Chapter 2

Related Literature
2.1. Introduction
The term progressive collapse can be simply defined as the ultimate
failure or large failure of a portion of a structure due to the spread of local
failure from element to element throughout the structure. The progressive
collapse of building is occurred when the one or more vertical load
carrying members (typically columns) are damaged. Once a column is
damaged due to some accidental loading like; fire, impact loading or blast
loading, the building weight (gravity load) is transferred to the
neighboring columns in the structure. In US, the General Services
Administration (GSA) and Department of Defense (DOD) provide a
comprehensive guidelines and procedures for progressive collapse.
Progressive collapse analysis is important for building structures to
provide a cost effective safe design against progressive collapse. Due to
progressive collapse resulting from blast or any other external action; a
number of security offices, commercial centers, government buildings and
industrial facilities are not secure and safe. After 2001 world trade center
attacks, terrorist activities has been increased all over the world
especially in Pakistan. Loss of many lives and economic damages have
been occurred due to progressive collapse of the buildings. It is very
difficult to provide safety measures for the existing buildings but an effort
can be made to make future buildings relatively safe from progressive
collapse.
A bomb attack on a luxurious hotel (Pearl Continental Hotel) located at
Khyber road Peshawar is one of those buildings that experienced
progressive collapse as shown in figure 2.1. The columns of the ground
floor were fully damaged by the impact of blast. The building stability was
disturbed after the blast. A cantilever portion was developed at third floor
level forming a large overturning moment that resulted in the collapse of
the building.

Fig. 2.1 Progressive collapse of Pearl Continental Hotel

Peshawar

2.2. History of Progressive collapse study

Although after 2001 world trade center attacks, a lot of research has been
carried out in developed countries, still the literature available on
progressive collapse mechanism is not sufficient. Also the available data
mainly focusses on composite buildings. In Pakistan, majority of the multistory high rise building structures are made up of concrete due to
economical purposes and the non-availability of structural steel. Some of
the research work carried out in the recent past is summarized below:
B.M. Luccioni et al. (2003) noted that different abnormal unexpected
loadings (like blasts, earthquakes etc), in the recent years, have become a
subject of great attention in the engineering works. The construction and
design of buildings enabling life safety in case of explosion is becoming
the design concern for the structural engineers in the present era.
A research study was conducted by Sezen and Song (2008) to test the
progressive collapse potential of the Ohio State Union which was
scheduled for demolition in 2007. They followed the GSA (2003)
guidelines and calculated the demand- capacity ratio (DCR) values when
the four exterior columns were removed from the structure. The computer
program SAP2000 was used in the study to generate a computer model
simulation of the Ohio State Union.
Giriunas (2009) analyzed and compared the results obtained by field
testing of a building to that of a computer model developed using the
computer program SAP2000.
Abhay A. Kulkarni & Rajendra R. Joshi (2011) performed an analytical
modeling of 12 story building using ETAB v9.6 and SAP2000. The demand
capacity ratios (DCR) of 12 story framed structure were assessed as per
GSA guidelines. Linear and nonlinear static analysis was performed for
comparison purposes.
2.3. GSA limit for Acceptance:
The GSA describes the use of the DCR ratio of the member forces and the member strength,
as a reference, to define the failure of main or important structural members by the linear
analysis method.
DEMAND
DCR
CAPACITY
Where,
Demand is equal to the moment demand in case of beams & axial
load demand in case of columns.
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Capacity is equal to the nominal bending moment capacity and

nominal axial load capacity in case of beams and columns,
respectively.

The allowable limit of DCR values for primary and secondary structural
elements are:
DCR< 2.0 (Typical structural configurations)
Table 1 Attributes and benefits of typical structural configurations.
Attributes
Low width to depth ratio
Low height to base ratio
Similar story heights
stories
Short spans
deformation
Symmetrical plan shape
torsion
Uniform plan/elevation stiffness
concentrations
Uniform plan/elevation resistance
concentrations
Uniform plan/elevation ductility
Perimeter lateral resisting systems
potential
Redundancy

Benefits
Low torsional effects
Low overturning effects
Elimination of weak/soft
Low unit stress and
Elimination/reduction of
Elimination of stress
Elimination of stress
High energy dissipation
High torsional resistance
High plastic redistribution

2.4. Analysis Aspects

For the progressive collapse study of an existing building, modeling is
carried out. Modeling is generally of two types:
1. Physical Modeling
In physical modeling, physical model (usually scale down) of the
existing building is prepared for the progressive collapse study. As per
GSA guidelines, different columns from different locations are removed
and response of neighboring members is evaluated by recording the
change in their stress, strains and deformation values.
Physical modeling can be done for comparatively smaller structures.
2. Computer Modeling

In computer modeling, models are usually made in softwares i.e. ETAB

or SAP2000. Both softwares can be used for computer modeling,
analysis and design of various structures but ETAB is specially used for
the Buildings analysis and Design. In this study of Progressive collapse
Analysis, ETAB has been used.
2.4.1. ETABS
ETABS stands for Extended Three dimensional Analysis of Building
Structures. It is a computer program developed specifically for building
systems. Creating and modifying a model, executing the analysis, design,
and optimizing the design are all done through a single interface in ETAB
that is completely integrated within Microsoft Windows. Graphical displays
of the results, displacements and rotations are easily produced. Output
file can be easily printed.
The analytical capabilities of ETABS are just as powerful, representing the
latest research in numerical techniques and solution algorithms.
ETABS is available in two versions, ETABS Plus and ETABS Nonlinear. Both
versions are comprised of the following modules integrated into and
controlled by a single Windows-based graphical user interface:
Drafting module for model generation.
Seismic and wind load generation module.
Gravity load distribution module for the distribution of vertical loads
to columns and beams.
Output display and report generation module.
Steel frame design module (column, beam and brace).
Concrete frame design module (column and beam).
Composite beam design module.
Shear wall design module.
ETABS Plus also includes the finite-element-based linear static and
dynamic analysis module, while ETABS Nonlinear includes the finiteelement-based nonlinear static and dynamic analysis module. In this
study, ETABS Nonlinear has been used.
Various types of built-in loads and structural elements in ETABS are listed
below.

TYPES of Loads:
Live Load:

A load that changes its magnitude and point of application with time is
called live load. Load due to the persons occupying the building and their
belongings like furniture, books and kitchenware, etc. is called live load.
Dead Load:
A load that does not change its magnitude and point of application
throughout the life of structure is known as dead load. Usually, self weight
of the structure is termed as dead load.
Service Load:
The maximum intensity of load expected during the life of the structure
based on certain probability of occurrence is called service load. No
additional factor of safety is included in the service load. Usually, it is
represented by Pn.

Factored Load:
Service load increased by some factor of safety is called factored load.
Usually, it is represented by Pu.
Factor of safety:
The factor by which service load is increased to bring the structure from
state of collapse to a stable state is called factor of safety. It additionally
covers the following aspects:

To
To
To
To
To

keep the deflection small at service load

cover uncertainties in material strength
cover poor workmanship.
cover natural disasters.
control the effects of extra stresses produced during fabrication.

Dynamic Load:
A load that changes its magnitude, direction and point of application with
time is called dynamic load. Earth quack load and wind loads are dynamic
loads.
Axial Load:
Axis, all along the length, passing through geometric centroid at each
section of the member is called as longitudinal axis. Load having line of
action along the longitudinal axis is called axial load. Axial load may be
either tensile or compressive. If it tends to elongate the member it is
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called as tensile and if tends to shorten the member then it is called as

compressive.
F

Fig 2.2

Transverse Load:
Axis orthogonal to longitudinal axis and passing through geometric
centroid of the section is called transverse axis. Load having line of action
along the transverse axis is called as transverse load.

Load
Transverse loading

Fig 2.3

Shear Force
A force that tends to slide one part over the other part of the member is
called shear force. At any section, its equal to the sum of the all forces
either at right side of the section or left side of the section.
Conventionally, shear force at any section will said to be positive if the

right part of the member moves up and left part moves down and the vice
versa is true for negative shear force.
Loa

Fig 2.4

Bending Moment:
Moment of the force that tends to bent the member is called bending
moment. Conventionally, bending moment will said to be positive if it
produces sagging and will said to be negative if it produces hogging. A
member will said to be under sagging if its deflected shape is concave up
and under hogging if its deflected shape is concave down.

Fig 2.5

Fig 2.6

Structural elements:
Line Element:
Structural component having one dimension significantly large as
compared to other two dimensions is called line element. Longer
dimension is referred as length and other two as width and thickness,
respectively. Most common examples are beams and columns.
Plate Element:
Structural component having two dimensions significantly large as
compared to third one is called Plate element. Longer dimensions are
referred as length and width and shorter one as thickness. Most common
examples are slabs used in roofs and floors.
In ETABS, plate elements are of two types:
1. Membrane elements
A plate element has just tensile stiffness and no bending and shear
stiffness.
2. Shell elements
A plate element has three shear, bending and tensile stiffness.
In reality, slab is to be designed as shell element but in multistory
buildings for quick performance, slabs are considered as membrane
elements. Wall/shear wall is always designed as shell element.
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Column:
Structural component usually subjected to axial compression loading is
called column. Columns may be subjected to transverse loading as well in
the case of earth quack and heavy winds. Columns are usually vertical but
may be at any inclination depending upon requirements. Columns used in
building to transfer the load safely from roof and beams to the foundation
are usually vertical columns and wooden or steel member used to support
opposite sides of an excavation sides, will act as horizontal column.
Beam:
Structural component usually subjected to transverse loading is called
beam. Beams are usually horizontal but may be at any orientation as per
requirement. Beam used to transfer the load from slab to the column is a
horizontal beam and electric pole under heavy winds will act as vertical
beam.

2.5 Building Description

For the progressive collapse study, building of National Library of
Engineering and Science situated in UET Lahore has been selected.
Building is a frame structure and has three stories. View of the building is
shown below.

Fig 2.7. View of National Library of Engineering and Sciences

Fig 2.8 ETAB model of the building.

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