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Earths longwave thermal radiation intensity, from clouds, atmosphere and surface.
Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coecient, the proportionality
between the heat ux and the thermodynamic driving
force for the ow of heat. Heat ux is a quantitative, vectorial representation of the heat ow through a surface.[2]
Thermal engineering concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of heat transfer. As such,
heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the
economy.[6] Heat transfer is classied into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase
changes.
In engineering contexts, the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy. This usage has its origin in the
Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bod- historical interpretation of heat as a uid (caloric) that
ies and the surroundings reach the same temperature. can be transferred by various causes,[3] and that is also
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change common in the language of laymen and everyday life.
in volume in response to a change in temperature.[1]
The transport equations for thermal energy (Fouriers
law), mechanical momentum (Newtons law for uids), and mass transfer (Ficks laws of diusion) are
similar,[4][5] and analogies among these three transport
1 Overview
processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of
conversion from any one to the others.[5]
See also: Heat transfer physics
2 MECHANISMS
Mechanisms
driving the conduction is constant, so that after an equilibration time, the spatial distribution of temperatures in
the conducting object does not change any further.[9] In
steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering a
section is equal to amount of heat coming out.[8]
Convection
2.1
Advection
2.5
Radiation
2.3.1
Convection-cooling
The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate
See also: Nusselt number
of heat transfer by conduction; or, equivalently, the ratio between the corresponding timescales (i.e. conducConvective cooling is sometimes described as Newtons tion timescale divided by convection timescale), up to a
numerical factor. This can be seen as follows, where all
law of cooling:
calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the
geometry of the system.
The rate of heat loss of a body is proporThe buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly
tional to the temperature dierence between the
gL3 , so the corresponding pressure is roughly gL
body and its surroundings.
. In steady state, this is canceled by the shear stress
due to viscosity, and therefore roughly equals V /L =
However, by denition, the validity of Newtons law of /T
conv , where V is the typical uid velocity due to concooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convec- vection and T
conv the order of its timescale. The contion be a linear function of (proportional to) the tem- duction timescale, on the other hand, is of the order of
perature dierence that drives heat transfer, and in con- T
2
cond = L / .
vective cooling this is sometimes not the case. In general,
convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gra- Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above
dients, and in some cases is strongly nonlinear. In these 1,0002,000.
cases, Newtons law does not apply.
2.5 Radiation
2.4
In a body of uid that is heated from underneath its container, conduction and convection can be considered to
compete for dominance. If heat conduction is too great,
uid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped
due to its buoyancy, while uid moving up by convection
is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy
will diminish. On the other hand, if heat conduction is
very low, a large temperature gradient may be formed
and convection might be very strong.
The Rayleigh number ( Ra ) is a measure determining the
relative strength of conduction and convection.
Ra =
gL3
gT L3
=
Red-hot iron object, transferring heat to the surrounding environment primarily through thermal radiation
PHASE TRANSITION
emission of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy away from the surface.
The Stefan-Boltzmann equation, which describes the rate
of transfer of radiant energy, is as follows for an object in
a vacuum :
Q = T 4
For radiative transfer between two objects, the equation
is as follows:
Q = (Ta4 Tb4 )
where Q is the heat ux, is the emissivity (unity for a
black body), is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, and T is
the absolute temperature (in Kelvin or Rankine). Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects, or
for objects with a large temperature dierence.
Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power.[15] Unlike conductive and
convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation can
be concentrated in a small spot by using reecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power
generation.[16] For example, the sunlight reected from
mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and during the
day it can heat water to 285 C (545 F).
Lightning is a highly visible form of energy transfer and is an example of plasma present at Earths surface. Typically, lightning
discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts, and emits
light, radio waves, X-rays and even gamma rays.[17] Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 Kelvin (27,726.85
C) (49,940.33 F) and electron densities may exceed 1024 m3 .
Phase transition
3.1
Boiling
3.3
Melting
3.2
Condensation
4 Modeling approaches
Heat transfer can be modeled in the following ways.
4.1
5 ENGINEERING
Climate models
4.2
Heat equation
4.3
5.2 Devices
Engineering
Heat engine is a system that performs the conversion of heat or thermal energy to mechanical
energy which can then be used to do mechanical
work.[22][23]
Thermocouple is a temperature-measuring device
and widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control, and can also be used to convert heat into electric power.
Thermoelectric cooler is a solid state electronic device that pumps (transfers) heat from one side of the
6 Examples
6.1 Architecture
Ecient energy use is the goal to reduce the amount
of energy required in heating or cooling. In architecture, condensation and air currents can cause cosmetic or
structural damage. An energy audit can help to assess
the implementation of recommended corrective procedures. For instance, insulation improvements, air sealing of structural leaks or the addition of energy-ecient
windows and doors.[24]
Smart meter is a device that records electric energy
consumption in intervals.
Heat exchangers
6.3
6 EXAMPLES
Greenhouse eect
The greenhouse eect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the
surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation
of the average surface temperature above what it would Latent heat loss, also known as evaporative heat loss, acbe in the absence of the gases.
counts for a large fraction of heat loss from the body.
When the core temperature of the body increases, the
body triggers sweat glands in the skin to bring additional
6.4 Heat transfer in the human body
moisture to the surface of the skin. The liquid is then
transformed into vapor which removes heat from the surSee also: Wet-bulb temperature
face of the body.[28] The rate of evaporation heat loss is
directly related to the vapor pressure at the skin surface
[26]
The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can and the amount of moisture present on the skin. Therebe applied to the human body in order to determine how fore, the maximum of heat transfer will occur when the
the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by skin is completely wet. The body continuously loses wathe continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides ter by evaporation but the most signicant amount of heat
energy for the systems of the body.[25] The human body loss occurs during periods of increased physical activity.
must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order
to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess
heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from
overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels of
physical activity, the body requires additional fuel which
increases the metabolic rate and the rate of heat production. The body must then use additional methods to remove the additional heat produced in order to keep the
internal temperature at a healthy level.
Heat transfer by convection is driven by the movement of
uids over the surface of the body. This convective uid
can be either a liquid or a gas. For heat transfer from
the outer surface of the body, the convection mechanism
is dependent on the surface area of the body, the velocity of the air, and the temperature gradient between the
surface of the skin and the ambient air.[26] The normal
temperature of the body is approximately 37 C. Heat
transfer occurs more readily when the temperature of the
6.6
9
6.5.4 Radiative cooling
Radiative cooling is the process by which a body loses
heat by radiation. Outgoing energy is an important eect
in the Earths energy budget. In the case of the Earthatmosphere system, it refers to the process by which longwave (infrared) radiation is emitted to balance the absorption of short-wave (visible) energy from the Sun. Convective transport of heat and evaporative transport of latent
heat both remove heat from the surface and redistribute
it in the atmosphere.
6.5.2
Laser cooling
In Quantum Physics laser cooling is used to achieve temperatures of near absolute zero (273.15 C, 459.67
F) of atomic and molecular samples, to observe unique
quantum eects that can only occur at this heat level.
Doppler cooling is the most common method of
laser cooling.
Sympathetic cooling is a process in which particles
of one type cool particles of another type. Typically,
atomic ions that can be directly laser-cooled are used
to cool nearby ions or atoms. This technique allows
cooling of ions and atoms that cannot be laser cooled
directly.
7 See also
Combined forced and natural convection
Heat capacity
Heat transfer physics
StefanBoltzmann law
Thermal contact conductance
Thermal physics
Thermal resistance in electronics
Thermal science
Heat transfer enhancement
8 References
6.5.3
Magnetic cooling
[1] Paul A., Tipler; Gene Mosca (2008). Physics for Scientists
and Engineers, Volume 1 (6th ed.). New York, NY: Worth
Publishers. pp. 666670. ISBN 1-4292-0132-0.
[2] New Jersey Institute of Technology, Chemical Engineering Dept. B.S. Chemical Engineering. NJIT. Retrieved
9 April 2011.
[3] Lienhard, John H.,V; Lienhard, John H., V (2008). A
Heat Transfer Textbook (3rd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Phlogiston Press. ISBN 978-0-9713835-3-1.
OCLC 230956959.
10
[4] Welty, James R.; Wicks, Charles E.; Wilson, Robert Elliott (1976). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass
transfer (2 ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-47193354-0. OCLC 2213384.
[5] Faghri, Amir; Zhang, Yuwen; Howell, John (2010). Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer. Columbia, MO: Global
Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-9842760-0-4.
[6] Taylor, R.A. (2012).
Socioeconomic impacts of
heat transfer research. International Communications
in Heat and Mass Transfer 39 (10): 14671473.
doi:10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2012.09.007.
[7] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Mass transfer
[8] Abbott, J.M. Smith, H.C. Van Ness, M.M. (2005). Introduction to chemical engineering thermodynamics (7th ed.).
Boston ; Montreal: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-310445-0.
[9] Thermal-FluidsPedia | Heat conduction.
[10] engel, Yunus (2003). Heat Transfer: a practical approach. McGraw-Hill series in mechanical engineering. (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07245893-0. OCLC 300472921. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
EXTERNAL LINKS
[12] Convection Heat Transfer. Engineers Edge. Engineers Edge. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
9 External links
[15] Mojiri, A (2013). Spectral beam splitting for efcient conversion of solar energyA review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28: 654663.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026.
[16] Taylor, R.A., Applicability of Nanouids in High Flux Solar Collectors JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 3, 023104, 2011
[17] See Flashes in the Sky: Earths Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning
Thermal-Fluids Central
Energy2D: Interactive Heat Transfer Simulations for
Everyone
11
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