine blade with droplet re-entrainment

Table 2. Useful properties of saturated water at 1.2 MPa (188C).

Parameter
f
g
g

Value
878 kg/m3
6.1 kg/m3
1.510-5 Pas
0.04 N/m

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Problem 3 (5%) Effect of droplet entrainment on void fraction and pressure drop
in annular flow
Consider steady-state, adiabatic, vertical flow of a liquid/vapor mixture in a round
channel. The flow regime is annular. At a certain axial location the rate of droplet
entrainment exceeds the rate of droplet deposition.
i) What is the sign of

d
at that location? Explain. (5%)
dz

dP
ii) What is the sign of at that location? (Optional for 5% extra credit)
dz acc

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

22.313J, 2.59J, 10.536J THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN POWER TECHNOLOGY

OPEN BOOK

MID-TERM QUIZ (solutions)

1.5 HOURS

Problem 1 (50%) Bubbly flow of air in a vinegar fermentation tank

i) Note that since the vinegar velocity is zero (i.e., the vinegar is stagnant), the air
bubble rise velocity coincides with the bubble-liquid relative velocity, vb. For air
bubbles of 1-mm equivalent diameter in vinegar we have M310-11, E0.1 and,
thus, from the Re-E-M diagram, Re102. Therefore, from the definition of Re, we
get a bubble rise velocity vb0.1 m/s.
ii) The volume of vinegar in the tank is Vvin=1.5 m3. The tank cross sectional area is
Atank=/4D21.13 m2, where D=1.2 m is the tank diameter. Therefore, the vinegar
level prior to air injection is Lo=Vvin/Atank1.33 m. Upon air injection the level rises
to accommodate the air volume. The total volume of the air-vinegar mixture is
Vtot=Vair+Vvin. Since Vair=Vtot, one gets Vtot=Vvin/(1-), and thus the new level, L,
is:
L=Vtot/Atank=Vvin/[(1-)Atank]

(1)

where is the void fraction. According to the drift flux model, the void fraction can
be calculated as:

jv
Co j + Vvj

(2)

where Co=1 and Vvj=vb=0.1 m/s, as per the hint in the problem statement. jv and
j=jv+j are the air and total superficial velocities, respectively. However, in our case
it is j=jv because the vinegar is stagnant and thus its superficial velocity (j) is zero.
The air superficial velocity can be calculated as jv=xG/v. Now, x=1 because the
vinegar does not flow; G= m& air /Atank0.018 kg/m2s, thus jv0.015 m/s. Equation (2)
gives 0.13, and finally Eq. (1) gives L1.53 m. So the level increase due to air
injection is about 20 cm.
iii) If the injector holes were larger, the size of the bubbles would be higher, thus their
velocity would be higher, which would result in a lower void fraction, and finally a
lower level in the tank. The design with smaller holes is better, because the smaller
bubbles have higher surface-to-volume ratio and longer residence time in the vinegar,
thus delivering oxygen at a higher rate, which increases the rate of fermentation.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Problem 2 (45%) Droplets generation and removal in a steam turbine

i) The maximum stable diameter of the droplets that are entrained at the tip of the blades
can be readily estimated from the critical Weber number.
Dd,max=

We cr
14.4 m
g Vg2

(3)

where Wecr=22 and Vg=100 m/s is the steam velocity.

ii) The desired separation efficiency is 75% (i.e., reduce the amount of droplets by a
factor 4). Since the efficiency of wire separators increases with the operating steam
velocity, the minimum number of screens will be attained by using the maximum
allowable velocity, Vg=10 m/s. The separation efficiency of a single wire, w, is:

w = 1 exp( 0.2 Stk ) 0.933

where Stk =

f Dd2 Vg
9 g D

(4)

13.5 is the Stokes number, Dd=14.4 m and D=1 mm.

The efficiency of multi-screen wire separators, mN, is:

8 (1 ) w
NL
D

mN = 1 exp
where L=5 mm and = 1

3
4

(5)

D
0.906. Solving Eq. (5) for the number of screens
L

N, one finds:
3
D
N =
ln(1 mN ) 3.7
8 (1 ) w L

(6)

where mN was set equal to 0.75. Thus, the minimum number to obtain at least 75%
separation efficiency is 4.
iii) Wire separators are simple and reasonably efficient. However, they are delicate and
susceptible to failure by erosion/corrosion, because the wire is thin and the surface-tovolume ratio is very high. Chevrons are more expensive, but also more rugged and
generally have higher separation efficiencies, as they can operate at higher velocity
thanks to the scoops, which increase the breakthrough velocity. Since in a large power
plant the capital cost of the moisture separator is usually a small fraction of the total cost,
chevrons should be preferred as they are more reliable and efficient.

J. Buongiorno / Spring 2007

Problem 3 (5%) Effect of droplet entrainment on void fraction and pressure drop
in annular flow

i) Droplet entrainment reduces the slip ratio (because more liquid is moving at a speed
1
close to the speed of the vapor) and thus increases the void fraction ( =
).
v
1 x
1+ S
x
l
d
Therefore, the sign of
is positive. Note that the flow quality (x) and the mass flux
dz
(G) are constant along this channel.

ii) Physically, the momentum increase due to the acceleration of the liquid is higher than
the momentum decrease due to the de-acceleration of the vapor. Therefore, there is a net
dP
acceleration of the mixture >0.
dz acc
Mathematically,
2
(1 x) 2
d G2
dP
2 d 1
2 d x
=
+
G
(7)
= +=G

dz m+
dz v (1 ) l
dz acc dz m
Since we know from i that the void fraction is increasing, the two-phase density, m+ ,
ought to be decreasing. More rigorously,
(1 x) 2
d 1 d x2
=
+
(8)

dz m+ dz v (1 ) l
At high (typical of annular flow) the first term of the derivative (

x2

) is more

(1 x) 2
) to a change of (again note that x is constant
(1 ) l
here). Therefore, the derivative is dominated by the second term, suggesting that
dP
>0 if increases, as is the case here.
dz acc
sensitive than the second term (

22.313

THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, May 17th, 2005, 9 a.m. 12 p.m.

OPEN BOOK

FINAL (solutions)

3 HOURS

Problem 1 (30%) Hydraulic analysis of the PWR primary system at cold zero-power
conditions
i) The momentum equation for the loop is:
L dm
m2

= Ppump (K core + K sg )
A dt
2 l A 2

(1)

where m is the mass flow rate, L=40 m is the total length of the loop, A=1.65 m2 is the flow area,
Kcore=7 and Ksg=4 are the form loss coefficients for the core and steam generator, respectively.
The acceleration and friction terms were neglected in Equation 1, as per the problem statement.
Moreover the gravity term is zero because the fluid is isothermal.
dm
At steady-state
= 0 and Equation 1 can be easily solved for the steady-state mass flow rate,
dt
mss:

m ss =

2 l A 2 Ppump

(K core + K sg )

9,960 kg/s

(2)

ii) Equation 1 can be re-written as follows:

2 l A L
dm

= m ss2 m 2
(K core + K sg ) dt

(3)

Equation 3 can be integrated to find m(t) during start-up. Separating the variables, making use of
the hint in the problem statement, and setting the initial condition m(0)=0, one gets:
m( t ) = m ss

1 et /
1 + e t /

(4)

where the time constant, , is defined as follows:

l A L
l
=L
0.6 s
(K core + K sg )m ss
2(K core + K sg )Ppump

(5)

Equation 4 is plotted in Figure 1. The time it takes to reach 50% of the steady-state value can be
calculated by setting m=0.5mss in Equation 4, and solving for t.

50 = ln(3) 0.66 s

(6)

Figure 1. PWR primary system mass flow rate during cold zero-power start-up.

iii) Equation 5 indicates that the time constant is proportional to the loop length and inversely
proportional to the square root of the pump head. Thus, it can be concluded that the time
constant for the scaled-down loop will be lower than for the actual PWR primary system by a
factor of 103.16.

Problem 2 (25%) Surface tension effects in borated water draining from a BWR Standby
Liquid Control Tank.

i) The water pressure at the bottom of the tank, P, can be calculated as follows:

Pl = Patm + l gL

(7)

where Patm is the atmospheric pressure, is the borated water density and L is the level in the
tank. Let us now focus on the liquid/air interface at the hole. For a contact angle >90, the effect
of surface tension is to oppose draining. The condition for static equilibrium (i.e., no draining)
is:
Pl Patm =

2
r

(8)

where is the surface tension and r is the radius of curvature, which can be derived from simple
geometric considerations:
r=

dH
0.29 mm
2 sin

(9)

with dH=0.5 mm. Combining Equations 7 and 8, one gets the maximum level of borated water
that can be held up by the surface tension in the hole, Lmax:
L max =

2
49 cm
l g r

(10)

Since the initial level is higher than Lmax, the borated water will drain until L=Lmax.
ii) If the contact angle is <90, the tank will drain completely because surface tension no longer
opposes draining.
iii) If the tank top is sealed and there is a cover gas, the borated water will drain until the cover
gas pressure, Pcg, becomes sufficiently low. The condition for static equilibrium is:
Pcg + l gL = P atm

2
r

(11)

where the positive sign on the right-hand side applies to contact angles >90 and the negative
sign to contact angles <90. Thus, the contact angle will affect the equilibrium pressure of the
cover gas, but at a certain point draining will stop regardless of the value of the contact angle.

Problem 3 (25%) Flow split between a heated and an adiabatic channel.

i) The mass equation for the system is:

&1+m
& 2 =m
& tot
m

(12)

& 2 are the mass flow rate in channels 1 and 2, respectively. The energy
& 1 and m
where m
equations are:
& =m
& 1c p (T1L To )
Q

(channel 1)

(13)

& 2 c p (T2 L To )
0=m

(channel 2)

(14)

where T1L and T2L are the temperature at the outlet of channels 1 and 2, respectively.
The momentum equations are:

m12

+ o 1 (T1L To ) gL (channel 1)
Po PL = K
2
2 o A
2

Po PL = o gL
(channel 2)

(15)
(16)

where Po is the inlet plenum pressure. Equations 12 through 16 are 5 equations in the 5
& 2 , T1L, T2L and Po. Substituting Equation 13 into Equation 15, eliminating Po
& 1, m
unknowns m
& 1 , one gets:
from Equations 15 and 16, and solving for m
& 2 gL
A 2 Q
o
&1 =
m

c p K

1/3

(17)

& , one gets:

& 2 = 0, m
&1 =m
& tot from Equation 12. Solving Equation 17 for Q
ii) If m
& 3tot
c p Km
&
Qo =
A 2 o2gL

(18)

& , the flow in channel 2 actually reverses.

iii) If the heat rate in channel 1 is increased beyond Q
o
Explanation: in this system the column weight in channel 2 sets the pressure drop for both
channels (see Equation 16). Focus now on channel 1. Because of the heating, the column
weight in channel 1 is lower than the total pressure drop (Equation 15). So in general, channel 1
will have higher flow rate than channel 2. When the heating is so high that the flow rate in
channel 1 is higher than the total flow rate mtot, the flow in channel 2 has to reverse to satisfy
continuity (Equation 12).

Problem 4 (20%) Quenching experiments to simulate boiling heat transfer during a LBLOCA.

i) The main differences are geometry (spherical vs. cylindrical) and materials (copper vs.
zirconium). Geometry differences will have an effect mostly on film boiling and DNB.
Materials differences will have an effect mostly on nucleate boiling. Because of
geometry, size and materials differences, the experiment and reactor situation will also
have different thermal capacities, and thus different time scales.
ii) The energy balance for the sphere is:
C P V

dT
= q S = h (T Tsat )S
dt

(19)

where and Cp are the copper density and specific heat, respectively, T, V and S are the
sphere temperature, volume and surface, respectively, q" is the heat flux at the surface, h
is the heat transfer coefficient, and Tsat is the saturation temperature of water.

iii) The qualitative sketch of the sphere temperature history for an initial temperature of
1,500C is shown in Figure 2. The sphere goes through all heat transfer regimes,
including transition boiling, because the situation is temperature controlled, not heat-flux
controlled. Note that the film boiling region has the longest duration because of its large
temperature width. The concavity of the T-t curve can be determined by differentiating
Equation 19:
C P V

d 2T
dq dT
=S

2
dT dt
dt

(20)

dT
Since the term
is obviously positive, the concavity depends only on the
dt
derivative of the heat flux with respect to temperature. Thus, the concavity is positive for
film boiling, nucleate boiling and natural convection, but is negative for transition
boiling.

T-Tsat (C)

Film boiling
1500
400
20
1

Transition
boiling
Nucleate
boiling

Free
convection

Figure 2. Temperature history during quenching.

22.313

THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

OPEN BOOK

MID-TERM QUIZ (solutions)

1.5 HOURS

Problem 1 (20%) Calculation of Flow Quality from Void Fraction Measurements

The information missing is the mass flux (or a superficial velocity) in the downcomer. For example, if
the mass flux were known, then the following set of equations would enable calculation of the flow
quality:

S=

1 x
1+ v S
x
l
vv
vl

(fundamental -x-S equation)

(definition of slip ratio)

vl vv = vb

(relative velocity; note that in general v l > v v in downflow)

G = v v v + l (1 ) v l

(mass flux)

The unknowns are x, S, vv and v.

Problem 2 (30%) Pressure Drop in Accelerating Single-Phase Flow

i)

For a perfectly incompressible fluid the density is constant, and so the mass and momentum
equations become, respectively:

G
=0
z

P
G
P G 2
= w w g cos
t
z z
A

G
P f G G
=

g
t
z D e 2

where Pw, A and De are the channel wetted perimeter, flow area and equivalent diameter, respectively.
ii) Integrating the momentum equation with respect to z, one gets:
L
L
G
f GG
= dz +
dz + gdz
t
D e 2
0
0
0
L

Pinlet Poutlet

The pressure at the inlet is constant by assumption. The first term on the right-hand side is also
constant because G increases linearly with time. The third term on the right-hand side is constant
because the fluid is incompressible. The second term on the right-hand side increases roughly as t2.
Therefore, the above equation suggests that the outlet pressure must decrease roughly as t2.

Problem 3 (50%) Sizing of a Turbulent-Deposition Air/Water Separator

i)

The Ishii-Mishima correlation gives the value of the air superficial velocity at the onset of
entrainment, jv=15.7 m/s (calculated with the thermophysical properties of Table 1). Thus the
separator will have to operate at jv=0.715.7 m/s 11 m/s.
Then the diameter of the separator can be calculated from the following equation:

jv =

xG
=
v

&
xm

v ( D2 )
4

D=

&
4 xm
= 0.196 m
v jv

& =0.42 kg/s.

where x=0.95 and m
ii) A mass balance for the water droplets in the vapor core (see notes on annular flow) gives:

& (1 x )
m

de
= Dd
dz

where e is the entrained liquid fraction (e =1 at the inlet), and d is the rate of droplet deposition,
which can be found as:

d = K

1 x
ve
x

where K=0.1 m/s is the deposition coefficient given by the McCoy-Hanratty correlation.
Integration of the mass balance equation gives:

e(L) = e(0) exp(

DK v
L)
&
xm

where L is the length of the separator. If e is to decrease by 50%, then the required length is:

L=

&
xm
log(2) 3.7 m
DK v

iii) The separation efficiency of the separator is 50%, since 50% of the initial moisture content is
removed.

22.313

THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, May 17th, 2005, 9 a.m. 12 p.m.

OPEN BOOK

FINAL

3 HOURS

Problem 1 (30%) Hydraulic analysis of the PWR primary system at cold zero-power
conditions
A greatly-simplified schematic of the PWR primary system is shown in Figure 1. The core and
steam generators are represented by two form losses of coefficients 7 and 4, respectively. The
loop can be modeled as a series of four identical round tubes of 1.45 m ID and 10 m length. The
flow within the loop is driven by a pump that delivers a constant head, Ppump=200 kPa,
regardless of the flow.
10 m

Steam
generator
(K=4)
10 m
g
Core
(K=7)
Pump

Figure 1. Simplified schematic of the PWR primary system

You are to evaluate the hydraulic behavior of the system at cold zero-power conditions. In this
situation the fluid can be considered isothermal at 20C and atmospheric pressure. The
properties of water at this temperature and pressure are reported in Table 1.
i) Calculate the steady-state mass flow rate in the system. Clearly state all your
assumptions. (10%)
ii) Now consider flow start-up from stagnant conditions. At t=0 the pump is turned on and
the flow is established. Calculate the time it takes for the mass flow rate to reach 50% of
1

its steady-state value. (15%) (Hint: use the following integral 2 dx 2 = ln c + x 2c )

c x
cx
iii) A nuclear engineer wishes to simulate the PWR primary system by means of an
experimental flow loop with the same form coefficients and geometrically similar, but of

1/10 scale (the pump head is also scaled down to 1/10). Would such loop have the same
time constant of the PWR primary system? (5%)
Assumptions:
-

Neglect the acceleration and friction terms (Facc and Ffric, respectively) in the momentum
equation.

Table 1. Water properties at 20C.

Parameter

Cp
k

Value
1,000 kg/m3
4.2 kJ/(kgK)
0.6 W/(mK)
1.010-3 Pas
2.210-4 1/K

Problem 2 (25%) Surface tension effects in borated water draining from a BWR Standby
Liquid Control Tank.
BWRs have a Standby Liquid Control Tank (SLCT) containing highly-borated water at room
temperature that can be injected into the core, should the control rods fail to shutdown the reactor
during an accident. Over a long period of time, borated water corrosion has created a small
round hole of 0.5 mm diameter on the bottom of the SLCT (Figure 2a). The contact angle
between borated water and the SLCT material is = 120. The surface tension of borated water
at room temperature is 0.07 N/m, and its density is about 1,000 kg/m3. The initial liquid level in
the SLCT is 1 m.

Borated water

Liquid level
Cover gas

Hole

0.5 mm
(a) Open top

Borated water

Hole
(b) With cover gas

Figure 2. The SLCT.

i)

Assuming that the SLCT top is open to the atmosphere, would you expect the borated
water to completely drain from the hole? (10%)
If so, explain why.
If not, calculate the level at which draining would stop.

ii)

Now assume that the contact angle is 60. Does the tank drain completely? Explain.
(5%)

iii)

To prevent draining, a fellow MIT nuclear engineering student suggests sealing the
tank top and put a cover gas (Figure 2b). Would this in fact prevent draining? Does
the contact angle affect your answer? (10%)

Problem 3 (25%) Flow split between a heated and an adiabatic channel.

Consider the two parallel channels shown in Figure 3. They are connected only at the inlet and
outlet plena, and both have flow area A, equivalent diameter De and length L. Channel 1 is
& is the total heat rate), while channel 2 is adiabatic. Channel 1 has an orifice at the
heated ( Q
inlet (of form loss coefficient K). The boundary conditions are as follows:
-

The inlet plenum temperature is To

& tot
The total mass flow rate is m
The outlet plenum pressure is PL

The fluid specific heat and thermal expansion coefficient are cp and , respectively. The density
of the fluid can be calculated by means of the Boussinesq approximation with To and o as the
reference temperature and density, respectively.
& tot
m
Outlet
plenum

2
L
Inlet
plenum

&
Q

Form loss

& tot
m
Figure 3. Parallel channels connected at plena.
i)

ii)
iii)

Find an expression for the mass flow rate in channel 1 in terms of the heat rate,
geometry and properties only. (15%) (Hint: assume steady-state upflow in both
channels)
& at which the mass flow rate in channel 2 becomes zero.
Find an expression for Q
(5%)
What happens to the flow in channel 2, if the heat rate in channel 1 is increased
beyond the threshold calculated in ii? (5%) (Note: provide only a qualitative
answer)

Assumptions:
- Heating in channel 1 is axially uniform.
- Assume single-phase flow in the system.
- Neglect acceleration and friction terms in both channels.
- All thermophysical properties (except density) can be considered independent of
temperature.

Problem 4 (20%) Quenching experiments to simulate boiling heat transfer during a LBLOCA.
To simulate boiling heat transfer on the surface of the fuel pins during a Large-Break Loss Of
Coolant Accident (LB-LOCA) in a PWR, a nuclear engineer has designed a very simple
quenching experiment, in which a small copper sphere (1 cm diameter) is heated up to very
high temperatures (1,000C), and then dropped in a large pool of water at atmospheric pressure.
i) What are the differences between the experiment and the actual reactor situation that are
likely to have an effect on boiling heat transfer? (5%)
ii) Write the energy conservation equation describing the temperature history (T vs. t) of the
copper sphere during a quenching experiment? (5%) (Hint: neglect the temperature
gradient within the sphere, describe boiling heat transfer at the surface of the sphere by
means of a heat transfer coefficient, and assume that the water bulk is saturated)
iii) The boiling curve for the experimental conditions is shown in Figure 4. Provide a
qualitative sketch of the sphere temperature history for an initial temperature of 1,500C.
(10%)
(W/m2)
3
1

Figure 4. Boiling curve for a sphere in saturated water at 1 atm.

22.313

THERMAL-HYDRAULICS IN NUCLEAR POWER TECHNOLOGY

Tuesday, March 29th, 2005, 1:00 2:30 p.m.

OPEN BOOK

MID-TERM QUIZ

1.5 HOURS

Problem 1 (20%) Calculation of Flow Quality from Void Fraction Measurements

By means of X-ray imaging techniques an MIT graduate student is able to measure the void
fraction in the downcomer of an experimental apparatus designed to study steam carryunder at
7.0 MPa. This student has taken course 22.313, so she is also able to calculate the relative
velocity, vb=v-vv, from a Re-Eo-M diagram for bubbly flow. Does the student miss any
information needed to calculate the flow quality in the dowcomer? (Note: in answering this
question, do not assume that a carryunder correlation is available)
If so, what information is missing?
If not, write a set of equations that would allow the student to calculate the flow quality given
only the void fraction, the relative velocity and, of course, the properties of steam and water
at 7.0 MPa.

Problem 2 (30%) Pressure Drop in Accelerating Single-Phase Flow

Consider upflow in a vertical section of the PWR primary system piping.
i) Write the time-dependent mass and momentum conservation equations for this system,
assuming that the water coolant can be treated as perfectly incompressible. (15%)
ii) Now consider a transient during which the mass flux within the tube increases linearly with
time, while the inlet pressure is held constant. Using the momentum equation, demonstrate
that the pressure at the outlet decreases during this transient. (15%)

Problem 3 (50%) Sizing of a Turbulent-Deposition Air/Water Separator

An engineering company is designing an air-conditioning system for a large building. An
important component is the moisture separator that removes small water droplets from the
conditioned air. The separator is of the turbulent-deposition type, and consists of a single
horizontal tube. The deposited liquid is drained at the tube outlet (Figure 1). The separator
processes an air/water mixture with mass flow rate of 0.42 kg/s and flow quality of 95%. The
physical properties of water and air at the temperature and pressure of interest are reported in
Table 1.

Drained liquid

Figure 1. Schematic of the air/water separator.

i) For the effective performance of the separator, it is essential to prevent re-entrainment of the
deposited liquid. Using the Ishii-Mishima correlation for the onset of entrainment, calculate
the diameter of the separator that guarantees a 30% margin to re-entrainment. (15%)
ii) Using the McCoy-Hanratty correlation for droplet deposition in turbulent flow, calculate the
length of the separator required to reduce the moisture content of the air by 50%. (30%)
iii) What is the separation efficiency of the separator? (5%)
Assumptions
The water droplets move homogeneously with the air.
The liquid film on the wall is thin.
Simplified versions of the Ishii-Mishima and McCoy-Hanratty correlations are given below for
your convenience:

j v ,e =

l
N 0.8
v

K = 0.03 j v
vD

with N

l
g ( l v )

(Ishii-Mishima)

0.1

0.9
v

(McCoy-Hanratty)

Table 1. Properties of water and air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Parameter
Water

Air
v
v

Value

1,000 kg/m3
0.001 Pas
0.07 N/m
1.2 kg/m3
1.710-5 Pas

JB / Rev Fall 10

The shape factor for DNB heat flux calculation in non-uniform heated channels
Introduction
The W-3 is a widely used CHF correlation for PWR conditions, where DNB is the dominant CHF
mechanism.
The correlation consists of the following equation:

q "CHF,u 2.022 0.06238p 0.1722 0.01427p exp18.177 0.5987p x e

0.1484 1.596x

0.1729x e x e 2.326G 3271 1.157 0.869x e

0.2664 0.8357exp124.1D h 0.8258 0.0003413h f h in

(1)
where:

q "CHF,u is in kW/m2
p (pressure) =5.5 to 16 MPa
G (mass flux) =1,356 to 6,800 kg/m2s
Dh (heated diameter) =0.015 to 0.018 m
xe (equilibrium quality) = -0.15 to 0.15
L (tube length) =0.254 to 3.70 m
hin (inlet enthalpy) >930 kJ/kg
Equation (1) was developed for axially uniform heated channels only, and provides the value of
the CHF at any given location, once the equilibrium quality, the mass flux, the equivalent
diameter, the pressure at that location, and the inlet enthalpy are known.
It is well known that for axially non-uniform heating there exists an effect of the upstream history
on the local value of the CHF [1]. A method has been derived by Tong [2], which enables to
account for the effect of the heat flux profile on the local CHF value. A similar approach has
been proposed independently by Silvestri [3].
A shape factor F is defined as:

q "CHF,u
q "CHF

(2)

where q"CHF,u is the value of the critical heat flux calculated by means of the W-3 correlation for a
axially uniform heated channel, and q"CHF is the critical heat flux in the case of a non-uniform
heated channel.
An energy balance for the bubble layer provides the analytical expression of F [1]:

DNB
C
q"()exp C DNB d

q"( DNB )1 exp C DNB 0

(3)

JB / Rev Fall 10

DNB is the location of interest measured from the location of the inception of nucleate boiling, q"
is the operating heat flux and C( DNB ) is an experimental coefficient describing the heat and
mass transfer effectiveness at the bubble-layer/subcooled-liquid-core interface:

C( DNB

4.31

1 x e ( DNB )
) 185.6

G 0.478

(m-1)

(4)

where G is in kg/m2s. Note: in Eq. (3), the C factor within the integral is to be evaluated at DNB ,
as that was the assumption made in correlating the data via Eq. (4) [4].
Tong and Tang [1] recommend calculation of DNB as simply the distance from the channel
entrance. This approach is adopted in the numerical example below.
Once the value of the CHF is calculated, a local Critical Heat Flux Ratio (CHFR) can be defined
as:

CHFR

q "CHF
q"

(5)

The CHFR is a measure of the margin to DNB. For example, most PWRs in the U.S. are
designed to maintain a CHFR of at least 1.3 throughout the core during a postulated transient
overpower (e.g., 112% power).
Physical interpretation of the shape factor
The shape factor accounts for the difference in the amount of energy accumulated in the bubble
layer up to the location of interest, for a uniform and non-uniform heated channel. To gain some
physical insight on the shape factor, consider a channel with fixed mass flux, pressure and
equivalent diameter. Now consider the three heat flux profiles shown in Figure 1. Also, assume
that in each case the inlet temperature is adjusted to obtain the same equilibrium quality at
location z*. Case 1 is the reference situation with uniform heating. In Case 2 a larger amount of
energy than in Case 1 is supplied to the bubble layer before z*, thus, it is clear that a small further
heat supply at z* (small relative to Case 1) may cause DNB. Hence, the shape factor is greater
than one:
F=

q "CHF.u
>1
q "CHF

(6)

Analogous reasoning would suggest that F<1 in Case 3.

q"

G and P fixed
2

1
3

z*

Figure 1. Non-uniform heat flux profiles.

JB / Rev Fall 10

The shape factor conveys the so-called memory effect of the heating axial profile on the CHF.
The quantity 1/C, which shows up in the exponential of the shape factor, can be interpreted as a
characteristic memory length: it provides an estimate of the length of the upstream region that
affects the CHF at a certain location. Note that C decreases as the quality increases therefore
amplifying the memory effect. In the limit of very high qualities (xe>0.2), DNB is no longer the
dominant CHF mechanism, and the occurrence of CHF can be considered as a global
phenomenon, with little dependence on the local value of the heat flux.
Numerical example
The fuel pin geometry for a standard Westinghouse PWR is shown in Figure 2. The heated
length is 3.66 m. Consider the following operating conditions, which apply to the hot channel:
Pressure: 15.5 MPa

Inlet temperature: 285C

Mass flux: 3,500 kg/m2s

Average linear power: 30 kW/m (cosine profile)

Fuel pin
Coolant
9.5 mm
12.6 mm

Figure 2. Cross-sectional view of the PWR channel

The axial variation of xe, q", q"CHF,u, q"CHF, CHFR, C and F is shown in Figures 3 through 7. In
this case the axial power profile is not flat: given the physical interpretation of the shape factor,
we expect F<1 in the first half of the channel (increasing heat flux) and F>1 in the second half of
the channel (decreasing heat flux). Figures 4 and 7 confirm this expectation.

Figure 3. Equilibrium quality

Figure 4. Actual and critical heat flux

JB / Rev Fall 10

Figure 5. CHFR

Figure 6. Coefficient C

Figure 7. Shape factor F

References
[1] Tong, L. S., and Y. S. Tang, Boiling Heat Transfer and Two-Phase Flow, 328-336, 1997.

[2] Tong, L. S., et al., Influence of axially non-uniform heat flux on DNB, AIChE Chem. Eng.
Prog. Symp. Ser., 62(64):35-40, 1966.
[3] Silvestri, M., On the burnout equation and on location of burnout points, Energia Nucleare,

13(9), 469-479, 1966.

[4] Lin, W. S., et al., Bundle critical power predictions under normal and abnormal conditions

in Pressurized Water Reactors, Nuclear Technology, 98, 354-365, 1992.