Lecture 01 Preliminaries and Trascendental Functions

Lecture
1:
Calculus - Preliminaries
Carlo Galuzzi
Department of Data Science
and Knowledge Engineering
Calculus Feb. 3, 2016
CONTENT OF THE LECTURE

Today lecture is based on Chapter P and Chapter 3 of:
Calculus, A Complete Course

A. Adams and C. Essex
8th Edition Pearson 2014

The most important things you should know before
beginning calculus.
Depending on your precalculus background, you may or
may not be familiar with these topics.
If you are already familiar, just go through the material
to refresh the terminology.
If you are not familiar enjoy the new topics J

Real numbers and real line;
Cartesian Coordinates in the plane;
Graphs of quadratic equations;
Functions and their graphs and function combination;
Polynomial and rational functions;
The trigonometric functions;
Transcendental functions.
REAL NUMBERS
AND
REAL LINE
REAL NUMBERS AND THE REAL LINE

Calculus depends on properties of the real number system. Real numbers can be represented
geometrically as points on a number line, called the real line. Real numbers ( ) include:
- Natural Numbers (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)
* - Whole Numbers (e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.)
- Integer numbers (e.g., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.)
- Rational Numbers* (e.g., 3/4, 0.125, 0.333..., 1.1, etc.)
\ - Irrational Numbers (e.g., , 3, etc.)
* A rational number is a number that can be in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and
q 0. A real number that is not rational is called an irrational number. Rational numbers can
be terminating (e.g., 3/4 = 0.75) or repeating (e.g., 4/3=1.3 ).
What is not a real number? Imaginary numbers (e.g., 1+3i, where i= (-1)) and infinity ().
PROPERTIES OF THE REAL NUMBERS

Algebraic properties: if a, b a+b, a-b, a*b, a/b (with b0) .
Order properties: they refer to the order in which the numbers appear on the real line.
Completeness: intuitively, completeness means no gaps or missing points in the real

number line. This contrasts with the rational numbers, whose corresponding number line
has a gap at each irrational value. (More later with infinite sequences and series).
EXAMPLE 1
Show that the number (a) 1.4242=1.42 and (b) 0.5236236=0.5236 are rational numbers.
Solution.
(a) Let x = 1.4242 :
x 1 = 0.4242
100x = 142,4242 = 142 + 0,4242 = 142 + x 1
99x = 141
x = 141/99
(b) Let y = 0.5236236 :
10y = 5,236236
10y 5 = 0,236236
10.000y = 5.236,236236 = 5.236 + 0,236236 = 5.236 + 10y 5
9.990y = 5.231
y = 5.231/9.990
INTERVALS
A subset of the real line is called an interval if it
contains at least two numbers and also contains all real
numbers between any two of its elements.
For example:
{x s.t. x > 6} is an interval: (6, + ).
{x s.t. x 6} is not interval. It consists of two
intervals: (- , 6)(6, + ).
In general:
INTERVALS
Finite intervals of length b-a
Infinite intervals
NB:
10
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the following inequalities. Express the solution sets in terms of intervals and graph
them.
Solution.
11
EXAMPLE 2
Solve the following inequalities. Express the solution sets in terms of intervals and graph
them.
Solution.
1 7/5
7 5x
interval (1, 7/5]
x 1
+ -
12
EXAMPLE 3
Systems of inequalities: two or more inequalities that must be solved simultaneously.
To solve a system of inequalities we must solve the inequalities individually and look for
numbers in the intersection of the solution sets.
EXAMPLE 3. Solve the system of inequalities:
Solution.
1 2
(a) We have to solve: 3 2x + 1 and 2x + 1 5. Then x 1 and x 2.

Then the interval is [1, 2].
(b) We have to solve: 3x 1 < 5x + 3 and 5x + 3 2x + 15. Then x > -2 and x 4.
-2 4
Then the interval is (-2, 4].
x
Other examples: quadratic inequalities (e.g., x2-5x+6 < 0). See the book for more example!
13
THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

The absolute value, or magnitude, of a number x, denoted with |x|, is defined by:
Geometrically, |x| represents the (nonnegative) distance from x to 0 on the real line. In
general |x - y| represents the (nonnegative) distance between x and y on the real line.
14
PROPERTIES OF THE ABSOLUTE VALUE
* 1+2
by taking the positive square roots of both sides, we obtain .

If D > 0:
15
EXAMPLE 4
Solution.
1/3 1
16
CARTESIAN
COORDINATES IN
THE PLANE
17
CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THE PLANE

Coordinate axes
Cartesian coordinate of P
Quadrant
> 0
> 0
II
< 0
> 0
III
< 0
< 0
IV
>0
< 0
Remember: we can use different scales on the two axes.

18
INCREMENTS AND DISTANCES

When a particle moves from point A to point B, the net changes in its coordinates are called
increments. An increment in a variable is the net change in the value of the variable.
If x changes from x1 to x2, then the increment in x is x = x2 x1.
Now, let P and Q be two points in the plane:
are the horizontal and vertical distances.
What about the length of PQ?
19
GRAPHS
The graph of an equation (or inequality) involving the variable x and y is the set of all points
P(x,y) whose coordinate satisfy the equation (or inequality).
20
STRAIGHT LINES
Let P1(x1,y1) and P2(x2,y2) be two points in the plane. We call:
(the horizontal increment) RUN
(the vertical increment)
RISE
There is only one straight line passing through two points. We call the line P1P2 .
Any nonvertical line in the plane has the property that for every choice of P1 and P2:
is constant on the line.

m is called the slope of the (nonvertical) line.
21
STRAIGHT LINES
Parallel (nonvertical) lines have the same slope.
If two (nonvertical) lines are perpendicular, their slopes m1 and m2 are such that m1m2=-1:
To write an equation for a nonvertical straight line L, it is enough to know the coordinates
of one point P1(x1,y1) on it and the slope m. If P(x,y) is any other point on L:
This is called point-slope equation of the line through P1 with slope m.
22
GRAPHS OF QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS
23
CIRCLES AND DISKS

The circle having centre P(h,k) and radius a 0 is the set of all points in the plane that are at
distance a from the point P. It has the equation:
e.g., (h,k)=(1,3)
interior or open disk

interior + circle = closed disk or disk
The inequality:
24
PARABOLAS
A parabola is a plane curve whose points are equidistant from a fixed point F and a fixed
straight line L that does not pass through F. F is called focus of the parabola, L is called
directrix. The line through F perpendicular to L is the parabolas axis. v is called vertex.
25
EXAMPLE 5
Find an equation of the parabola having focus the point F(0,p) and directrix the line y = -p.
Solution.
If P(x,y) is any point of the parabola we have:
Since P is on the parabola: PF = PQ. Then:
26
EXAMPLE 5
Find an equation of the parabola having focus the point F(0,p) and directrix the line y = -p.
Solution.
y = a x2
a > 0
a < 0
27
SCALING A GRAPH
The graph of an equation can be compressed or expanded horizontally
by replacing x with a multiple of x. If a is a positive number, replacing x
with ax multiplies horizontal distances by a factor 1/a. Replacing y with
ay multiply vertical distances in a similar way.
28
SHIFTING A GRAPH
The graph of an equation can be shifted c units horizontally by replacing
x with x c or vertically by replacing y with y c.
To shift a graph c units to the right: x -> x c (if c < 0 shift on the left).
To shift a graph c units upward: y -> y c (if c < 0 shift downward).
29
ELLIPSES AND HYPERBOLAS

ELLIPSE
HYPERBOLA
Asymptotes
See the book for more information.
30
FUNCTIONS AND
THEIR GRAPHS
31
FUNCTIONS
A function f on a set D into a set S is a rule that assigns a unique element f(x) in S to each
element x in D. We write either (a) y= f(x), or (b) f: x y, or (c) x f(x)
D or D(f) is called domain of the function f.
R or R(f) is called range of the function f it is the set of all values f(x) of the function.
x is called independent variable, y is called dependent variable.
The domain convention: when a function f is defined without specifying its domain, we
assume the domain consists of all real number x such that f(x) IR (IR = real numbers).
Example.
D = (-,+)
R = [0,+)
32
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS - EXAMPLES

The graph of a function f is the graph of the equation y = f(x).
NB. Not every curve you can draw is the graph of a function! (x, ! f(x) -> vertical line test)
33
GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS - EXAMPLES
34
EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
Graph symmetric about the y-axis.
Graph symmetric about the origin.
Even function
Odd function
35
EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

If f(x) is even (odd) n*f(x), with n costant, is even (odd) .
If f(x) and g(x) are even (odd) f(x) g(x) is even (odd). If f(x) is even and g(x) is odd,
f(x) g(x) is neither even nor odd (e.g., x2-2x).
Other kind of symmetry are also possible. For example:
NB.
36
COMBINING
FUNCTIONS
37
COMBINING FUNCTIONS
If c is a real number (c f)(x) = c f(x)

NB. This is not the composition of functions!
Examples.
38
EXAMPLE OF COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DOMAINS
39
COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
40
EXAMPLE 6
Solution.
41
PIECEWISE DEFINED FUNCTIONS
Other piecewise defined functions:

The Heaviside
function
The Signum
function
The greatest
integer function
The least
integer function
The function whose value in x is the greatest

integer less (greater) than or equal to x.
y=
y=
42
POLYNOMIAL AND
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
43
POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Examples.
44

Generally, we deal with real polynomials (i.e. the coefficients are real numbers).
Let P(x) and Q(x) be two polynomials of degree n and m with n m. Then:
Polynomial
Degree
P(x)+Q(x)
P(x)-Q(x)
P(x)Q(x)
= n+m
Example. Let P(x) = x - 2 and Q(x) = x2 + x + 3 (n=1, m=2):

P(x) + Q(x) = 2x2+2x+1 degree 2=m
P(x) - Q(x) = -x2+2x+5 degree 2=m
P(x) * Q(x) = x3-x2+x-6 degree 3=n+m
45

If P(x) and Q(x) are two polynomials and Q(x) is not the zero polynomial, then the
function R(x)=P(x)/Q(x) is called a rational function.
The domain of R(x) is IR \ {x IR | Q(x)=0}
Example.
Remark:
46
EXAMPLE 7
Solution.
47
ROOTS, ZEROS, AND FACTORS

A root (zero) of the polynomial P(x) is a number r for which P(r)=0. Some properties:
(1) The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: every polynomial of degree at least 1 has a root.
(2) Real polynomial need not always have real roots (e.g., x2 + 4, r = 2i).
(3) The Factor Theorem: r is a root of the polynomial P of degree n 1 if and only if x r is a
factor of P(x). [See the book for the proof.]
(4) (1)+(3) Every polynomial of degree n 1 has n roots. The roots can be equal (multiplicity)
(5) If a+ib is a root of P, the complex conjugate a-ib is also a root of P.
48
EXAMPLE 8
49
ROOTS AND FACTORS OF QUADRATIC POLYNOMIALS
is called discriminant.
50
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
51
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In calculus, we need a more general definition.
52
Note that
53
54
Properties:
Range:
The Pythagorean identity:
Periodicity:
Cosine is even, sine is odd:
Complementary angle identities:
Supplementary angle identities:
55
Addition formulas [See the book for the proof]:
From these formulas, we obtain the double angle formulas:
56
OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
57
OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
See the book for more information.

58
TRANSCENDENTAL
FUNCTIONS
A transcendental function is an analytic function that does not satisfy a
polynomial equation, in contrast to an algebraic function.
See Chapter 3 for more information
59
INVERSE FUNCTION
Examples.
one-to-one
not one-to-one
60
INVERSE FUNCTION
61
INVERSE FUNCTION
What can you do when the function is not one-to-one?
Restrict the domain of the function artificially so that the restricted function
is one-to-one.
This method is used to invert trigonometric functions.
62
EXAMPLE 8
63
EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS
64
EXPONENTIALS: f(x) = ax
65
LOGARITHM: f(x) = loga(x)
Cancellation identities:
66
THE NATURAL LOGARITHM AND EXPONENTIAL
Law of exponents are valid

(adapted, with a = exp).
67
THE INVERSE
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
68
THE INVERSE SINE (OR ARCSIN) FUNCTION
69
THE INVERSE TANGENT (OR ARCTAN) FUNCTION
70
OTHER INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
See Chapter 3 for more information

71
CONCLUSIONS
In this lecture, we reviewed the main topics you
should know before beginning calculus.
The tutorials (today and tomorrow) focus on the
topics presented in this lecture.
What is next? Limits and continuity of functions.
(Week 7: 15-19 February 2016)
72

Lecture 01 Preliminaries and Trascendental Functions

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Lecture 01 Preliminaries and Trascendental Functions

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Lecture

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

CONTENT OF THE LECTURE

Calculus, A Complete Course

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

CONTENT OF THE LECTURE

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

CONTENT OF THE LECTURE

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

REAL NUMBERS AND THE REAL LINE

PROPERTIES OF THE REAL NUMBERS

Completeness: intuitively, completeness means no gaps or missing points in the real

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Finite intervals of length b-a

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

interval (1, 7/5]

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

(a) We have to solve: 3 2x + 1 and 2x + 1 5. Then x 1 and x 2.

THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

PROPERTIES OF THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

by taking the positive square roots of both sides, we obtain .

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THE PLANE

Remember: we can use different scales on the two axes.

INCREMENTS AND DISTANCES

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

is constant on the line.

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

This is called point-slope equation of the line through P1 with slope m.

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

CIRCLES AND DISKS

interior or open disk

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Since P is on the parabola: PF = PQ. Then:

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

ELLIPSES AND HYPERBOLAS

See the book for more information.

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS - EXAMPLES

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS - EXAMPLES

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Graph symmetric about the y-axis.

Graph symmetric about the origin.

EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

If c is a real number (c f)(x) = c f(x)

Calculus Feb. 3, 2016

EXAMPLE OF COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS AND THEIR DOMAINS