Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence On Performance and Exhaust Emissions of A Di-Diesel Engine - A Review

International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)
Volume 6, Issue 11, Nov 2015, pp. 89-101, Article ID: IJMET_06_11_011
Available online at
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=6&IType=11
ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359
IAEME Publication
PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS AND

THEIR INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE
AND EXHAUST EMISSIONS OF A DIDIESEL ENGINE A REVIEW
R.V.S Madhuri
Asst. Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
Dr. Lankapalli Bullaya College of Engineering for Women,
Visakhapatnam, A.P, India
P.V Rao
A/Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
Andhra University,
K.R.M Alekhya
Asst. Professor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Lankapalli Bullaya College of Engineering for Women,
A. Swarna Kumari
Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, JNTUK, Kakinada, A.P, India
ABSTRACT
Straight vegetable oil (SVO) as an alternative fuel in engines is a
statement of controversy since many years as SVO has conflicting results in
emissions, performance of engines. Many factors are involved in evaluating
the emissions and performance characteristics of engines running on SVO.
This paper presents a review on studies published regarding SVOs with a
focus on the physical and chemical properties and emission characteristics on
different types of Diesel engines. A review is made considering different types
of SVOs such as Jatropha, Karanja, Cottonseed, Tobacco seed, Karanja,
Mahua, Rubber seed, Soap nut, Deccan hemp, Palm, Soya bean and Neem
oils.
Key words: Diesel Engine, Emissions, Properties, Performance, Straight
vegetable oil (SVO)
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp
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R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari
Cite this Article: R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna
Kumarimar. Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence on Performance
and Exhaust Emissions of A Di-Diesel Engine A Review, International
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 6(11), 2015, pp. 89-101.
http://www.iaeme.com/currentissue.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=6&IType=11
1. INTRODUCTION
The potential benefits of SVO such as low cost, low production rates, carbon
neutrality, and low emissions than petroleum derived fuels made SVO an interesting
subject of study as fuel. There are several sources of SVO. The review focuses on
jatropha, cotton seed, tobacco seed, karanja, mahua, rubber seed, soap nut, deccan
hemp, palm, soya bean and neem oils. The plants origin, features, climatic conditions
in which they can grow, the percentage of yield of oil from seeds and the fatty
composition of oil are discussed.
1.1. Jatropha
The scientific name of jatropha plant is Jatropha curcas L. It grows as a small tree or
large herbs, up to 57 m tall. The plant belongs to Euphorbiaceous family. It is a
drought-resistant plant capable of surviving in abandoned and fallowed agricultural
lands. The tropical plant is able to thrive in a number of climatic zones with rainfall of
2501200 mm. The plant is native to Mexico, Central America, Africa, India, Brazil,
Bolivia, Peru, Argentina and Paraguay. It is well adapted in arid and semi-arid
conditions and has low fertility and moisture demand. It can also grow on moderately
saline, degraded and eroded soils. The ideal density of plants per hectare is 2500. It
produces seeds after 12 months and reaches its maximum productivity by 5 years and
can live 3050 years. Jatropha Seed (shown in fig1) production ranges from 0.1 ha /1
yr to more than 8 ha/1 yr depending on the soil conditions. Depending on variety, the
seed of Jatropha contain 4359% of oil [1].
Figure 1 Jatropha seeds
1.2. Karanja
The scientific name of karanja is Pongamia pinnata L, Pierre (karanjaorhonge).
karanja is a medium sized ever green tree belonging to the family Legumnosae and
Pappilonaceae, more specifically the Millettieae tribe, which grows in Indian
subcontinent and south-east Asia and has been successfully introduced to humid
tropical regions of the world as well as parts of Australia, New Zealand, China and
the USA. A single tree of karanja is said to yield 990 kg seeds, indicating a yield
potential of 9009000 kg seed/ ha (assuming 100 trees/ ha). It is one of the few
nitrogen fixing trees that produce seeds with a significant oil content. The plant is fast
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Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence on Performance and Exhaust Emissions of A
Di-Diesel Engine A Review
growing, drought resistant, moderately frost, hardy and highly tolerant of salinity. It
can be regenerated through direct sowing, transplanting and root or shoot cutting. Its
maturity comes after 4-7 years. The karanja seed (shown in fig 2) oil content ranges
between 30 and 40 wt% [1].
Figure 2 Karanja seeds [2]
1.3. Neem
The Scientific name of neem tree is Azadirachtaindica and the tree belongs to the
Meliaceae family. It is a multipurpose and an ever green tree, 1218 m tall, which can
grow in almost all kinds of soil including clay, saline, alkaline, dry, stony, shallow
soils and even on solid having high calcareous soil. It is native to India, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Japan and the tropical regions of Australia. It
thrives well in arid and semi-arid climate with maximum shade temperature as high as
49 0C and the rainfall as low as 250 mm. It can be raised by directly sowing its seed or
by transplanting nursery-raised seedlings in monsoon rains. It reaches maximum
productivity after 15 years and has a life span of 150200 years. The productivity of
neem oil mainly varies from 2 to 4tha/yr and a matured neem tree produces 3050 kg
fruit. The neem seeds (shown in fig 3) contain 2030 wt% oil and Kernels contain 40
50% of an acrid green to brown colored oil [1].
Figure 3 Neem seeds
1.4. Rubber
Heveabrasiliens is commonly referred to rubber tree. It belongs to the family
Euphorbiaceous. This rubber tree originates from the Amazon rain forest (Brazil).The
tree is the primary source of natural rubber and produces 99% of worlds natural
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rubber. Moreover, the trees sap-like extract (known as latex) can be collected and
used in various applications. It is distributed mainly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Liberia,
India, Srilanka, Sarawak, and Thailand, growing up to 34 minimum heights, the tree
requires heavy rainfall and produces seeds weighing from 2 to 4 gm that do not
currently have any major industrial applications. On an average, a healthy tree can
give about 500 go fuse full seeds during a normal year and this works out to an
estimated availability of 150 kg of seeds per hectare. Generally 37% by weight of the
seed is shell and the rest is kernel. Rubber seed (shown in fig 4) oil is a non-edible
vegetable oil, which contain 50-60 wt% oil and kernel contain 4050 wt% of brown
color oil [1].
Figure 4 Rubber seeds [3]
1.5. Tobacco
The scientific name of tobacco plant is Nicotianatabacum. Tobacco is a by- product
that contains significant amount of oil 3549% by weight with an estimated annual
yield of 15,000 tons per year. It can be cultivated in more than 100 countries
worldwide such as Macedonia, Turkey, South Serbia and wide spread in North and
South America etc. The oil extracted from tobacco seed (shown in fig 5) is nonedible with physical, chemical and thermal properties that compare favorably with
other vegetable oils and have the potentiality to be considered as a new feed stock for
biodiesel production [1].
Figure 5 Tobacco seeds
1.6. Soap Nut

The scientific name of Soap nut plant is Sapindusmukorossi and is generally found in
tropical and subtropical climate areas and various parts of the world including Asia
(the outer Himalaya of Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir), America and Europe. The plant grows very well in deep loamy soils and
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leached soils. Therefore, cultivation of soap nut in such soil avoids potential soil
erosion. Soap nut seeds (shown in fig 6) contain 23% oil of which 92% is
triglycerides [1].
Figure 6 Soap nuts
1.7. Mahua
In the various Indian languages the tree is known under the names of mahua are
Mahuda, Madhuka and scientifically in some of the older books, the tree is listed
under the name of BassialatifoliaRoxb; in modern books, the name has been changed
to Madhucaindica Gmel; it belongs to Sapotaceae Family. The tree is indigenous to
Central India, Gujarat and along the Western Ghats, eastwards to Chota Nagpur. It is
very commonly planted all over peninsular India. It is a large deciduous tree reaching
20 m in height with a spreading crown. Leaves are clustered near the ends of the
branches, each 7-20 x 3-7 cm. Bio diesel from mahua seed is important because most
of the states of India are tribal where it is abundantly found. The annual production of
mahua seed (shown in fig 7) was greater than 2 mt of which mahua is nearly 181 kt.
[1].
Figure 7 Mahua seeds
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1.8. Deccan Hemp

Deccan hemp or Kenaf scientifically Hibiscuscannabinus, is a plant in
the Malvaceae family. The plant is probably native to southern Asia, though its exact
natural origin is unknown. The name also applies to the fiber obtained from this plant.
Kenaf is one of the allied fibers of jute and shows similar characteristics. Deccan
hemp seeds (shown in fig 8) oil yields 305 kg oil/ha/year. It is a tree growing to 1.53.5 m tall with a woody base. The stems are 1-2 cm diameter, often but not always
branched. Kenaf has a long history of cultivation for its fiber in India, Bangladesh,
Thailand, parts of Africa, and to a small extent in southeast Europe [1].
Figure 8 Deccan hemp seeds
1.9. Palm
The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial lianas, shrubs, and trees commonly
known as palm trees. They are flowering plants most of them restricted
to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. The palm trees grow 10 to 15 m
in height. Its life time is for 20 25 years and palm seeds (shown in fig 9) gives an oil
yield of 3-5 tons per hectare [1]. Palm oil is different from pal kernel oil. Palm oil is
red in color where as palm kernel oil is not in red color as it is deficient of ceratone
content.
Figure 9 Palm seeds
1.10. Cotton
The scientific name of Cotton plant is Gossypium arboretum. Cotton is a member of
the malvaceae family of flowering plants that includes hibiscus, pavonia and mallow
plants. Cotton seed (shown in fig 10) yields 0.89 tons per hectare on an average. The
worlds average yield is 603 kg/ha [1].
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Figure 10 Cotton seeds [4]
1.11. Soya Bean

The scientific name of soya bean plant is Glycine max. Soya bean is also called soja
bean or soya bean, annual legume of the Fabaceae family and its edible seed, probably
derived from a wild plant of East Asia. The origins of the soybean plant are obscure,
but many botanists believe it to have derived from Glycineussuriensis, a legume
native to central China. The soybean is an erect, branching plant ranging in height
from several centimeters to more than 2 meters (6.5 feet). Soya bean seeds (shown in
fig 11) yield 446 liters oil per ha.
Figure 11 Soya beans
2. PROPERTIES
2.1. Density
Fuel density is the density of the fuel, commonly expressed in kilograms per cubic
meter. The greater the fuel density, the greater the mass of fuel that can be stored in a
given tank and the greater the mass of fuel than can be pumped for a given fuel pump.
Fuel density generally increases with increasing molecular weight of the fuel
molecules [5]. Fuel density also generally increases with increasing molecular weight
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of the component atoms of the fuel molecules. High density of fuel leads to poor
combustion of fuel and increase in emissions such as carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons. The density value of the oils considered varies from 870 960 kg/m3
as shown in the table 1.
2.2. Viscosity
Viscosity is the index of fuel resistance to flow. It is measured in centistokes.SVO
viscosity is much higher than that of diesel fuel: it increases with the carbon chain
lengths, triglyceride un saturation which induces polymerization, and when the
temperature decreases. Common SVOs have a kinematic viscosity of 30 -40 cSt at
40C, i.e. 10-15 times higher than that of diesel. SVO high viscosity causes i) a
decrease in injection rate due to head losses in fuel injection pumps, filters and
injectors, ii) poor fuel atomization and vaporization by the injectors, which leads to
incomplete combustion inside the combustion chamber [5]. This results in lower
thermodynamic efficiency, and an increase in soot emissions and particles. The
viscosity of the oils varies from 10 46 cSt as shown in the table 1.
2.3. Molecular weight

Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a molecule. It is calculated as the
sum of the mass of each constituent atom multiplied by the number of atoms of that
element in the molecular formula. It is measured in kg/k mole. The higher the
molecular weight of the fuel, higher the rate of emissions.[5]
2.4. Cetane number

The cetane number of the fuel, specified by ASTM D-613, is a measure of its ignition
delay with higher cetane numbers indicating shorter time between the initiation of fuel
injection and ignition, a desirable property in diesel engine fuel [6]. The cetane
number is relatively constant within a kind of vegetable oil and even between
different kinds of oils. Therefore, measurement of the cetane number to ensure good
quality SVO in stationary engines is pointless. The cetane number of the oils ranges
from 37 to 48 as shown in the table 1.
2.5. Lower Calorific value

Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel
when the fuel is burned completely. Other terms used for the calorific value are
heating value and heat of combustion. It is measured in units of energy per unit of the
fuel such as kJ/kg [6]. The efficiency of the engine is proportional to the calorific
value of the fuel. The lower calorific value of the vegetable oils considered ranges
from 31 44 MJ/kg as shown in the table 1.
2.6. Iodine value

Iodine number (DIN 53241/IP 84/81) is a measure of the degree of un saturation of
the fuel. Unsaturation can lead to deposit formation and storage stability problems
with fuels. It is measured as gm/100 gm of Iodine [6]. Iodine value has opposite result
of cetane number in engine performance and emissions. The values of Iodine of the
vegetable oils considered ranges from 76 147 g/100g of Iodine as shown in the table
1.
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2.7. Flash point

Flash point (ASTM D-93) is a measure of the temperature to which a fuel must be
heated such that the mixture of vapor and air above the fuel can be ignited. It is
measured in degree centigrade. All No 2 diesel fuels have relatively low flash points
[6].The flash point of a fuel is important safety storage and handling parameter and
does not influence the performance of the engine. The flash point of vegetable oils is
sufficiently high to ensure good handling safety. The flash point of the considered
vegetable oils ranges from 175 267 0C as shown in the table 1.
2.8. Saponication value

The saponification number measures the bonded and unbonded acids present in an oil
or fat. It defines the exact amount of potassium hydrate in mg necessary to emulsify
1g of fat or oil. The smaller the molar mass of the fat, the higher the saponification
value. The saponication value of the considered vegetable oils ranges from 189- 216
as shown in the table 1.
2.9. Acid Value

Acid value is the measure of milligram of potassium hydroxide present in 1 gm of
fuel. Acidity in vegetable oils can vary from 0.01% to 10% wt (which corresponds to
0.02 to 20 mg KOH/g oil). Free fatty acids have smaller molecular weights than the
triglycerides they are derived from, which makes acidic vegetable oils more easily
flammable. The free fatty acids of SVO are not a problem for use in diesel engines up
to 10% wt. When acidity increases from 0.01% to 1% wt, and to 10% wt, the "flash
point" is reduced by 20C and 85 C respectively. However, free fatty acids cause
corrosion and deposits in the engine. In fact, free fatty acids are markers of vegetable
oil quality, as they are generated during the process as well as during ageing. The acid
value of the considered vegetable oils ranges from 0.2 3.76 mg KOH/g as shown in
the table 1.
Table 1 Properties of straight vegetable oils
Name
Jatropha
Cotton
seed oil
C14:0
Myristic
acid
C16:0
Palmitic
acid
C16:1
Palmitoleic
acid
C18
Stearic
acid
C18:1
Oleic
acid
C18:2
Linoleic
acid
12.7
0.7
5.5
39.1
41.6
0.4
20
35
42
0.2
Others
17.9
24.6
39.6
16.3
13.1
57.1
20.0
0.7
20.6
43.9
17.9
0.4
1.6
1.02-3.0
11-19
0.5-2
0.1
4.6
41.9
8.6
0.3
0.3
2.0-6.0
22-34
43-56
5.0-11.0
0.09
10.96
Karanja
3.7-7.9
Mahua
Rubber
seed oil
Deccan
Hemp Oil
17.8
14
44.571.3
46.3
2.2
10.2
8.7
5.2
2.4
0.2-0.26
14.9
0.1
Palm
kernel oil
14.0218.0
17.02-9.0
Palm oil
0.5
43.4
Tr 0.5
7.0-11.0
Soya bean
oil
C20:0
Archidic
acid
, C12 <0.01,C20:1-0.13,
C 22 0.12,
C22:1<0.01
C 20:1 2.4, C22
5.3
-
Tobacco
seed oil
Neem
C18:3
Alpha
,gama
linoleic
Acid
0.2
0.2
3.34
2.4-8.9
14.54
97
69.49
0.69
10.8-18.3
0.25
4.1
C 20:2 -0.5, C22:1

0.3
C 22 0.3, C 24
0.2
C8 3.02-5.0, C10
3.02-7.0, C12
40-52
C12:0 0.2,
C 22:0 - 0.1
-
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Table 2 Fatty acid composition of vegetable oils [5][12]
Name
Jatropha
Cotton
seed oil
C14:0
Myristic
acid
C16:0
Palmitic
acid
C16:1
Palmitoleic
acid
C18
Stearic
acid
C18:1
Oleic
acid
C18:2
Linoleic
acid
12.7
0.7
5.5
39.1
41.6
0.4
20
35
42
C18:3
Alpha
,gama
linoleic
Acid
0.2
C20:0
Archidic
acid
0.2
Others
17.8
14
44.571.3
46.3
17.9
, C12 <0.01,C20:10.13, C 22
0.12,
C22:1<0.01
C 20:1 2.4,
C22 5.3
-
2.2
10.2
8.7
24.6
39.6
16.3
5.2
2.4
13.1
57.1
20.0
0.7
0.2-0.26
14.9
0.1
20.6
43.9
17.9
0.4
1.6
Palm
kernel oil
14.02-18.0
17.02-9.0
1.02-3.0
11-19
0.5-2
Palm oil
0.5
43.4
0.1
4.6
41.9
8.6
0.3
0.3
Tr 0.5
7.0-11.0
2.0-6.0
22-34
43-56
5.0-11.0
Tobacco
seed oil
0.09
10.96
Karanja
3.7-7.9
Mahua
Rubber
seed oil
Deccan
Hemp Oil
Neem
Soya bean
oil
0.2
3.34
2.4-8.9
14.54
69.49
0.69
10.8-18.3
0.25
4.1
C 20:2 -0.5,
C22:1 0.3
C 22 0.3, C
24 0.2
C8 3.02-5.0,
C10 3.02-7.0,
C12 40-52
C12:0 0.2,
C 22:0 - 0.1
-
3. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION

Most vegetable oils are triglycerides. Most vegetable oils are triglycerides chemically;
triglycerides are the triacylglyceryl esters of various fatty acids with glycerol. One
hundred grams of fat or oil will yield approximately 95 grams of fatty acids. Both
physical and chemical characteristics of fats are influenced greatly by the kinds and
proportions of the component fatty acids and the way in which these are positioned on
the glycerol molecule. The predominant fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated
carbon chains with an even number of carbon atoms and a single carboxyl group.
Table II lists the fatty acid composition of some vegetable oils.
4. EMISSIONS FROM SVO OPERATED ENGINES

4.1. Brake Thermal Efficiency
Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel
energy. The brake thermal efficiency of CI engine running on Straight vegetable oils
is lower than that of the corresponding diesel fuel at all the engine speed. The possible
reason may be higher fuel viscosity. Higher fuel viscosity results in poor atomization
and larger fuel droplets followed by inadequate mixing of vegetable oil droplets and
heated air [13]. Among Jatropha and karanja, Jatropha seemed to be most promising
[14]. Among Soya bean, palm oils Soya bean oil exhibited a better performance [15].
4.2. Brake Specific Energy Consumption

It is an indication for efficiency of fuel energy obtained from the fuel. It is a product
of brake specific fuel consumption and calorific value of the fuel [13]. BSFC
exhibited by the Straight vegetable oils are nearly same and also higher than that of
the Diesel [16]. The reason for this is due to the higher densities of SVO.
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4.3. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of
specific fuel consumption in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is an important
parameter that reflects how good the engine performance is. It is inversely
proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine [13]. Among Soya bean, Palm
and Diesel the soya bean oil exhibited greater BSFC than the remaining [15] and also
Deccan Hemp oil and Karanja oil has greater BSFC than Diesel at full loads[10,17].
4.4. Exhaust Gas Temperature

The exhaust gas temperatures are dependent on the duration of combustion [13].
Deccan Hemp, neem oil and Jatropha oil exhibited higher EGT than Diesel [10, 16,
18]. The reason for this may be long duration of combustion due to their high
viscosities.
4.5. Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen which also occur only in the engine exhaust are a combination of
nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high
temperatures. To reduce NOx emissions the temperature of the cylinder should be
reduced. Therefore high temperature and availability of oxygen are the two main
reasons for the formation of NOx [13]. Depending upon the fatty acid composition
the quantity of NOx produced by palm oil, soya bean oil, soap nut and karanja oil are
less [9, 15, 17].
4.6. CO/CO2 Emissions

CO /CO2 is a product of incomplete combustion due to insufficient amount of air in
the air fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for completion of combustion
[13]. The oils such as deccan Hemp, rape seed oil, jatropha exhibited higher CO/CO 2
emissions compared to diesel due to their high viscosity which leads to improper
combustion [10, 16].
4.7. HC Emissions
Unburnt HC emissions are direct result of incomplete combustion. SVO due to their
higher viscosities undergo incomplete combustion and therefore has Higher HC
emissions [13]. The statement is strengthened by the works performed on karanja,
jatropha, soap nut, deccan hemp and neem oils [10, 16, 17, 18].
4.8. Smoke Opacity

The smoke of the engine exhaust is a visible indicator of the combustion process in
the engine. Smoke is due to incomplete combustion [15]. Some SVOs like karanja,
soya bean and palm oil exhibited lower smoke where as soap nut, deccan hemp and
neem has lower smoke opacity when compared to diesel [9,10,15,17,18].
5. CONCLUSIONS
Depending on the review made on the physical, chemical and fatty acid compositions
of vegetable oils the following conclusions are drawn
Vegetable oils are the fuels which have close characteristics like diesel and therefore
they can used as an alternative fuel in diesel engines
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Non edible oils should be preferred over edible oils as non edible are cheaper than
edible oils and also usage of non edible oils does not disturb the food cycle of human
beings.
SVOs are highly viscous when compared to diesel. So they can be adopted by
implementing preheating technique or with some engine modifications.
SVOs can also be utilised in a beneficial way by blending with diesel up to certain
percentage.
The flash point of SVOs is higher than diesel so that they are safer to use compared
to diesel.
The Brake thermal efficiencies of SVO are low when compared to diesel due to their
high viscosity but are having high Brake specific fuel consumption due to their high
densities.
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Properties of Vegetable Oils and Their Influence On Performance and Exhaust Emissions of A Di-Diesel Engine - A Review

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International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)

PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE OILS AND

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

Figure 1 Jatropha seeds

Figure 2 Karanja seeds [2]

Figure 3 Neem seeds

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

Figure 4 Rubber seeds [3]

Figure 5 Tobacco seeds

1.6. Soap Nut

Figure 6 Soap nuts

Figure 7 Mahua seeds

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

1.8. Deccan Hemp

Figure 8 Deccan hemp seeds

Figure 9 Palm seeds

Figure 10 Cotton seeds [4]

1.11. Soya Bean

Figure 11 Soya beans

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

2.3. Molecular weight

2.4. Cetane number

2.5. Lower Calorific value

2.6. Iodine value

2.7. Flash point

2.8. Saponication value

2.9. Acid Value

C 20:2 -0.5, C22:1

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

3. FATTY ACID COMPOSITION

4. EMISSIONS FROM SVO OPERATED ENGINES

4.2. Brake Specific Energy Consumption

4.3. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

4.4. Exhaust Gas Temperature

4.5. Oxides of Nitrogen

4.6. CO/CO2 Emissions

4.8. Smoke Opacity

R.V.S Madhuri, P.V Rao, K.R.M Alekhya and A. Swarna Kumari

Book: Dr. H. Santapau, Common trees

K.Srinivas, T.Sudhakar babu, B.Raghava rao, Dr.K.Sivaraju, Experimental

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