EXERCISE 1: ANIMAL HISTOLOGY

A. Epithelial Tissue
- covers whole surface of the body; regenerative powers
CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
1. Apical or free surface faces the opening in the organ or tube (lumens- faces outside
the skin)
2. Basal surface- bound to underlying tissue by a thin membrane called basal lamina or
basement membrane
3. Tighly packed- due to the presence of junctional complexes
4. Lacks a vascular supply nourishes by diffusion from capillary beds present in the
underlying connective tissue
TYPES OF CELL LAYERS BASED ON NUMBER
1. Simple- single layer
Pseudostratified- cells are in single layers but appear as several layers; pseudofalse; do not have the same height, nuclei are found in different levels; usually covered
with cilia
2. Stratified- several layers
Transitional- the shape of the surface layer varies depending on the degree of
stretching
TYPES OF CELL LAYERS BASED ON SHAPE OF APICAL CELLS
1. Squamous- flat cells with a clear cytoplasm and eccentric oval nucleus; outlines: wavy,
serrated to smooth
2. Cuboidal- hexagonal shaped cells; nucleus at the center; vertical section: square; lumen
of the small duct: trapezoid
3. Columnar- vertical section: taller than broader; rectangular, nucleus: near the base
B. Connective Tissue
- bind, anchor and support body parts
- a lot of open spaces; no free surface and junctional complexes
matrix- extracellular material
fibroblasts- most common connective tissue; large, oval nuclei with widely dispersed
cytoplasmic processes
tendons- compressed between bundles of collagen and nuclei appear small and dark
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS
1. Connective tissue proper
a. Loose Connective tissue- matrix is made of loose network of fibers filled with
substantial amount of amorphous substance; cushions organs and underlies epithelia;
cells that produce fiber (fibroblasts) +collagen+reticular+elastic fibers in the matrix
Areolar Tissue- no obvious patterns of structures, runs in all directions; made of
cells and extracellular matrix
COMPONENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
1. Fibres
collagen fibres- biggest diameter
elastic fibres- smaller in diameter; think black lines
reticular fibres- similar to elastic fibres except that it forms branching network;
rarely seen
2. Ground substance
Adipose Tissue
b. Dense connective tissue- more fibres and decreased ground substance and cells

(decreased open spaces); majority of cells are fibroblasts

regular- fibres in parallel direction
irregular- fibres in different directions
Tendon- dense regular connective tissue
2. Specialized type of connective tissue
a. Cartilage- soft and pliable
Chondrocytes- cartilage cells
Lacuna- inside spaces in the cartilage matric where chondrocytes are housed
3 TYPES OF CARTILAGE BASED ON MATRICES
i. Hyaline Cartilage- clear homogenous matrix; cytoplasm of chondrocytes: shrunken,
nucleus is the only feature
perichondrium- dense connective tissue at the periphery of the cartilage; well
supplied with blood vessels
lacuna- spindle-shaped spaces where cartilage cells are lodged
cartilage of the trachea- hyaline
ii. Elastic Cartilage- similar to hyaline cartilage in terms of: arrangement of
perichondrium, matrix, cells and
lacunae; difference: contains collagenous fibersnetwork of fibers that may be readily demonstrated by stain
epiglottis and external ear- elastic
iii. Fibrocartilage- resembles connective tissue proper; vertebral disks: between the
connective tissue capsule of the disk and the hyaline cartilage overlying the bony surface
of the vertebrae: consist of network of collagenous fibers; round or oval lacunae
b. Bone- support, protectIon, movement, forming blood cells, reservoir for calcium
lamellae- matrix which is hard and rigid in the form of concentric cylinder-shaped
cells that encloses a central longitudinal canal
Haversian canal- central longitudinal canal that appears as empty, circular
spaces
osteocytes- bone cells that houses inside small spaces called lacuna
canaliculi- minute canals that radiate in all directions from the lacunae
Haversian system or osteon- unit composed of Haversian canal, lamellae,
osteocytes, lacunae and canaliculi
Volkmanns canals- canals running diagonally or at right angles to thos of the
haversian systems
c.Blood- transport medium of the body
plasma- fluid medium of blood where various cell types are suspended
TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS
1.Erythtrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) carries hemoglobin; humans: circular, w/o
nucleus; frogs: oval and nucleated
2. Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC)- cells of the immune system that fights
infection
I. Granular WBC- cells that has granulated cytoplasm, and polymorphous or
multiobulated nucleus ;
Chromatin strands- connects lobes of the nucleus
Eosinophils- nucleus consist of 2 lobes; acid dye: cytoplasm form pink to red
Basophils- nucleus appears S-shape; Cytoplasm:blue
Neutrophil- nucleus: 3-5 lobes; cytoplasm: purple or lavender
II. Agranular WBC- cells w/o granules in cytoplasm
Lymphocytes- nucleus: latge w/ distinct indentation on one side; cytoplasm:
thin rim surrounding nucleus

Monocyte- nucleus: oval or kidney shaped eccentrically placed in cytoplasm

3. Platelets- in the form of minute cytoplasmic fragments that stain blue

C. Muscle Tissue
- specialized for contractility; w/ contractile proteins (shortens length)
Muscle fibers- elongated muscles
3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES
1. Skeletal muscle- connected to the skeleton; for body movement; cylindrical, striated
and multinucleated; nuclei:periphery of the cell
fasciculi- fibers grouped into bundles
endomysium- a connective tissue meshwork that envelopes muscle fibers
perimysium- a connective tissue sheath that joins fascicule together
epymisium- helds whole muscle mass together
2. Smooth muscle- part of the walls of the viscera; appear as spindle-shaped cells w/
nucleus: single, centrally located, widest part; cytoplasm: homogenous
3. Cardiac muscle- contractile wall of the heart; nuclei: center, 1 per cell
intercalated disks- represent the cell boundaries between neighboring cells
D. Nervous Tissue
- Most complex tissue in the body; major function: elaboration of chemical messages and
development of channels of communications for coordination of body functions
2 KINDS OF CELLS
1. Neuron
Soma or perikaryon- cell body + 2 processes ( nerve fibers): 1 axon (longer) and 1
dendrite (branch extensively)
myelin sheath- envelopes axon; appears as a tube surrounding the axis cylinder
( cytoplasm of the axon)
Schwann cell- produces myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier- regions where myelin sheaths appear interrupted
3 TYPES OF NEURONS BASED ON NUMBER OF PROCESSES
1. Multipolar Neuron- 1 axon and several dendrites
2 . Bipolar Neuron- 1 axon and 1 dendrite; least numerous
3. Unipolar Neuron- w/ one process that separate into an axon and a dendrite
2. Neuroglia- supporting cells of neurons
Nerves- groups or bundles or fibers (axons, dendrites and collaterals) bound
together by connective tissue and invested with blood capillaries.
fascicle- a single discrete bundle of nerve fibers and connective tissue
epineurium- a connective tissue that bundles fascicles together
perineurium- dense connective tissue that covers each fascicle
endoneurium- covers individual nerve fibers

EXERCISE 2: ORGAN HISTOLOGY

A.Skin
1. Epidermis - most superficial part of the skin
2 LAYERS
1. stratum corneum- outermost layer; simple squamous epithelium
2. Stratum germinativum- deeper layer; several layers of tall cells; mitosis
2. Dermis cutis; thicker than epidermis; glands+blood vessels+nerves
2 LAYERS
1. stratum spongiosum- loosely arranged connective tissues; mucous gland+posion gland+
lymph spaces
mucous gland- smaller; large cuboidal cells; slippery skin
poison gland- bigger; smaller cells
2. stratum compactum- dense regular connective tissues
3. Chromatophores- darkly stained layer of pigment cells between epidermis and dermis;
brown to dark brown; large and branching
4. Subcutaneous Lymph Tissue- beneath stratum compactum; connective tissue+lymph
sinuses

B. Blood Vessels
1. Artery- blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart; spherical shape
LAYERS OF TISSUE
1.Tunica intima- consists of endothelial cells resting on basal lamina; corrugated
2. Tunica media- smooth muscle tissue interposed with a layer of elastic tissue
elastic lamina- w/ elastin; dark wavy bands; separates tunica media from tunica
intima
3. Tunica adventitia- longitudinally arranges collagenous and elastic fibers
2. Veins -are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart; collapsed structures
LAYERS OF TISSUE
1. Tunica intima- smooth
2. Tunica media- thinner
3. Tunica adventitia- thinner; but thicker than its tunica media
C. Stomach
rugae- spherical structure w/ portrusions along the lumen; increases surface area of the
stomach; scretes enzyme for digestion
LAYERS OF TISSUE
1. Tunica serosa- outermost single layer of cells; simple squamous epithelial tissue
2. Tunica subserosa- flanks tunica serosa; connective tissues
3. Tunica muscularis- composed of smooth muscles for churning of the stomach
Part of Rugae
4. Tela submucosa- outermost layer of tissue that makes up the rugae; with embedded
blood vessels (arteries, veins and lymph spaces)
5. Muscularis mucosa- several layers of smooth muscle layers

2 KINDS OF MUSCLES
1. Stratum circulare (outer)
2. Stratum longitudinale (inner)

6. Tunica mucosa- made of simple epithelial cells; OUTER: Simple columnar epithelial
cells
gastric pits- deep depressions on tunica mucosa; mouth of the gastric glands
gastric cells- behind the gastric pits
2 KINDS OF GASTRIC CELLS
1. Parietal cells or oxyntic cells secrete HCl
2. Chief cells or zygomatic cells- screte pepsinogen
D. Small Intestine
vili- protruding in its lumen
LAYERS OF TISSUE
1. Tunica serosa - outermost single layer of cells; simple squamous epithelial tissue
2. Tunica muscularis- made of smooth muscle tissues
2 LAYERS
1. Stratum longitudinale (outer longitudinally layer)
2. Stratum circulare (inner circular layer)
Part of vili
3. Tunica submucosa- thinner; blood vessles+lymph sinuses
4. Tunica mucosa- thinner
nucleus- darkly stained structure; nuclei arranged linearly
cytoplasm- colorless part
goblet cells- glandular shape simple columnar epithelial cells; function: secrete
mucin to form mucus:
appearance: large empty cells
E. Liver
- large, lobulated gland that produces bile
Glissons capsule- The capsule of the liver. A layer of connective tissue surrounding the liver
and ensheathing the hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile ducts within the liver.
lobule- sections of the liver; polygonal in shape

PARTS OF A LOBULE
1. Central vein- center of the lobule
2. Hepatic cords- liver cells arranged in double rows; simple cuboidal epithelial cells
Hepatocytes- liver cells
3. Sinusoids- spaces between hepatic cords that can be filled with RBC.
4. Hepatic trinity/triad- found at the junction of each lobule
5. Kupffer cells- macrophages residing in liver that engulf particulate matters
F. Pancreas
FUNCTIONS OF GLAND
1. Exocrine Gland- secretes digestive juices: made of acinar cells (darkly stained and
arranged circularly surrounding a lumen)
2. Endocrine Gland- secretes hormones: composed of islets of Langerhans (isolated
lightly stained structures)

2 KINDS OF CELLS
1. Alpha cells- secretes insulin
2. Beta cells- secretes glucagon
G. Reproductive System
1. Frogs Ovary- female reproductive organ
2 LAYERS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Theca externa- more external; covers the entire organ
2. Theca interna- envelopes each of the oogenic cells
follicle cells- minute cells that can be seen surrounding each of the oogenic cells
oogenesis- a process where the ovary produces the eggs or ova
oogania- lies in the periphery; a lot smaller that the cells farther form ovarian envelop
nucleus- lightly stained structure in the center part of oogonium
nuclear membrane-corrugated appearance
nucleoli- tiny, dark, stained, spherical structures
cytoplasm- laden with yolk granules
oocytes- cells a lot bigger than the oogonia; location: farther from the theca externa
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Oogonium
2. Primary oocyte
3. Secondary oocyte
4. Ootids
5. Ova
2. Cats Ovary
germinal epithelium- forms the outer surface; cuboidal cells
tunica albuginea- a layer of connective tissue beneath germinal epithelium
stroma- a layer of connective tissue that penetrates the substance of the ovary and
consists of connective tissue fibers and spindle shaped cells. Embedded: numerous early
follicles surrounded by a single layer of squamous follicle cells
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
1. Oogonium- potential ovum embedded in the stroma nearest the tunica albuginea and
occur in clusters
2. Primary follicle stage- immature egg cells become surrounded by a single layer of
follicular cells
Follicles- single layer of cells that surround the developing germ cell; dark nuclei and
may be flattened or cuboidal
Oogonium- potential ovum surrounded by a single layer of follicle cells; spheroidal
and has a vascular nucleus
3. Growing follicle stage- follicle cells have proliferates by dividing mitotically and now
several layers thick; increased in size and complexity
4. Graafian follicles- large follicle that bulges on the free surface of the ovary
3. Mouses Testis
spermatozoa- male gametes produced by testis in a process called spermatogenesis

tunica albuginea- peritoneum that lines this organ; connective tissues

seminiferous tubules- specific part of the testis that produces the sperm cells; a
number of spherical compartments
spermatogenic cells- cells inside the seminiferous tubules
spermatosis- cluster of spermatogenic cells
2 KINDS OF CELLS IN THE SEMINIFEROUS EPITHELIUM
1. Sertoli cells somatic cells
2. Male sex cells spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis
PARTS OF MOUSE TESTIS
1. Interstitial/ Leydig cells- found in areas between the seminiferous tubules; round or
polygonal shape; produces testosterone ( male hormone)
2. Sertoli cells- sustentacular/ nurse cell which are spaced at fairly regular intervals
against the basement membrane and around the circumference of the seminiferous
tubules; near spermatogonia; has distinct outline, large, oval, often indented nuclei w/
compound nuclei
3. Spermatogenic cells
Spermatogonia- youngest cells.; appear big w/ no visible chromosomes inside; has
visible chromatin materials that appear like granule scattered inside the cell, nuclei is
small; clear cytoplasm
Primary spermatocytes- spermatogonia that have grown and ready to divide;
biggest, chromosomes:visible, nuclear membrane:disintegrated
Secondary spermatocytes- Spermatogenic cells that is a result from MDI of primary
spermatocyte; smaller, nearer the lumen, 2x the diameter of spermatids
Spermatids- result from MDII; inward beyond the spermatocyte layer nearest to the
lumen of the tubule; youngest stage: clear cytoplasm
Spermatozoa- deeply stained, short structures which form the innermost layer of
spermatogenic tubule; location: lumina of the testis, tubules and ducts; flagellated sperm
cells
H. Kidney
uriniferous tubule/ nephron- the unit of structure of the vertebrate kidney
renal cortex- outer portion; primary site of blood filtration
renal medulla- inner portion; oriented towards the renal pelvis
PARTS OF A KIDNEY
1. Glomerulus- specific part of the nephron that does the filtration of the blood; made up
of tuft of capillaries; appear like bundles of cells enclosed in a cup like structure
2. Bowmans capsule- double walled, cup-shaped structure enclosing the glomerulus
renal corpuscle- collective term for glomerulus and bowmans capsule
3. Bowmans space- space inside bowmans capsule
4. Proximal tubules- tubule continuous with bowmans capsule; single layer of cuboidal
epithelial cells; perfect spherical structures
5. Distal tubules- connected to many collecting ducts of the kidney; single layer of
cuboidal cells; elongated

I. Spinal Cord
PARTS OF A SPINAL CORD
1. White Matter- peripheral region composed of myelinated axons that forms tracts
2. Gray Matter- centrally located; X or H shape; consist of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites
and some unmyelinated axons
3. Meninges- sheath-like protective membrane of the spinal cord
Dura matter- in direct contact with the vertebrae
Arachnoid matter- middle layer attached to the innermost layer
pia matter- in direct contact with the spinal cord; not visible (thinness)
subarachnoid space- between the pia and arachnoid matter; filled with CSF
4. Cannalis Centralis- spinal canal where CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) flows; space of the
central part of the spinal cord lined w/ ependymal cells
5. Anterior median fissure- deep invagination on the anterior portion
6. Posterior median fissure- deep invagination on the posterior portion; shallower

Dense regular connective tissue

Subcutaneous lymph tissue