Making of Household Entrepreneurs: Lived Experiences of Pukhtoon Women

Entrepreneurs from Peshawar, Pakistan

By Madiha Gohar, Asma Rauf and Ayesha Abrar1
________________________________
Aim of this paper is to explore the impact of institutional forces shaping the
entrepreneurial process of women entrepreneurs in a Pukhtoon society of Peshawar,
Pakistan. Development of enterprises is the result of interaction of entrepreneurial process
and institutional environment (Ahmedi 2003). Entrepreneurship (process) and entrepreneurs
(individuals) are embedded in the institutional context that varies across societies. Focusing
on micro level this study adopts institutional approach to explore the entrepreneurial process
occurring in the household environment. Household is embedded in the social, local,
regional and environmental networks where entrepreneur acts as an agent of change,
however, context determines the circumstances under which entrepreneurial choices called
agency are made (Jamali 2009). Women are ascribed the role of home makers in many
societies particularly Pukhoon society where they are given special status of home makers.
Due to this central role they are mainly affected by institutional forces at household level.
____________________________
Introduction
Women entrepreneurs are present in all societies with undeniable importance
(Bygrave and Minitti 2000), however, the rate of business formation differ across societies.
The variations in self-employment indicate the existence of context specific factors such as
social institutions, societal norms and values, religion and various demographic factors
(Brush, deBruin, Gatewood and Henrry 2010). Social context comprises of individuals and
institutional actors where decisions made by individuals are influenced by the institutional
environment. North (1990) and Baumol (1996) emphasize the role of institutional
environment in flourishing the entrepreneurship. Institutional structure shapes the antecedent
and outcomes of entrepreneurial process hence are key to understanding the entrepreneurial

Authors are doctoral students at Entrepreneurship and Innovation Department, University of Essex.

Address correspondence to Madiha Gohar, Doctoral Researcher, Entrepreneurship and Innovation Group,
Essex Business School, Southend Campus, University of Essex, UK. email: mgohar@essex.ac.uk

behaviour of individuals in a society (Baumol, Litan and Schramm 2007; Baumol 1996;
Bowen and De Clercq 2008).
Institutions are important social structures that shape the social life of individuals
(Hodgson and Calatrava 2006). Barley and Tolbert (1997), defined institutions as shared
rules and typifications that identify categories of social actors and their appropriate activities
or relationships. Widely accepted definition of institutions is given by Noth (1990) that
says institutions are constraints imposed on behavior either by state or social norms which
shape economic interaction. According to North (1990) constraints/institutions are both
formal, laws and rules imposed through power, and informal, cultural norms and values
enacted through shared and accepted ways of behavior giving rise to a normative system.The
combination of formal and informal institutions not only manoeuvres the existence and
emergence of entrepreneurial opportunities but also their recognition (Welter 2008).
Formal institutions create opportunities for entrepreneurs in the external environment
whereas; informal institutions determine the perceived legitimacy of these opportunities (Ettl
and Welter 2010). Role of informal norms (institutions) is as important as formal rules in
flourishing entrepreneurial activities; however, lesser importance is attached to the former.
Normative context made up of religious and socio-cultural values and familial customs and
traditions, influence entrepreneurial process to a great extent. Role of gender, as a social
practice, is determined by informal rules. Therefore, entrepreneurial activities of women are
embedded in the normative context in many societies. This study focuses on studying the role
of informal institutions in the making of women entrepreneurs in Pukhtoon society, where
social values dominate the social as well as entrepreneurial sphere. This study attempts to
explicate the

role of household institutions in entrepreneurial process

2

interaction of various levels of

institutions in shaping the gendered

entrepreneurial process

Social construction of gender in the context of a Pathan society of Peshawar

(Pakistan) and its impact on the entrepreneurial process

'Gender in Entrepreneurship Research

Gender is a context dependent construct determined by the institutionalized concepts
of masculinity and femininity. Institutions are the social construct and subject to change so is
the gender construct (Ahl. H 2010). It is a practice that people do in a relational context, and
not about being relating to what people are. The social construction of gender defies the
physiological and biological notion of masculinity and femininity because it offers very
simplistic view of the phenomenon (Swidler 2001; Dhaliwal 1998). It refers to the
comprehensive and dynamic roles assigned to biological sexes by a society and/or culture
(Goffee & Scase, 1985; Birley 1989).
The relationship of gender and entrepreneurship is complex phenomenon. The multidimensional construct of gender in recent researches has broadened the scope of femaleness
in economic sphere. Such a construct shapes and is shaped by the social context. Gender
specific normative institutions, i.e. religion and traditions, family and socio-cultural values
determine womens social and economic role in the society. Societies that define women
regarding their household responsibilities only undermine their income generating activities
in market economy and discourage their entrepreneurial spirit (Achterthagen and Welter
2003). An all-inclusive role and significance of women entrepreneurs can only be explicated
by acknowledging the contextual embeddedness ( Allen, Elam, Langowitz, and Dean 2008).
Household Institution- Framing the Context for Women Entrepreneurship
3

Scott (2001, 2008) proposes that, institutions are comprised of regulative, normative
and cultural-cognitive elements that, together with associated activities and resources,
provide stability and meaning to social life (p. 48). It draws attention towards the legal,
normative and cognitive dimensions influencing social actors and their symbolic and material
facets. Entrepreneurial capacity of individuals is not only determined by the normative
structure of the institutions but also by the availability of resources that enable them carry out
entrepreneurial activities.
Household is a basic social and economic institution (Wilk and Rathje 1982), but also
a complex and permeable social sphere with no defined boundaries (Netting 1984). Factors
adding to the complexity of definition of household are cross-cultural differences and the
temporal permeability of the concept, rules of membership; forms of household, changing
patterns of marriage, kinship and co-residence. This study adopt the framework offered by
Wheelock and Oughton (1996) who emphasised the contextuality of household and
conceptualize the household as an institution. The institution of household consists of
symbolic elements, social activities, and material resources. It is conceptualised as an
institution because of its micro setup that presents an interesting mix of three institutional
pillars and forms the basic social structure symbolizing the cultural organization of the family
life in a particular context.
Reproduction, socialization, placement and care are the essential functions of a
household. Non-essential or optional functions include provision of human and financial
capital to the members, arranging for religious and practical education, arranging for
marriage of the members of household, health and other social, cultural and political
functions (Sanjek 1982). These functions are shaped by the constitutive rules of wider social
structures. The economic function of the household takes the household as a unit where
4

incomes are pooled together for the purpose of mutual use. This function is executed in
different societies differently.
Family/household is rarely researched from entrepreneurial perspective (Aldrich and
Cliff 2003). According to Cramton (1993) researchers have not yet explored how family
relations give rise to new venture creation. There is a need of extension of the concept social
embeddedness beyond social networks, because family itself has a significant impact on the
new venture creation and development (Welter 2008).
The

family

embeddedness

perspective

to

entrepreneurship

asserts

that

transformations in the institution of family have implications for the emergence of new
business opportunities, opportunity recognition, business start-up decisions and resource
mobilization process (Aldrich and Cliff 2003). It assumes that context of family is a social
structure where entrepreneurial activity is embedded hence considering it an antecedent of
entrepreneurship. Micro environment for entrepreneurship goes beyond the nuclear family
and household, considering the both nuclear household and extended family having the
decisive powers at the micro level (Ettl 2010; Zachary 2011).

Social Institutional Context

Cultural Cognitive
Normative
Regulative
Household Institution
Cognitive

Normative

Regulative

Scotts Institutional Framework

Household Based Approach to Small
Business

Source: Authors

Social Construction of
Gender

Women
Entrepreneurship
Embedded in its Context

Women make their career choices within the context of household and are prone to
the contextual factors. Family and household affects women entrepreneurship directly by
exercising their powers either to allow women to start a business, influence their access to
resources, time to manage the business, providing or withdrawing non-monetary support and
several others.
Context of the Study
This research is based in Peshawar, the capital of province Khyber Pukhtoonkhawa
(KPK), Pakistan. Peshawar city represents Pukhtoon culture and traditions of Pathans living
here. Pukhtoon women live in a world built around the household and family. Pukhtoon
cultural is strongly patriarchal and women normally stay in veil, but in rural areas they can be
seen in fields helping men, however, urban women from well off families stay at home, raise
their children and take care of family matters (Akber 2010). Women are empowered in the
household domain but politically, socially and economically disadvantaged, particularly in
terms of ownership of the resources. There are many women who run traditional businesses
from home. Only a few women can be seen in the mainstream business (Harper and Arora
2005). According to Federal Bureau of Statistics report (2009-10), 2.41% of total female
population in Khyber Phukhtunkhawa, Pakistan is self-employed. This shows the strict
adherence of the society to the traditional customs and values to keep women veiled and
away from economic sphere.
Research Methodology
Purpose of this study is to explore women entrepreneurship in household institutional
context and to gain understanding of the entrepreneurial process in the normative context of a
Pukhtoon society. To achieve this objective we adopted qualitative research approach
6

because it is well suited to the problems that need to be explored to obtain a deep
understanding (Creswell 2005 p. 54).

The interpretive stance adopted, assumes the

existence of multiple realities influencing our understanding and response to the objective
world.
To capture the essence of the lived experiences of women entrepreneurs
phenomenological perspective was adopted. It helped us in understanding the behaviour and
entrepreneurial actions embedded in the household institutional context and the larger sociocultural framework. Phenomenology proposes inspecting the taken for granted characteristics
of the life/world which may uncover some new or forgotten aspects. Household is female
domain presenting the normative context to human actions is among the taken for granted
entities of the life/world of those who inhabit it.
Data was collected through in depth, face to face interviews with female
entrepreneurs in Peshawar. Respondents were selected through purposive, criterion and
snowball sampling (Patton 1990). Interviews with 40 entrepreneurs were conducted at their
business sites. Interviews were conducted in two phases over a period of five months during
the fieldwork for doctoral studies in 2010. In first phase data was collected and analysis to
develop themes to guide the next stage of data gathering whereas, second phase interviews
were aimed at enriching the results.
Thematic analysis is one of the widely used qualitative data analysis tools (Miles and
Huberman 2004), that is used in this study. Thematic analysis provides researcher with the
opportunity to reflect on the lived experiences of the participants and to understand the
structure of the experience through the emergent themes (Munhall 1994). Use of this
analytical tool for current study helped revealing the insightful patterns of the phenomenon
under study. There is no agreed upon method of carrying out thematic analysis. However
7

there is a consensus that coding is the essential part of thematic analysis (Huberman and
Miles 2002; Patton, 2002; Creswell 2009).
Figure II, given below, describes the step by step thematic analysis procedures adopted for
this study;
Figure II - Thematic Analysis Steps
Immersion
to get a sense of
preliminary interpretations
of data

Descriptive Coding
Identification and labelling
of meaning units in data

Thematic Codes
Identifying common
patterns clustering in
thematic codes

Categories
Clustering of the thematic
codes to generate categories

High Order Themes

Connection of categories
reveals abstract patterns

Source: Authors developed from King. Nigel, Christine Horrocks (2010)

First step of the analysis was familiarisation of data, referred to immersion in the
above figure, followed by developing first hand codes, refining and clustering them to
generate themes and sub-themes. Patterns developed from themes were compared to generate
categories, conceptual relation of which gave rise to theoretical themes. Following table
shows the themes;

Table I Themes from Empirical Data

Over arching
theme

Thematic codes
Impact of family on
business

Household
Embeededness
of the
Enterprise

Relationships

Initial codes

Support system

Household of the
entrepreneur

Business and family

Children and family obligations
Familys negative response
Family and personal relations
Professional relations with
competitors or colleagues
Family support (65)
Support from others
Work life balance
Household value system
Entrepreneurs financial contribution
to household

Source: Authors from empirical data analysis

Above table shows the final result of thematic data analysis procedure. Next section
discusses the study results in detail.
Phenomenological Description of Lived Experiences
The informal household institution proved to be the lucrative source of women
entrepreneurship in Peshawar. The entrepreneurial activities of women entrepreneurs in
evolved from larger social-cultural circumstances, household environment and personal
interest.
Profile of a Pathan Women Entrepreneur
A typical Pathan women entrepreneur falls in the group of early 30s to late 50s,
married, living in nuclear family with children and running business for minimum of 4-5
years in service sector. Majority of women entrepreneurs are educated while few of the
entrepreneurs are either illiterate or have elementary education.
Women Entrepreneurship in Households Normative Context
A traditional Pakistani society circles around family and kin. Family is the basic
social organization that provides the members identity and protection. Norms and values of
9

the household are an important consideration for the entrepreneurial activity. From
motivation to be an entrepreneur, to running, managing and growth stage of the business
entrepreneurs and enterprises are dependent on the household.
Start-up motivation
Motivation of the entrepreneurs to start a business is the outcome of economic needs,
livelihood necessities and need for autonomy. One of the respondents shared;
we had crises and it was really bad, it was the only source of income and when you are left
with nothing so....then for 7-8 years he [husband] was at home [unemployed] and children
were very young so this was the only way to do something while being at home (Respondent
16).
It shows that transition in life course (positive or negative) also results in creation of
enterprise where enterprise serves as a livelihood earning strategy.
Business Choice
The choice of business sector depends on the start up motivation as well as family
background, evident from empirical narratives;
the most important reason is that I belong to an established family as I told you that my
husband is land lord and is well off and well known family. So it does not suit me.... that like
some says that his mrs. or the daughter in-law of that family is working somewhere as an
employee....so this does not suit me (Respondent 2)
Entrepreneurs from various family backgrounds bring different human and financial capitals
to business.
Business Location
The location of business is significant in maintaining work-life balance of women
entrepreneurs. Their attachment to duty requires them to look for a business location that

10

does not hinder performance of their basic responsibilities, hence most of the businesses were
home based. One of the respondents said;
I am living in city and if I was to get a job may be that would be in University or Township
which are distant and it matters, because in that case I would have no contact with home,
while my office is adjacent to my home and I can go for an hour or for the whole day
(Respondent 28)

The other factors affecting the location choice are the norms of the household as women are
supposed to adhere to implicit and explicit norms.
Start-Up Time
Women entrepreneurs start a business when they have fulfilled most of their
household obligations. For instance, their children are school going age so their business
timings should be such that do not disturb their household duties. It is very clearly narrated
by the respondents;
when I had two children and when I felt that they are going school and they are no more
keeping me at home, they dont require me to keep with them at home, I started my business
(Respondent 1) .

Financial Capital
Women in Pukhtoon society are financially dependent on head of the household
(men), hence most of the businesses are financed by family members. For financial support
married women rely on their husbands while unmarried, widows and divorcees mentioned
fathers and brothers.
naturally naturally naturally abbb actually Its aaaa I never thought of it that way it was
aaaaa it was there and because he was aaa very, [sec] I dont know I never thought of it
that way whether its my money or is his money [....] naturally if the husband or the family... I
suppose has to give aaa because if I was not working before, like I was not in the job that I
11

was being paid for, that I would have that money to do business or something (Respondent
5)
Interestingly Pathan women entrepreneurs think it is a responsibility of male members of
family to help them financially. As women entrepreneurs are dependent on their families for
the entrepreneurial capital, they are conscious to make their business choices.
Household is the first and foremost!
In a Pathan society household is the main responsibility of women. Women are aware
of their main role and they take pride in their identity of motherhood. They expressed it in
following words;
She is playing a huge role, women have a strong impact on the household she is the one
who makes or breaks a household (Respondent 4).

That is why when she is to start her venture; the household becomes the epicentre of their all
other choices including business.
Support System
Empirical results show that family is not only the main source of financial capital but
it provides strong support to the entrepreneurs in managing and running their business and
household. Entrepreneurs are vigilant of their families role and they highly acknowledged
the role played their parents, husband and children in particular. An entrepreneur shared once
she was criticized by one of her relatives for doing business, she replied to him saying
I am not doing any sin. My husband is sitting [with me] and I am doing it with his
permission, if he has no objection you are not allowed to object, just go away and mind your
own business (Respondent 6)
This shows the importance of emotional support drawn from the family members.

12

Norms and Values of Household

Every household has it distinct value systems within entrepreneurs are supposed to
work. The importance of household environment (parents or in laws) is prominent in
entrepreneurial narratives;
I am not an average case from any dimension, because my fathers perspective was very
broad and we have been brought up in a very broad minded household. Very very educated
even my great grandaunts were Master Degree holders (Respondent 14)

Adherence to the normative construct is imperative for women in taking career. One of the
respondents narrated;
as I was not allowed to go out, my husband did not allow me, though I had the chance and
opportunity to go to the vocational training school [for coaching] but he did not permit me
and asked me to do whatever you feel like doing BUT in home (Respondent 16)
Use of word allow and permit shows the displeasure of women entrepreneurs with the
strict rules of their household however; they admire other aspects of households and are
willing to accept the normative environment as a whole.
Impact of Business on Household
There exists a feedback loop in family and enterprise. Results show that family is
important for entrepreneur and enterprise, so as the enterprise for the family. In some cases it
is the only source of income while in others it adds supplemental income to household.
Socio-cultural Norms of Women Entrepreneurship
Household institution is not autonomous rather it is embedded in the wider social and
familial network. Embedded in the society restricts household to liberate women therein.
Being social actors, members of the household follow the social script which is in accordance
with the social norms. Women cannot choose business sector freely, not only due to
segregated culture but also due to perception of various occupations.
13

Social Image of Professions!

In Pukhtoon society, all businesses do not hold a socially positive image. Joining
such businesses is strongly opposed by families as well as wider social circle. One of the
respondent shares her experience of joining the beauty business and the opposition she faced;
No the only thing was that like our family members did not like itt, for family issue is this
profession, as pathan do not consider this profession as prestigious they equate it with barber
(nai toob) so they used to say, what will people say that a girl from Sahebzada family is a
barber (da Sahebzadkanu jenai da ow nai toob kai) (Respondent 25)
Choice of businesses is restricted because all businesses do not hold social legitimacy.
Issue of Sex Segregation and Business Choice
Pukhtoon culture does not legitimize the interaction of males and females, which is
reflected in business choice of the entrepreneurs, where they chose a sector where they can
reduce the chances of interaction with males.
though we are in a business we have no interaction with males at all. Mostly women prefer
to go into this business, the reason being that we should interact with males as less as
possible (Respondent 3).

Issue of sex segregation affects the businesses of female entrepreneurs by confiscating the
choices of suppliers, customers and business associates. Being restricted to gendered network
female entrepreneurs lose their growth aspirations.

Norms of Purdah
Purdah2 is a cultural and religious norm. The norms of Purdah are rather strict in
Pukhtoon culture and compared to other sub-cultures of Pakistan. Such norms not legitimise

Prudah2: seclusion of women from public observation among Muslims and some Hindus especially in
India, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/purdah, accessed 26th April 2011

14

the interaction of males and females, hence reduces their chances of paid employment.
Entrepreneurs hold positive as well as negative connotations of norms of Purdah in relation to
business. One of the respondents narrated;
Purdah like being Muslim cover yourself as much as you can, so like when I am here its my
house they way I live with my children and those who come are all ladies, gents are not
allowed to come. It my home if I am in jeans, shorts, if I wear skirt or Pakistani dress but
when I am going out so I wear full abaya with Hijab (Respondent 15)
Purdah legitimises the sex segregation and narrows down the business choices of women
entrepreneurs.
Norms of Purdah and Entrepreneurship
Most entrepreneurs are of the opinion that Purdah has got nothing to do with being an
entrepreneur, while others view it as an impediment in employment and business sphere.
Some of them opined;
Yeh it [Purdah] damages woman, it stops growth of woman, (Respondent 39)
Women entrepreneurs also elaborated on the problems they face due to negative social
attitudes towards them. Business women image is not accepted in the society and they had
faced personal and social problems at the initial phase of their venture. But on the other hand
entrepreneurs are aware of the fact that Peshawar is an untapped market and it is to capture
market share here.
It is very different in Peshawar. If I was in Lahore then I would have tough competition may
be the achievement I have, maybe I would have not had it. Because there the market is and
large number of women are in business and there the concept exists and they are bold. So
when you look the competition it is tough and in the competition those who win they are the
leaders and the looser are the looser. So it is like win or loses. In that you cant be at
minimum either I would have worked or lost (Respondent 8).

15

Women mentioned that they are successful in their ventures as they conduct themselves and
their business according to the social norms, which protect their family from earning a bad
name, as women are representative of the family.
Conclusions
The study presented us with the holistic picture of entrepreneurial process of women
entrepreneurs in the household context in Putkhtoon culture. The journey of housewife to
entrepreneur is marked with struggles to conduct a socially legitimate business in context
with less normative support. Following diagram summarises the influences on a Pathan
women entrepreneurs;
Women Entrepreneurship in Peshawar

A traditional Pukhtoon woman is less visible in the social milieu due to socio-cultural
norms and conventional gender beliefs. This unique normative context has bearing not only
on her motivation to start a business, sector and location of the business. Women
entrepreneurs are concentrated in the informal sector with family and hosuehold as a source
16

of monetray and non moetray support for women entreprenurs (Bird B. and C. Brush 2002;
Anna, Chandler, Jansen, and Mero 2000). Pukhtoon entrepreneurs were to make business
decisions in the context of their household, so were affected by the norms of family. In the
entrepreneurial process household acted as a node and influenced the process either positively
or negatively but confirming that the women entrepreneurs, their enterprises are embedded in
the household. Pathan women entrepreneurs draw legitimacy from the larger institutional
framework. The social construction of gender acted as hurdle in entry to mainstream
economy. In the male dominant society women were not convinced to run a business on their
own therefore, they need help of male members of family. In this scenario, women owned
business result in women empowerment and change of status in the household (Tambunan
2008). Summing up household institution proved to be supportive in various stages of the
entrepreneurial process. Family and household is a valuable asset in flourishing women
entrepreneurship in constrained societies.

17

References:
Achterthagen, L. and F. Welter (2003). Female Entrepreneurhisp in Germany in New
Perspectives on Women Entrepreneurs Ed. J.E. Buttler Informaion Age Publishing .
Ahl, J. H. and T. Nelson, (2010), Moving Forward: Institutional Perspective on Gender and
Entrepreneurhsip, International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 2(1), 5-9
Ahl, J. H. (2002). The Making of the Female Entrepreneur Ph.D thesis, Jnkping International
Business School, Jnkping University.

Ahmadi. A (2003), The Entrepreneurial Process: An Institutional Perspective,

http://hdl.handle.net/2077/2639. Accessed on Aril 28, 2011
Akber, Noor (2010), Women Rights in FATA Pakistan: A Critical Review of NGOs'
Communication Strategies for Projects Implementation, Masters thesis, University of
Tromso, University of Gothenburg & Roehampton University.
Aldrich, H. and J. Cliff (2003). The Pervasive Effects of Family on Entrepreneurship:
Toward a Family Embeddedness Perspective, Journal of Business Venturing 18(5), 573596.
Anna, A., Chandler, G. Jansen, E. & Mero, N. (2000), Women Business Owners In
Traditional And Non-Traditional Industries, Journal of Business Venturing, 15, 279-303
Barley. S.R & P. S. Tolbert (1997),Institutionalization and Structuration: Studying the Links
between Action and Institution, Organization Studies January, 18.(1) 93-11
Baumol, William J., Robert E. Litan and Carl J. Schramm (2007). Good Capitalism, Bad
Capitalism, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity New Haven, US and
London, UK: Yale University Press.
Bird, B. And C. Brush (2002), "A Gendered Perspective on Organizational Creation.
Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice, 26 (3), 41-66.
Birley, S. (1989), Female Entrepreneurs: Are They Really Any Different? Journal of Small
Business Management, 27 (1), 32-37.
Bowen, Harry.P & Dirk De Clercq (2008). Institutional Context and The Allocation of
Entrepreneurial Effort, Journal of International Business Studies 39 (4), 747-767
Brush, C., de Bruin, A. Gatewood, E. J. & Henry, C. (Eds) (2010) Women Entrepreneurs
and The Global Environment for Growth: A Research Perspective Cheltenham and
Northampton, MA, Edward Elgar.
Bygrave, W., & Minniti, M. (2000). The Social Dynamics of Entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 24(3): 25-36

18

Cramton, C.D (1993). Is Rugged Individualism the Whole Story? Public and Private
Accounts of A Firms Founding, Family Business Review. 6 (3), 233261.
Creswell, J. (2009). Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage
Publications
Creswell, J. (2005). "Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research." NJ: Upper Saddle River.
Dhaliwal, S. (2000). "Asian Female Entrepreneurs and Women In BusinessAn Exploratory
Study." Enterprise & Innovation Management Studies 1(2): 207-216
Allen, I.E., A. Elam, N. Langowitz, and M. Dean, (2008). The Global Entrepreneurship
Monitor: Report on Women and Entrepreneurship Babson Park MA, Babson College.
Ettl, Kerstin & Welter Friederike, (2010) Gender, Context and Entrepreneurial Learning,
International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 2(2), 108 - 129
Goffee, R. and R. Scase (1985). Women in Charge: The Experiences of Female
Entrepreneurs, London: Allen and Unwin.
Harper. M , and S. S Arora (2005), Small Customers, Big Market: Commercial Banks in
Microfinance ITDG Publishing
Heck, R.K.Z., Trent, E.S. (1999). The Prevalence of Family Business From A Household
Sample, Family Business Review. 12 (3), 209224.
Hodgson, G.M. (2006), What are Institutions? Journal of Economic Issues, 40: 1-25.
Jamali. D, (2009). Constraints and Opportunities Facing Women Entrepreneurs in
Developing Countries: A Relational Perspective, Gender in Management: An International
Journal, Vol. 24 (4), 232 251
Huberman A.M., Matthew B. Miles, (2002), The qualitative researcher's companion, Sage
Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA
King. Nigel and Christine Horrocks, (2010) Interviews in Qualitative Research, Sage
Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA

Miles M.B. & Huberman A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis. Sage Publications,
Thousand Oaks, CA
Munhall. Patricia L. (1994), Revisioning phenomenology: nursing and health science
research, National league for nursing
Netting, R. Wilk, R. Arnould, E. (1984). Households: Comparative and Historical Studies of
The Domestic Group, University of California Press, Berkeley.
19

North, D. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change, And Economic Performance,

Cambridge University Press.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods, Sage Publications.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, London: Sage
Publications.
Sanjek R. (1982). The Organization of Households in Adabraka: Toward a Wider
Comparative Perspective Comparative Studies in Society and History, 24 (1), 57-103
Scott, W. (2008). Institutions And Organizations: Ideas and Interests Sage Publications,
Inc.
Swidler, A. (2001). What Anchors Cultural Practices. In The Practice Turn In
Contemporary Theory. Ed. K. K.-C. Theodore R. Schatzki, Eike von Savigny. London,
Routledge 83101.
Tambunan, Tulus T.H. (2008), Development of SMEs in ASEAN, New Delhi: Readworthy
Publications, Ltd.
Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching Lived Experience: Human Science for an Action
Sensitive Pedagogy, State University of New York Press.
Van Manen, M. (1997). From Meaning To Method Qualitative Health Research 7: 345369.
Welter, F. & Smallbone D. (2008). Womens Entrepreneurship from an Institutional
Perspective: The Case Of Uzbekistan International Entrepreneurship and Management
Journal, 4 (4) , 505-520.
Welter, F. & D. Smallbone. & N. Isakova, (2006). Enterprising Women in Transition
Economies, Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Wheelock, J. and E. Oughton (1996). The Household as a Focus for Research. Journal of
Economic Issues, 2 (1), 143-59.
Wilk, R. and W. Rathje (1982). Household Archaeology. American Behavioral Scientist
25(6): 617-39.
Zachary. R. K (2011), The Importance of the Family System in Family Business, Journal of
Family Business Management, 1 (1), 26 - 36

20