Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is a branch of scientic and engineering discipline that deals with the occurrence,
distribution, movement, and properties of the waters of the earth. Knowledge of hydrology is
fundamental to water and environmental professionals (engineers, scientists and decision
makers) in such tasks as the design and operation of water resources, wastewater treatment,
irrigation, ood risk management, navigation, pollution control, hydropower, ecosystem
modelling, etc.
This unit covers the fundamental theories on:
1. Hydrological cycle and water balance,
2. Precipitation,
3. Evaporation and transpiration,
4. Inltration,
5. Groundwater,
6. Hydrograph,
7. Flow routing,
8. Hydrological measurements,
9. Hydrological statistics,
10. Hydrological design.
and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years.
Snowpacks can thaw and melt, and the melted water ows over land as snowmelt. Most
precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where the precipitation ows over the
ground as surface runo. A portion of runo enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with
streamow moving water towards the oceans. Runo and groundwater are stored as freshwater
in lakes. Not all runo ows into rivers. Much of it soaks into the ground as inltration. Some
water inltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store huge amounts of
freshwater for long periods of time. Some inltration stays close to the land surface and can seep
back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater
nds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. Over time, the water
returns to the ocean, where our main water cycle started (Wikipedia, 2009).
I.2 Key Hydrological Processes
Precipitation: Condensed water vapor that falls to the earth surface. Most precipitation occurs as
rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, sleet, etc.
Runo: The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface
runo and channel runo. As it ows, the water may inltrate into the ground, evaporate into the
air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Inltration: The ow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once inltrated, the
water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.
Subsurface Flow: The ow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface
water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the
oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it inltrated, under the
force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation and transpiration: The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it
moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy
for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation oen implicitly includes transpiration
from plants, though together they are specically referred to as evapotranspiration.
I.3 Common Units
Flow rate in stream and rivers are usually recorded as cubic metres per second (m 3/s, i.e.,
cumecs) or cubic feet per second (cfs). Volumes are often measured as cubic metres, gallons, and
litres. Precipitations are commonly recorded in inches or millimetres. Rainfall rates are usually
represented in inches or centimetres per hour. Evaporation, transpiration and inltration rate are
measured as inches or millimetres per day or longer time periods.
2 | Page
The residence time is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through a water body. It
can be derived by dividing the volume of water by the flow rate. Some estimated residence time
values are listed in Table 2.
Table 2 Average residence time (Wikipedia, 2009)
3 | Page
From the conservation of mass, water balance for any storage can be expressed as
4 | Page
1.6 Catchment
5 | Page
2 PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is part of the atmosphere water and derived from water vapour. Atmospheric water
mostly exists as vapour, but briefly and locally it becomes a liquid (rainfall and cloud water
droplets) or a solid (snowfall, cloud ice crystal and hails).
2.1 Atmosphere Water
The sun is the driving force for the hydrological cycle. Precipitation comes from water vapour
generated by the solar radiation from land and ocean. Water is made of H 2O hence water vapour
is lighter than air (low air pressure is linked with high moisture, hence more likely to rain). The
energy required to vaporise water is 2.5 106 J/kg(specific latent heat for water vaporisation).
Practice 1
A storm with 100mm depth fell over an area of 100 km 2 within 2 hours. Estimate the energy and
power release from this storm (in Joule and MW).
Convective precipitation: Heated air near the ground expands and absorbs more water
moisture. The warm moisture-laden air moves up and gets condensed due to lower
temperature, thus producing precipitation. Convective precipitation spans from light
shows to thunderstorms with extremely high intensity.
2. Orographic precipitation: The uplifting of air is caused by natural barriers such as
mountain ranges.
6 | Page
3. Cyclonic precipitation: The uneven heating of the earths surface by the sun results high
and low pressure regions, and air masses move from high pressure regions to low
pressure regions. If warm air replaces colder air, the front is called a warm front. If cold
air displaces warm air, its front is called a cold front.
7 | Page
8 | Page
The tasks involved are a) to examine the consistency of Gauge X data; b) to find when a change
in regime occurred; c) to discuss possible causes; d) to adjust the data and determine what
difference this makes to the 36 year annual average precipitation at Gauge X.
It can be seen that Gauge X data are not consistent. There is a change in regime around 1981.
This change could be due to gauge re-siting, growing trees, etc. If the earlier period is correct,
9 | Page
All the rainfall values from 1982 to 2002 are applied with the same correction ratio (1.35).
The old average of Gauge X is 278.4 mm and the corrected one is 327.6mm
10 | P a g e
The relative weight for each gauge is determined from the corresponding area. If the area within
the catchment assigned to each gauge is Ai, and its rainfall is Ri, the areal average rainfall for the
catchment is
2.6.4 Geostatistics
The conventional methods cannot estimate the uncertainty with the result. Geostatistical methods
can be used to compute best estimates as well as error bands that describe the potential
magnitude of the estimation error. The uncertainty information is useful for decision making
(e.g., to add extra rain gauges if the uncertainties are large at certain points). Kriging is a typical
method in this category. Readers can explore this method further at Wikipedia Kriging.
12 | P a g e
Radiation is continuously emitted from all bodies at rates linked with their surface temperature.
13 | P a g e