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INTRODUCTION
The study of shell midden collectors in Colombia began with the research of Gerardo Reichel Dolmatoff and Alicia Dussan de Reichel in the
1950s. Since then, the accumulation of archaeological data and environmental studies have made it possible to advance the understanding of collectors' patterns of adaptation in northwestern South America. This essay
concentrates on, and compares, the adaptive systems of coastal and inland
collectors. Following a description of shell middens produced by collectors
lDepartment of Archaeology,2500 University Drive NW, Universityof Calgary, Calgary,
Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4. e-mail: a0Yuelac@acs.ucalgary.ca.
49
0802-7537/~6/0300-0049509~5W0 0 1t)96 Plenum Pu'bl|ghinl~ Corporation
50
Oyuela-Caycedo
51
IV
Sinu
River
Monnil
Cauea River
ZONE
I Magdalena River
sar River
50
~~Rancheria
100 KI.
Fig. 1. General map of northern Colombia with zones of shell middens. Zone I, Cartagena and
Canal del Dique; Zone II, Gulf of Morrosquillo; Zone Ill, Isla de Salamanca, Cienaga Grande,
and Cienaga de Pajaral; Zone IV, Gulf of Urab~.
ZONE
I1
ZONE 1
Malambo
C':\I~III~I~EAN ,~E:\
t,,d
53
Wet periods
(a.e.)
(B.P.)
6900?
5560 to 5400
5400 to 4800
4800 to 4600
4100 to 4600
4100 to 3850
3850 to 2700
2700 to 2000
2000 to 1500
1500 to 1350
1350 to 750
750 to 650
650 to 450
450
"Data from Van der Hammen (1983, p.25); Van
der Hammen and Noldus (1986); Plazas et al.
(1993); Wijmstra (1967).
system of the Caqueta River, a tributary of the Amazon River (Van der
H a m m e n et al., 1991). In the Magdalena valley and the savanna lowlands
of northern Colombia, dry intervals have been identified in which the area
apparently assumed a more savanna-like character (Table I). Recently, the
validity of most of Van der H a m m e n ' s climatic sequence for the Holocene
has been confirmed by the ice-core records from Huascarfin, in northern
Peru. The record, especially from the dust in the ice core, has peaks remarkably similar to those of the dry periods of Van der H a m m e n ' s sequence
(Thompson et al., 1995).
Changes in drainage systems and sea level affect population distribution and density along the coast as well as along the river and stream systems. To evaluate the nature of these changes, it is necessary to review the
factors affecting the formation and evolution of estuary environments. The
discerned pattern is then interpreted in relation to the temporal and spatial
distributions of the excavated shell middens of the Caribbean littoral of
northwestern South America.
54
Oyuela-Caycedo
Shell middens are one of the most visible kinds of sites produced by
collectors (shell middens produced by natural processes also exist). We
need to understand how shell middens formed and the significance of the
spatial and temporal discontinuities of shell middens as ecofacts. A significant advancement in addressing such questions was made when Bailey
(1983) suggested the possibility that coastal middens should be examined
through the study of the spatial discontinuities. He identifies two key factors that have shaped the classical postdepositional explanation of the generation of discontinuities: variation in the local availability and abundance
of the marine mollusks and discarding behavior. Other factors related to
both midden formation and discontinuities include oscillation of sea level,
silting in areas of marine vegetation, formation of bay mouth bars, and
tectonic movements, as well as exhaustion of a preferred food supply (Hurt,
1974; MeUars, 1987; Shackleton and Van Andel, 1986; Cooke, 1987; Suguio
et al., 1992).
Sea-level transgressions have an enormous impact on the distribution
of fauna and flora, especially in river valley drainages, where the gradient
and sedimentation processes change (Inman, 1983). Sea-level transgression
lowers the gradient and usually results in increased sedimentation and the
expansion of floodplains. In turn, this leads to the formation of riverine
terraces, which determine the location and potential stratification of archaeological sites (Gardner and Donahue, 1985).
The displacement of the shoreline has an impact on the formation of
estuaries since their origins are linked with sea-level transgressions (Meisler
et al., 1984; Kraft, 1985; Woodroffe et al., 1988). The northwestern South
America shell middens were located in estuarine environments. Understanding the origin and vulnerability of the estuaries in northwestern South
America can lead to a partial understanding of the formation and development of shell middens in these high-biomass ecosystems (Knox, 1986).
All evidence indicates that estuaries form during periods of sea-level
transgression (Kennish, 1986, p. 41). It can be argued that the longevity of
estuaries is controlled primarily by sea-level changes, tectonic movements,
and precipitation rates. Wet climates and high sea levels increase the sediment
flux in coastal systems, promoting widespread deposition of marine sediments,
formation of sandbars, and other physiographic conditions that are required
for the formation of shell beds. Low sea levels result in erosion and nondeposition. Thus, a eustatic rise of sea level tends to prolong the life span of
an estuary and a drop tends to shorten it (Kennish, 1986, p. 48).
In light of the relation of sea-level changes to estuarine formation,
Oyuela and Rodrlguez (1990) have proposed a model for explaining the
spatial and temporal discontinuities of shell middens in northwestern Colombia. The model, discussed below', describes the dynamic relationship
55
Evidence of
Wet periods (B.P.)
Sea-leveltransgression
5400 to 4800 Marineterrace
4100 to 4600
3850 to 2700
Canapote
Barlovento
2000 to 1500
Marta
Mina de Oro
1350 to 750
Tasajeras
Loma de Lopez
Ceeilio
Cangarti
Palmira
Estorbo 1
650 to 450
Unidentified
56
Oyuela-Caycedo
- r4 -
f i_
10
20
:30 KI.
Pto.
I00
Chach/
Ilormiga
Monsu
C a n a p o t e
Pto.
r,
-~
2O0
._j
~-~
- -'---~
500 ,')
,-"; J
zoo
loo
-5 .
San
ff~
~-" ~
~a~into
....
/]ucarelia
R] B o n g a l
Et G u a m o
San Jacil~to 2
"
,!
MAGDALENA
RIVER
~z.-
CANAL
'
DEL DIQUE
Fig. 2. Map of main sites located in Zone I: Cartagena and Canal del Dique. Note location of San Jacinto 1.
/,
J~.-."
...... -7 CARTAGENA
COLOMmA,, [
~.~
CARIBBEAN)
g{~SEA
%'~
[]arlovenlo
- .
: Rotinet~
la
t')
~~
ml
o_
Oyuela-Caycedo
58
Sample No.
W-741
W-743
W-739
Y-1318
Material
Shell
Shell
Shell
Charcoal
Date B.P.
2980 __. 120
3140 120
3470 120
3510 100
Canapote
Y-1760
Y-1317
C h a r c o a l 3730 - 120
C h a r c o a l 3890 100
Puerto Hormiga
1-1123
SI-15t
1-445
SI-152
SI-153
Charcoal
Charcoal
Shell
Shell
Shell
Puerto Chacho
Beta-26200
4502 250
4820 __. 100
4875 170
4970 70
5040 70
Charcoal 5220 90
the second subzone are the shell middens of Canapote and Bariovento (Fig.
2, Table III).
Puerto Chacho. Puerto Chacho is located on the right margin of the
Canal del Dique (Department of Bolivar), approximately 2.5 km f r o m the
shell midden of Puerto Hormiga and 13.5 km from the coastline. The site
has the form of a long S with a west-east orientation, a length of 84 m,
and a width that fluctuates between 14 and 29 m. The most abundant mollusks are members of the genera Pitar and are found throughout the whole
s e q u e n c e . L e s s e r q u a n t i t i e s o f Crassostrea rhizophorae, Melongena
melongena, and some other small mollusks indicate the closeness of the
site to the beach. Only the middle occupation of the site has been dated
by C-14; this date is 5220 B.P. + 90 years (Legros, 1990; Rodrfguez, 1995).
Puerto Hormiga and Mons~. Puerto Hormiga and Puerto Chacho are
located on the same alluvial terrace, but Puerto Chacho is on its border.
Puerto Hormiga is located 300 m from the natural channel of the Canal
del Dique in the high part of an alluvial terrace. The shell midden had a
ring shape, with a diameter of 77 m from north to south, 85 m from east
to west, and a height of 1.2 m. The midden is composed of 75% shells of
Pitar sp., which lives in shallow water environments, and 25% shells of Ostrea sp., which require marshy environments (Reichel, 1965a). This shell
midden suggests that the channel was directly influenced by the sea and
that the site was beside a bay or big lagoon formed after a sea-level transgression. The site was occupied during a wet period (Table I and Fig. 4).
59
60
Oyuela-Caycedo
kind of adaptation, and as expected, the climate was dry during the site's
initial formation. At the end of the period under consideration, the Barlovento Phase, there are indications that people again began to exploit an
environment more affected by the sea. This suggests another transgression
that favored the formation of the shell middens of Cartagena. It should be
noted that there were riverine and swamp adaptations during the same
period as Puerto Hormiga but these are very poorly understood (see Angulo, 1981, 1988b).
Canapote. The site lies 300 m from the estuarine lagoon of Tesca and
1600 m from the coast in a marine formation. Bischof (1966) suggests that
the area of the site was an island at the time of the early occupation since
the mollusk resources of-the shell midden do not indicate dependency on
the lagoon. Unfortunately, no mollusk or fish identifications are given and
only a description of the ceramics is available (Gebhard et al., 1988).
Barlovento. The site is located on a sandbar that forms the salt marsh
lagoon of Tesca and is 300 m from the seashore (Reichel, 1955). The site
is 2-3 m above modern sea level. Six shell mounds interconnected at the
base define a circle. The mean height of the mounds was 3 m, with some
rising to 6 m. The area of the shell middens was close to 10,000 m 2. Two
cuts made in separate shell middens indicated differences in their composition. In Cut I there was a high density of Galeodes patula (also identified
as Melongena melongena); this snail is typical of shallow waters with mud
soils. The second shell identified in quantity was Chione histrionica (also
identified as Venus sp.), which is also found in shallow waters. Cut II revealed mollusks similar to those in Cut I but also contained a layer of
Cryptolgramma braziliana. Fish, relatively abundant in the oldest layers,
have been identified as Chaetodipterus sp. and Cardisoma sp.
Both shell middens are related with a wet climatic period and a gradual rising of sea level from an initial level below that of the present. Apparently, a gradual process of sea-level rise was initiated at the beginning
of the Canapote phase. Bischof (1966) hypothesized that the lagoon of
Tesca was formed after the occupation of Canapote, this fits well with the
interpretation of sea-level transgression presented here. Possibly, the estuary reached its maturity during the Baflovento phase when sea level was
at its highest, probably close to or slightly above the present level. This
correlates well with the marine influences observed at Monsfi during the
Barlovento phase.
Another line of evidence favoring this sea-level oscillation between 1
and 3 m above the present for this region of Cartagena was presented by
Burel and Vernette (1981). Their study establishes that some coral formations are 3 m above the present-day sea level, as are some shell midden
beds. Samples from the shell midden deposits give dates of 2850 B.E ---
6!
150 years, and those for the coral formations of 2700 B.P. ___ 90 years. This
information accords with the proposed model of sea-level transgression,
which permitted the formation of the Barlovento and Canapote shell middens and is seen in the later levels at Mons~ (Table II).
62
Oyuela-Caycedo
Table IV..C-14 Dates of Northern Colombian Zone II: Gulf
of Morrosquillo (Uncalibrated Dates)a
Marta
Sample No.
GrN-11224
GrN-11302
GrN-12345
GrN-11303
Material
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Shell
Date B.P.
2010 --- 45
2080 +_-140
2130 __-90
1740 50
This zone can be divided into three subzones. The first, the Isla de
Salamanca, is the sandbar that separates the 57,700 ha of saline water of
the Cienaga Grande lagoon from the sea; the second is the Cienaga G r a n d e
lagoon itself; and the last is the series of small lacustrine lagoons between
the great lagoon and the delta of the Magdalena River. In this latter
subzone, only Cienaga de Pajaral has been studied (Fig. 3).
In the past, the area that became the Cienaga Grande was actually
the delta of the Magdalena River, but as a result of the rise of sea level,
the sandbar of the Isla de Salamanca converted the former delta into a
large saltwater lagoon which became one of the most productive estuaries
of Colombia. Its shallow waters support an abundance of Ostrea plumosa,
63
CARIBBEAN SEA
Tatlajera,
Palmira,
Los J a g u a y e s
Isla d e S a l a m i l n e a
ALENA RIVER
Cangartl
Cienaga Grande
de
Cienaga.
Sanl.a Marta
Pajaral
o
Lama
d e l.ope'i
Mina d e Oro
0
i
5
i
10 Kms.
i
Fig. 3. General map of sites located in Zone IIh Isla de Salamanca, Cienaga
Grande, and Cienaga de Pajaral.
Protothaca gram, and other mollusk species as well as a high fish population,
especially of seasonal migrant species such as Musel sp.
Holocene era paleoecological studies of the Cienaga have been done
by Wiedemann (1973), Cohen and Wiedemann (1973), and Van der Hammen and Noldus (1986). Before 7000 B.P. the Magdalena River passed
through this area, and the shoreline was probably at least 10 m below its
present level, Between 6600 and 5400 B.P. marine influences are present
and areas of mangrove began to develop. A period of stability in the mangrove forest was followed by its gradual destruction between 3400 and 1900
B.P. Van der Hammen and Noldus (1986, p. 587) interpret these changes
as resulting from a sea-level transgression of 2 m. ! suspect other forces
64
Oyuela-Caycedo
M-1308-1
M-1302
IAN-90
UGa-819
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
1000 _+ 105
1450 _+ 110
1615 ___100
985 _+ 120
Mina de Oro
M-1310
M-1311
M-1312
M-1475
Shell
Shell
Shell
Charcoal
825 _+ 100
905 _+ 100
945 _+ 100
1490 _+ 100
Cienaga de Pajaral
Cecitio
IAN-89
Cienaga Grande
Loma de Lopez
Canal
del
Dique
Cartagena
Morrosquillo
4800 4600
4100
,,|,
2700
i-- r-
3650
2000
1500 1350
-4-
Fig. 4. Relationship between C-14 dates by zone, d u periods (D) and wet periods (W).
5400 BP
--4--
---b
---t-----..,4._
D
,!
DW
-8-
Uraba
Cienaga
Grande
t~
.~
-i
ot~"
o_
66
Oyuela-Caycedo
67
sp. and Centropomus sp., both found in the lagoon. Bones from the seasonal
migrant family Mugilidae were recovered. Turtles were also exploited. Cultural material included beads, one hook, and ground stone artifacts.
The chronology of Cangaru places it within the period estimated for the
other shell middens of this subzone (Table V). The material remains reveal
close ties to sites previously described as part of the Tairona culture (1000-450
B.P.). One of the interesting aspects of this site is the presence of ceramics
that are more commonly recovered from the east margin of the Cienaga
Grande, specifically from the shell middens of Loma de Lopez and Mina de
Oro. The presence of ceramics like those from layer C at Mina de Oro, which
are very sparse in the western lowlands and parts of the northern Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, also argue for a date after 1350 B.P. (Bischof, 1969).
Oyuela-Caycedo
68
69
Since 1976, a group of shell middens in an alluvial zone located primarily on the right margin of the Gulf of Uraba has been studied. They
are relatively far from the coastline. Different forms have been identified,
such as linear ones more than 250 m in length. Other circular mounds are
30 m in diameter and 3 m high. In general, these sites are beside rivers and
small streams and probably began to form approximately 1300 years ago. All
of the investigated middens share a similar cultural inventory (ceramics, lithics,
and remains of exploited resources) and are part of what Santos (1989)
70
Oyuela-Caycedo
Table VI. C-14 Dates of Northern Colombian Shell Middens Zone
Estorbo 1
DISCUSSION
The picture that we have today of the human population that created
the shell middens in the northwestern part of South America is still very
incomplete. This lack of information is especially apparent for the periods
of minor sea-level transgressions occurring after the relative stabilization
of sea level around 5000 B.P. However, enough information is available to
allow us to establish a general outline of events.
Each zone must be evaluated for its own internal chronological placement. These local sequences can then be linked to the origin or formation
of estuarine environments. The existing sequences agree with the model
71
72
Oyuela-Caycedo
namic with great potential for change in both short and long terms. These
conditions would continue to favor a degree of mobility very much tied to
the seasonal fluctuation of resources and the dynamic behavior of the estuary (cf. Meehan, 1982).
The results presented here show that shell midden research is very
complex. The conditions that produce the shellfish resources are brought
about by large-scale environmental changes; therefore one can say that
sometimes the environment plays a deterministic role in human decisions.
Over time, the dynamics of the environment demand new adaptive alternatives or a return to old ones. We see this in the chronology of the shell
middens of northern South America.
73
74
Oyuela-Caycedo
Since most of the research on the topic of collectors and early food
producers has concentrated on the shoreline of the Caribbean or the major
river systems, it was necessary to broaden the geographical scope of the
75
tl .la('i~sto 1
%. J
76
Oyuela-Caycedo
77
31.
15
45
57
53
151
63
Sample No.
GX-20353
GX-20352
GX-20354
Beta-77407
Beta-77405
GX-20355
Pitt-0154
Beta-20352
Beta-77406
Pitt-0155
Material
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Date B.P.
5300
5315
5325
5330
5510
5530
5665
5700
5730
5940
75
_+ 80
80
__. 80
70
_+ 80
__. 75
__. 430
.4- 110
60
occurred in strata 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20. According to 10 radiocarbon
dates, these soils were formed between 6000 and 5300 B.E (Table VII).
The results of the excavation confirmed the following.
1.
2.
3.
4.
78
Oyuela-Caycedo
Fig. 7. General view of the numerous fire-pits revealed at the end of the excavation of
San Jacinto 1.
79
81
5 CM.
2 IN.
5CM.
I"
" ,
I 2
IN.
5 CM.
Fig. 10. Overturned bowl-shaped metate, Feature 76, in situ. Note the pair of manos at the bottom.
83
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The study of inland adaptive strategies seems to indicate a more complex development than has been argued previously for the lowlands of the
tropics. Inland adaptations in areas such as the Serrania de San Jacinto are
regulated by precipitation fluctuations that create variations of resources in
time and space. The bimodal seasonality of the Serrania had a strong effect
on the strategies of mobility and subsistence and pushed individuals to develop strategies that favored their own reproductive success. These strategies
led to an intensification of the use of certain foods which can be seen as
antecedent to the development of full-scale food production. Such complex
strategies were not necessary for the survival and reproductive fitness of the
84
Oyuela-Caycedo
FINAL COMMENTS
Littoral collectors seem to have maintained similar adaptations from
the times of Puerto Chacho and Puerto Hormiga up to the Spanish conquest without significant changes. The littoral lifestyle was adapted to deal
with estuary fluctuations and cycles of fish availability. The lithic technology
associated with coastal middens is not the one that is later associated with
food production. The main technological changes within the littoral sites
appear abruptly and can be interpreted as punctuated changes which were
not accompanied by the gradual incorporation of the new technologies tied
elsewhere to food production. When the technology of food production is
present in shell middens, it appears suddenly and indicates an intrusion or
link to inland food producers, all of whom were tied at one point or another
to an exchange system of food circulation above the level of simple huntergatherer societies. Such a link is best seen in the case of the Cienaga
Grande collectors and their exchange with the inland Tairona chiefdoms.
This association resulted in strong changes in the relations of production
but not in the adaptability of the groups to cope with the environment.
These conclusions and the dynamic nature of estuaries and shell midden
formation seem to be of universal character, having enormous implications
for areas with similar environmental conditions as those presented here.
On the basis of the arguments offered here, I believe that shell middens
are not linked to a trajectory that would lead to food production.
Shell middens are extremely useful in reconstructing the environmental
history of an area, and coastal adaptations to environmental changes require further detailed studies. Since mollusks are very sensitive to environmental changes, the spatial and temporal distribution of shell middens can
serve to refine environmental reconstructions made by pollen, river channel, or ice cores; such distributional data can also contribute to the understanding of small scale regional environmental changes. Past human
adaptations were undoubtedly complex, and we should search for the full
adaptive range instead of simply focusing on a very specific site type because of its high visibility. We still do not know what occurs between estuaries or about other kinds of collecting strategies (for example, coral
environments, deep sea bay resource exploitation, and open coastal
beaches) or how humans manage the risk in such places. These areas are
85
86
Oyuela-Caycedo
established which is earlier than any fishing settlement. This inland area
exhibits a pattern of demographic growth that is significantly greater than
that found in the rich coastal environment (Raymond, 1993). The scant
available evidence of fishing sites indicate that they are tied economically
and probably ideologically (as the Valdivia figurines suggest) to inland processes (Raymond, personal communication, 1995). Of course the data are
still very incomplete because of the strong emphasis on ceramic problems
and on determining when the "golden kernel" was introduced into the area.
In Ecuador, sedentism has been assumed but not demonstrated for any of
the early sites. Here the pattern of where the events happened seems to be
similar to northern Colombia. However, when the process is compared, it
seems to be quite different. Food production has been argued to be in place
at the beginning of Valdivia (3300 B.C.), based on the microbotanical evidence at Real Alto. However, it is not clear what the process was that led
these people to become sedentary or even why they became food producers.
Most of the argument seems to be for a kind of "neolithic revolution." This
approximation makes it very difficult to outline a model that in a satisfactory
way explains why and how these people became food producers in first place.
As in Panama, there is no clear understanding of how the events in Ecuador
are articulated in the process that led to food production.
As has been argued, shellfish collectors do not have to cope with the
same range of factors as those affecting inland collectors. Risk management
strategies among inland collectors are more likely to have the potential to
lead to intensive food production activities than those involved in the
coastal/estuary adaptations. The case of San Jacinto 1 is a silver bullet in
the side of proponents for the link between rich environments and intensive
food production. It illustrates that intensive food collecting activities involving technologies and food remains not observable in the littoral are
associated with more marginal savanna environments. In the case of San
Jacinto 1, intensive food processing is clearly represented by a lithic technology for the grinding and pounding of seeds of wild grasses, as well as
by extensive evidence of cooking in roasting pits. This development occurred long before food production and sedentism, and very likely even
before the domestication of a cultivar (Bonzani, 1995). Furthermore, even
if pottery is present, it has no association with cooking activities and does
not play a significant role in food processing (Oyuela, 1996). San Jacinto
1 predates by approximately 1000 to 500 years any of the shell middens
excavated in northern Colombia, Panama, and Venezuela.
Returning to the implications of the pattern proposed for San Jacinto
1, it does not seem likely that the scenario proposed by Binford (1972) is
correct. In this scenario he proposes that increasing population density on
the rich coastal or river environments would favor the displacement of
87
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is the result of years of thinking on this issue and discussion
with many people to whom I owe a great debt. I think of the late professor Gerardo Reichel Dolmatoff, Alicia Dussan, and Dick Drennan
a s my intellectual mentors. Thanks are extended to Jaime Castro,
Camilo Rodriguez, Carlos Lopez, Jim Richardson Ill, Gustavo Santos, Jack Wolford, and Jerry Sabloff, all of whom in one way or another influenced the shape of this paper. The research was conducted
Oyuela-Caycedo
88
with funding f r o m different institutions to different projects that contributed to the research o f this article. These institutions are the F u n d a c i 6 n
de Investigaciones Arqueologicas del Banco de la Republica, T h e Latin
A m e r i c a C e n t e r o f the University of Pittsburgh, the Tinker F o u n d a t i o n ,
the H e i n z Foundation, and the National Science Foundation. A P o s t d o c toral Fellowship at the University of Calgary provided quality time for
thinking and writing in a peaceful environment looking at the Rock3," M o u n tains f r o m the G r e a t Plains of Canada. Thanks are extended to Dr. R i c h a r d
C o o k e for his c o m m e n t s on the model presented by myself and C a m i l o
Rodriguez at the International Congress o f A r c h a e o z o o l o g y at the S m i t h sonian Institution (1990). Scott R a y m o n d at the University o f Calgary m a d e
extensive notes and c o m m e n t s o f the paper, which were most beneficial as
well as for making possible the time to write this paper. Special t h a n k s go
to Jane Kelley, A n g e l a Close, and Ren6e Bonzani for editorial assistance.
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Angulo 'r
C. (1978). Arqueologia de la Clenaga Grande de Santa Marta, Banco de la
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Angulo Valdes, C. (1981). La Tradici6n Malambo, Banco de la Reptlblica, Bogotfi.
Angulo Valdes, C. (1988a). Arqueologfa de la Ilanura atlfintica de Colombia: Balance y
proyecciones. In Vargas Arenas, I. (ed.), Revisi6n CtCtica de la Arqueologia del Caribe,
Actas del Segundo Simposio de la Fundaci6n de Arqueologfa del Caribe, Washington
DC, pp. 37-43.
Angulo ~aldes, C. (1988b). Guajdro en la Arqueologla del Norte de Colombia, Banco de la
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Back, W., and Hanshaw, B. B. (1987). Effect of sea-level fluctuations on porosity and
mineralogic changes in coastal aquifers. In Folger, D. W., and Hathaway, J. C. (eds.),
Conference on Continental Margin Mass Wastingand Pleistocene Sea-Level, U.S. Geological
Survey, Denver, pp. 113-115.
Bailey, G. N. (1983). Problems of site formation and the interpretation of spatial and temporal
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