Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

In this chapter, focus is on various relevant literatures on
Food Safety, Related Studies on Microbial Assessment of StreetVended Food, Diversity of Street-Vended Foods, Microbiological,
and Local Studies on Street-Vended Foods

Food safety
Rapid urbanization, increased demand for convenience food,
new processing and handling technologies, immune-compromised and
susceptible populations and emerging pathogens, among others,
point to the need for an effective national food safety program
in the Philippines. A study conducted by Lizada (2007) discusses
issues surrounding food safety in the country, including recent
developments that emphasize the need to assure food safety, trade
issues, the scientific basis of food safety measures and the
Philippines commitment to food safety. It finds that although
Philippines legislation and related issuance provide for various
aspects of food safety, the absence of a clear statement of
national policy on food safety and the number of agencies
involved have led to overlaps and gaps in the implementation of
this program. Lizada (2007) proposes constituting an interim Task

Force on food safety, ensuring that the ongoing rationalization

of relevant agencies adequately address food safety,
strengthening consumer education programs towards effective
consumer advocacy for food safety, and ensuring the good
complementation of mandatory and voluntary food safety measures.
The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (1989) defines
street food as a wide range of ready-to-eat foods and beverages
prepared and/or sold by mobile or stationary vendors and hawkers
especially on streets and around public places (Dardano, 2003;
Nirathon, 2006; Faruque et al., 2010; Cho et al., 2011;
Monsterjc, 2013). Such foods feed millions of people daily with a
wide variety of foods that are relatively cheap and easily
accessible. In selling snacks, complete meals, and refreshments
at relatively low prices, vendors provide an essential service to
students, workers, shoppers, travelers, and people on low income
(Rheinlnder et al., 2008). People who depend on such food are
often more interested in its convenience than in questions of its
safety, quality, and hygiene. However, the World Health
Organization (WHO) undertook a survey in over 100 countries to
assess the situation with regard to street-vended foods. The
survey noted that majority of countries reported contamination of
food that contributes to food-borne disease (Donkor, 2009;
Bhowmik, 2005).

Food security in terms of adequate quantity and quality of

food to lead a healthy life must be considered as the prime
function of a food system (Canini et al., 2010). This study by
Canini, Bala, Maraginot, and Mediana (2010) aimed to investigate
the microbial quality of street-vended foods and the factors
predisposing to their contamination. Interviews were conducted
using a pre-tested questionnaire to collect data from 110 street
vendors on their profile and hygiene practices. Standard methods
were used for the enumeration of total bacterial counts and
identification of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Examinations were made of 173 menu items, classified as snack
foods, main dishes, sauces, and cold dishes. The microbial
quality of most of the foods was within the acceptable limits but
samples of buko juices, fruit salads, burger bun with spaghetti,
and pansit with pork had unacceptable levels of contamination
with a total mean log10 cfu/g of 7.1, 7.0, 6.1, and 6.0
respectively. Staphylococcus aureus was detected in 104 food
samples (60.1%) and 69 contained E. coli (39.9 %).
Time and temperature abuse, exposure of food to flies, and
poor hygiene practices during preparation and serving were likely
the risk factors for contamination. Vendors have to receive
education and training on food hygiene to improve the safety of

street foods in Ozamiz City and thereby heighten the safety of

consumer (Canini et al., 2010).
According to Kniel (2005) food-borne infection or
intoxication caused by transfer of microbial or chemical
contaminants from food or drinking water to human. Kniel (2005)
further added that over 250 different foodborne diseases and are
constantly changing due to emerging microorganisms.
Hammack (2012) stated that Salmonella has traditionally been
linked to animal products, including poultry and eggs, although
recently it has caused many foodborne illnesses involving fresh
fruits and vegetables. Salmonella is spread via
the fecal-oral route, commonly through contact with contaminated
water. There are two categories of salmonellosis: nontyphoidal
and typhoidal.
Escherichia coli bacteria are an essential part of the
intestinal flora of humans. It is usually harmless and, in fact,
is protective to the host. However, strains of STEC, such as
E coli O157, can cause serious, bloody diarrhea in the host.
It is predominantly associated with undercooked beef and beef
products, although lately it has been more prevalent in fresh
produce. In recent years, E. coli O157 contamination has occurred
in foods such as spinach, romaine lettuce, hazelnuts, and clover
sprouts. After exposure, hemorrhagic colitis often results within

48 hours. Hemorrhagic colitis presents as severe abdominal

cramping, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea that changes from watery
to bloody. Life-threatening complications of E coli O157
infections include hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) and thrombotic
thrombocytopenia purpura (Feng, 2012).
According to Alfaro (2014) Staphylococcus aureus bacteria
are found on human skin, hair, noses, throats and infected cuts
and sores. The bacteria can live on the skin of people who are
otherwise healthy.
By some estimates, the S. aureus bacteria live on the skin
of up to 25 percent of people. Staphylococcus aureus bacteria
reproduce very quickly at room temperatures, and produce a toxin
that can't be destroyed by cooking.
In addition to S. aureus is the bacteria that cause staph
infections and a frequent culprit in cases of food poisoning,
generally due to improper food handling and inadequate hygiene by
food handlers. Rather than causing an infection directly, the S.
aureus bacteria produce a toxin which is what causes the illness
(Alfaro, 2014).

Related Studies on Microbial Assessment of Street-vended food

A study conducted by El-Shenawy, Maes, and Soriano (2011)

tackled the presence of Listeria species in street-vended readyto-eat food sold in Egypt, including sandwiches and dishes of
traditional food.

Out of 576 samples, 24% were found to contain

Listeria species. L. monocytogenes and L. innocua were isolated

from 57% and 39% of the contaminated samples, respectively. The
results obtained may help to clarify the epidemiology of
listeriosis in the country and draw the attention of the decision
makers to issue hygienic regulations for food
processing industries as well as street vendors in order to
ensure safe street-vended ready-to-eat food.
Another study conducted by Panchal (2010) stated that Street
vended foods are often contaminated with microbes and have become
a global health problem. The study was aimed at examining the
hygienic conditions of the vendors and safety of street food in
the Hauz Khas zone of South Delhi, India. It was based on
personal interactions and assessing the microbial quality of
street foods supplied by them using standard microbiological
techniques. The study revealed the presence of about 200 street
food vendors in the area with more than 66% of them having
stationary establishments. They were found to sell wide variety
of locally prepared food with 50.5 % of them selling roti (an
India bread) followed by sales of subji (an India curry) by 44 %.
Majority of the vendors (43.3 %) fell in the age group of the 21-

30 years and 96.7 % of them had some form of education, 72.6 % of

the vendors had an average to poor hygiene with only 3.3 %
wearing a protective covering. Almost all the vendors interviewed
handled food and money simultaneously and were observed to cough
over the food and were found to do smoking. Microbiological
analysis of 180 street vended foods from 30 selected vendors
showed that 65 % of food sold by mobile vendors and 46 % of the
food sold by stationary vendors had one or more than one food
borne pathogens.
In addition, a study by Manguiat and Fang (2013) of the
microbiological quality of chicken- and pork-based street-food
samples from Taichung, Taiwan's night markets and Laguna,
Philippines' public places was evaluated in comparison to a
microbiological guideline for ready-to-eat foods. Different
bacterial contamination patterns were observed between
'hot-grilled' and 'cold cooked/fried' food types from the two
sampling locations with 'hot grilled' foods generally showing
better microbiological quality. Several samples were found to be
unsatisfactory due to high levels of aerobic plate count,
coliform, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. The
highest counts obtained were 8.2 log cfu g, 5.4 log cfu g,
4.4 log cfu g, and 3.9 log cfu g, respectively, suggesting
poor food hygiene practices and poor sanitation. Salmonella was

found in 8% and 7% of Taichung and Laguna samples, respectively,

which made the samples potentially hazardous. None of the samples
was found to be positive for Listeria monocytogenes and E. coli
O157, but Bacillus cereus was detected at the unsatisfactory
level of 4 log cfu g in one Laguna sample.
Street-Vended Foods and Diversity of Street-Vended Foods
Street foods are ready-to-eat foods and beverages prepared
and/or sold by vendors and hawkers especially in streets and
other similar public places (FAO, 1989). Street vended foods
are not only appreciated for their unique flavors, convenience
and the role which they play in the cultural and social heritage
of societies, they have also become important
and essential for maintaining the nutritional status of the
populations (Ekanem,1998; FAO, 1997). Besides offering business
opportunities for developing entrepreneurs, the sale of street
foods can make a sizeable contribution to the economies of
developing countries. In India, the National Policy for Urban
Street vendors/hawkers stated that street vendors constitute
approximately 2% of the population of a metropolis (Bhowmik,
2005). Street foods are perceived to be a major public health
risk due to lack of basic infrastructure and services, difficulty
in controlling the large numbers of street food vending
operations because of their diversity, mobility and temporary

nature (Ghosh, Wahi, Kumar, & Ganguli, 2007; deSousa, 2008). A

general lack of factual knowledge about the epidemiological
significance of many street vended foods, poor knowledge of
street vendors in basic food safety measures and
inadequate public awareness of hazards posed by certain foods has
severely hampered the deployment of a precise scientific approach
to this very serious issue of public health and safety. The
epidemiological studies to suggest that street foods contribute
to a significant number of food poisonings are inadequate, due to
paucity of data deficiencies in knowledge
about important parameters in the food chain and host pathogen
interactions; however, there have been several documented cases
of food poisoning outbreaks due to street foods. Street foods
were responsible for 691 food poisoning outbreaks and 49 deaths
from 1983 to 1992 in Shangdong Province (China) (Lianghui,
Xingling, Yuju, Zhang, & Haiyan, 1993).
Foodborne bacterial pathogens commonly detected in street
vended foods are Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens,
Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella spp. (Bryan, 1988; Umoh &
Odoba,1999). People who patronize street food, have been reported
to suffer from food borne diseases like diarrhea, cholera,
typhoid fever and food poisoning (Bean, Griffin, Goulding, &
Ivey, 1990; Todd, 1992).

The diversity of street foods is extensive, as they vary

widely not only from country to country, but also from vendor to
vendor. Street food ingredients are country specific and mostly
undocumented. There are so many varieties that it is impossible
to provide a menu of all the different street foods consumed
around the world. The EPOC studies found a vast range available
in each location studied; a list of popular street foods in Bogor
alone contains nearly 300 items in total, including
numerous varieties of rice-based meals, fried snacks, traditional
cakes, soups and porridges, drinks, and fruit (Chapman 1984). The
ingredients and means of preparation were equally diverse and
included meat, poultry, fish, seafood, eggs, cereal products,
soya products, fruit, and vegetables. They were fried, roasted,
boiled, baked, steamed, or eaten raw. Street foods can be grouped
in various ways: by meal (meals, constituents of meals, snacks,
and drinks), by number and type of ingredients (simple and
complex foods that contain more than one main ingredient), and by
level and type of processing (minimally processed foods, such as
fruit which may only have been peeled or sliced, traditionally
processed foods made by the vendor or another informal sector
operative, and centrally processed commercial foods). Although
traditional foods form the bulk of items sold, foods processed by
larger-scale food manufacturers are an important category of

foods sold in some contexts (Powell et al., 1990; EPOC 1985). The
range of foods
sold by vendors in specific contexts varies. The EPOC studies and
other studies in Jamaica and Pune, India found that in most
countries vendors sell more than one kind of product, although
many specialize in certain food types or product lines, such as
rice- or noodle-based dishes (Bapat 1992; Cohen 1985; Powell et
al. 1990).
Specialization in single product lines was practiced only by
a minority of vendors, except in Senegal where there was some
specialization by men and women in product lines (Posner 1983).
This gender specialization was not so pronounced in other
countries, although in Indonesia there was a trend for men to
specialize in wheat-based noodle dishes and women in rice dishes
(EPOC 1985). In the EPOC studies, and in Jamaica and India, it
was found that the preparation and sale of traditional foods
tended to be the preserve of women (Bapat 1992; Cohen 1985;
Powell et al. 1990).

Local Studies and Microbiological Standards for the Quality of

Food
The microbiological quality of chicken- and pork-based
street-food samples from Taichung, Taiwan's night markets and

Laguna, Philippines' public places was evaluated in comparison to

a microbiological guideline for ready-to-eat foods.
Different bacterial contamination patterns were observed
between 'hot-grilled' and 'cold cooked/fried' food types from the
two sampling locations with 'hot grilled' foods generally showing
better microbiological quality. Several samples were found to be
unsatisfactory due to high levels of aerobic plate count,
coliform, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus. The
highest counts obtained were 8.2 log cfu g, 5.4 log cfu g,
4.4 log cfu g, and 3.9 log cfu g, respectively, suggesting
poor food hygiene practices and poor sanitation. Salmonella was
found in 8% and 7% of Taichung and Laguna samples, respectively,
which made the samples potentially hazardous. None of the samples
was found to be positive for Listeria monocytogenes and
Escherichia coli O157, but Bacillus cereus was detected at the
unsatisfactory level of 4 log cfu g in one Laguna sample.
Antimicrobial resistance was observed for Salmonella, E. coli,
and S. aureus isolates. Food preparation,
cooking, and food handling practices were considered to be
contributors to the unacceptable microbiological quality of the
street foods. Hence, providing training on food hygiene for the
street vendors should result in the improvement of the
microbiological quality of street foods. The data obtained in
this study can be used as input to microbial risk assessments

and in identifying science-based interventions to control the

hazards (Manguiat & Fang, 2013) .
Both the UK Food Protection Agency and Food Standards
Australia New Zealand (2001) provide guidance on the status of
the food. This is shown in Table 1.
Based on the potential food safety risk and using
information from guidance documents, the interpretation and
potential action for each of the categories of microbiological
quality is presented in Table 2 (Gilbert et al., 2001; Hocking,
2003). Good or acceptable results will be considered as passing
the microbiological guidelines and no further action will be
required, while unacceptable and potentially hazardous results
would fail the guidelines with further action and activities
needed.

Table 1
Guidelines Levels for Determining the Microbiological Quality of
Pre-cooked Breaded Fish Product.