Chapter 1

Basic components of control

boards
A simple control board is illustrated in Figure 1.1. The board contains two
push-buttons. One is used to operate the load (a flashing buzzer) and the
other is used to stop it. This board, similar to most other boards consists
of two circuits: A power circuit and a control circuit. The power circuit
is used to be a high current one connecting the electric power to the load
while the control circuit is a low current circuit implements the method
in which the drivers of the load are excited. It may contain switches, push
buttons, relays, timers, and counters. The drivers of the load are likely to be
contactors, relays, or solid state relays. This chapter is devoted to provide a
through description of the basic components encountered in control boards.

1.1 Electrical switches

An electrical circuit switch is any device used to interrupt the flow of electrons in the circuit. It is usually an electromechanical part used to control
continuity between two points. However, there are other types of switches
which are more complex, containing electronic circuits able to turn on or
off depending on some physical stimulus (such as light or magnetic field)
sensed. In any case, the final output of any switch will be a pair of wireconnection terminals that will either be connected together by the switchs
1

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

Figure 1.1: A simple control board.

internal contact mechanism (closed), or not connected together (open).
Any switch designed to be operated by a person is generally called a hand
switch, and they are manufactured in several varieties. The most famous
types are toggle switches and push-button switches.
Toggle switches which are illustrated in Figure 1.2 are actuated by a lever
angled in one of two or more positions. The common light switch used in
household wiring is an example of a toggle switch.
Push-button switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that
is pressed and released. Push-button switches have an internal spring
mechanism returning the button to its out, or unpressed, position, for
momentary operation. The contacts of the push-button switch can be designed so that the contacts close (establish continuity) when actuated, or
open (interrupt continuity) when actuated. The direction that the spring
of the push-button returns it to with no applied force is called the normal
position. Therefore, contacts that are open in this position are called normally open (N.O.) and contacts that are closed in this position are called
normally closed (N.C.). Push-button switches which has N.C. contacts are
used to have red color while push-button switches which have N.O. contacts are used to have green color. However, there are some push-button
switches which have both N.O. and N.C. contacts. Some types of pushbutton switches are illustrated in Figure 1.3.
Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of
a machine rather than by the hand of a human operator. These motion-

1.1. ELECTRICAL SWITCHES

Figure 1.2: Toggle switches.

Figure 1.3: Push-button switches.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

Figure 1.4: Lever actuator limit switches.

operated switches are commonly called limit switches, because they are
often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning off the actuating
power to a component if it moves too far. There are three basic types
of limit switches: lever actuator limit switches, magnetic proximity limit
switches, and electronic proximity limit switches.
Lever actuator limit switch is illustrated in Figure 1.4. It is closely resemble rugged toggle fitted with a lever pushed by the machine part. Often,
the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing, preventing the lever from
being worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.
Magnetic proximity switches are simple non-electronic devices. They sense
the approach of a metallic machine part by means of a permanent magnet.
This magnet is used to actuate a sealed switch mechanism whenever the
machine part gets close (typically 2 cm or less). A magnetic proximity
switch widely used in security alarm systems is illustrated in Figure 1.5.
Note that its electric symbol is identical to the lever actuator limit switch.
Electronic proximity switches are illustrated in Figure 1.6. They encompass inductive, capacitive, and optical sensors.
In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical
quantities with switches. Such switches can be used to sound alarms, in-

1.1. ELECTRICAL SWITCHES

Figure 1.5: Magnetic proximity limit switches.

Optical

Capacitive

Inductive

Figure 1.6: Electronic proximity limit switches.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

pressure

flow

level

speed

temperature

Figure 1.7: Symbols of common types of process switches.

normally open switch

normally close switch

Figure 1.8: Generic symbology for switch contacts.

dicating that a process variable has exceeded normal parameters, or they
can be used to shut down processes or equipment if those variables have
reached dangerous or destructive levels. This type of switches is called
process switches. Speed, pressure, temperature, level, and flow switches
are examples of this category. They are illustrated in Figure 1.7.
As with push-button switches, limit switches and process switches may
have N.O., N.C., or double contacts. The normal state of a switch is that
where it is unactuated. This is the condition its in when sitting on a shelf,
uninstalled. There is a generic symbology for any switch contact, using
a pair of vertical lines to represent the contact points in a switch as illustrated in Figure 1.8. Normally-open contacts are designated by the lines
not touching, while normally-closed contacts are designated with a diagonal line bridging between the two lines. If switches are designated with
these generic symbols, the type of switch usually will be noted in text immediately beside the symbol.
When movable contact(s) can be brought into one of several positions
with stationary contacts, those positions are sometimes called throws. The
number of movable contacts is sometimes called poles. Selector switches
shown in Figure 1.9 are with one moving contact and seven stationary contacts would be designated as single-pole, seven-throw (SP7T) switches. If

1.2. RELAYS

Common

7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Figure 1.9: A selector switch.

two identical single-pole, five-throw switches were mechanically ganged
together so that they were actuated by the same mechanism, the whole
assembly would be called a double-pole, five- throw (DP5T) switch. Figure 1.10 illustrates a few common switch configurations and their abbreviated designations.

1.2 Relays
A relay is a simple device that uses a magnetic field to control a switch.
When a voltage is applied to the input coil, the resulting current creates
a magnetic field. The magnetic field pulls a metal switch towards it and
the contacts touch, closing the switch. SPDT, DPDT, and 3PDT switch
types are commonly used in relays as illustrated in Figure 1.11. Their
current ratings may vary from few to tens of Amperes and may withstand
few hundreds of volts. The relay coil on the other hand, is usually rated at
much less values. Commercial relays usually have 3PDT contacts rated at
5 A and 220 V and their windings are rated at 24 V DC and 0.03 A.

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

SPST

single-pole, single-throw

SPDT

single-pole, double-throw

DPST

double-pole, single-throw

3P4T

three-pole, four-throw

Figure 1.10: Common switch configurations.

Figure 1.11: Common relays.

1.2. RELAYS

Beginners sketch
Relay (R)
Sensor (S)
Load
24V

220V

Professionals sketch
220V AC

+24V

Load
GND1

GND2

Figure 1.12: A circuit which uses a relay as a driver.

There are two basic functions for relays. First, they may be used to let one
power source close a switch for another high current source, while keeping
them isolated. In other words they are extremely useful when we have
a need to control a large amount of current and/or voltage with a small
electrical signal. The relay coil which produces the magnetic field may
only consume fractions of a watt of power, while the contacts closed or
opened by that magnetic field may be able to conduct hundreds of times
that amount of power to a load. In effect, a relay acts as a digital amplifier.
Figure 1.12 illustrates an example of this case. A relay contacts are used
in the power circuit where they are used to switch a lamp on when the
relay coil is excited. The relay coil is in the control circuit which has a low
voltage and low current photocell.
The second function of relays is to implement logic functions. Assume
that we want to design a Set/Reset control circuit for a lamp. In the control
circuit, we will have two switches denoted by S and R for setting and
resetting the relay coil denoted by C. In the power circuit we will have one
of the relay contacts, which is also denoted by C, connected in series with
the lamp and its power supply. To deduce the connection of the control
circuit we may utilize the standard techniques used in logic design to find
the boolean function of the coil C. Starting by the truth table and passing by

10

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

R

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

1
S 1 1 x x

0
1
0
0
1
1
x
x

Ct =S+Ct-1 R

{ {

0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1

Ct-1

0
S

0 0
x x

Ct =R+Ct-1 S
Ct=R(Ct-1 +S)

0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1

S R Ct-1 Ct

Ct-1

Figure 1.13: Driving the boolean equation of the relay.

+24V

+24V

C
GND

Ct=R(Ct-1 +S)

GND

Ct =S+Ct-1 R

Figure 1.14: Circuits which use relays to implement certain logic.

the Karnough map as illustrated in Figure 1.13 one may find the equation
of C as sum of products




or product of sums


 
These equations are implemented as illustrated in Figure 1.14. Try to figure
out which one is superior to the other.
Sophisticated modern control circuits use relays for driving loads and rarely

1.3. CONTACTORS

11

Figure 1.15: A typical contactor.

use them for logic. The logic functions of the relays are implemented in
software using programable logic controllers.

1.3 Contactors
When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through
its contacts, it is designated by a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have three power contacts, and those contacts are usually normallyopen, so that power to the load is shut off when the coil is de- energized.
Another low power N.C. or N.O. contact is used to be available also in
contactors. The power contacts are used in the power circuit while the
low power one may be used in the control circuit. A typical commercial
contactor is illustrated in Figure 1.15.
When there is a need for extra contacts for the control circuit, auxiliary

12

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

Figure 1.16: Auxiliary contacts.

contacts may be attached to the contactor. These auxiliary contacts are
available in different capacities and different configurations (N.C and N.O.)
as illustrated in Figure 1.16.
Perhaps the most common industrial use for contactors is the control of
electric motors. Figure 1.17 illustrates a common control circuit for a three
phase ( ) induction motor. The contactor power contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-phase AC power, typically 480 Volts
line-to-line for motors greater than one horsepower. The three devices in
series with each phase going to the motor are called overload heaters. Each
heater element is a low-resistance strip of metal intended to heat up as
the motor draws current. If the temperature of any of these heater elements
reaches a critical point (equivalent to a moderate overloading of the motor),
a N.C. switch contact (F) will spring open. This normally-closed contact
is connected in series with the contactor coil, so that when it opens, the
contactor will automatically de-energize, thereby shutting off power to the
motor.



Overload devices usually have adjustable current ratings and may have N.C
contacts along with the N.O. contacts. The overload devices may be available as stand alone devices or as integrated devices which are tightened
directly to contactors as illustrated in Figures 1.18 and 1.19
Overload heaters are intended to provide over-current protection for large
electric motors, unlike circuit breakers and fuses which serve the primary
purpose of providing over-current protection for power conductors.
Overload heater function is often misunderstood. They are not fuses; that

1.3. CONTACTORS

13

220V

R S T
F

OFF

ON

M
C

3
GND

Figure 1.17: Control board circuits of a 3-phase induction motor.

Figure 1.18: Overload devices.

14

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

Figure 1.19: A contactor attached to an overload device and an auxiliary

contacts.

is, it is not their function to burn open and directly break the circuit as a
fuse is designed to do. Rather, overload heaters are designed to thermally
mimic the heating characteristic of the particular electric motor to be protected. All motors have thermal characteristics, including the amount of
heat energy generated by resistive dissipation (
), the thermal transfer characteristics of heat conducted to the cooling medium through the
metal frame of the motor, the physical mass and specific heat of the materials constituting the motor, etc. These characteristics are mimicked by
the overload heater on a miniature scale: when the motor heats up toward
its critical temperature, so will the heater toward its critical temperature,
ideally at the same rate and approach curve. Thus, the overload contact,
in sensing heater temperature with a thermo-mechanical mechanism, will
sense an analogue of the real motor. If the overload contact trips due to excessive heater temperature, it will be an indication that the real motor has
reached its critical temperature (or, would have done so in a short while).
After tripping, the heaters are supposed to cool down at the same rate and
approach curve as the real motor, so that they indicate an accurate proportion of the motors thermal condition, and will not allow power to be
re-applied until the motor is truly ready for start-up again.



1.4. SOLID STATE RELAYS

15

Figure 1.20: A solid state relay.

1.4 Solid state relays

A solid state relay (SSR) uses an SCR, TRIAC, or transistor output instead
of mechanical contacts to switch the controlled power. The output device
(SCR, TRIAC, or transistor) is optically-coupled to a Light Emitting Diode
(LED) inside the relay. The relay is turned on by energizing this LED,
usually with low-voltage DC power. This optical isolation between input
to output rivals the best that electromechanical relays can offer. Figure 1.20
illustrates a SSR and its simplified schematic.
Being solid-state devices, there are no moving parts to wear out, and they
are able to switch on and off much faster than any mechanical relay armature can move. There is no sparking between contacts, and no problems
with contact corrosion. However, solid-state relays are still too expensive
to build in very high current ratings, and so electromechanical contactors
continue to dominate that application in industry today. One significant
advantage of a solid-state SCR or TRIAC relay over an electromechanical
device is its natural tendency to open the AC circuit only at a point of zero
load current. Because SCRs and TRIACs are thyristors, their inherent
hysteresis maintains circuit continuity after the LED is de-energized until the AC current falls below a threshold value (the holding current). In
practical terms what this means is the circuit will never be interrupted in
the middle of a sine wave peak. Such untimely interruptions in a circuit
containing substantial inductance would normally produce large voltage

16

CHAPTER 1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF CONTROL BOARDS

spikes due to the sudden magnetic field collapse around the inductance.
This will not happen in a circuit broken by an SCR or TRIAC. This feature
is called zero-crossover switching. One disadvantage of solid state relays
is their tendency to fail shorted on their outputs, while electromechanical
relay contacts tend to fail open. In either case, it is possible for a relay
to fail in the other mode, but these are the most common failures. Because
a fail-open state is generally considered safer than a fail-closed state,
electromechanical relays are still favored over their solid-state counterparts
in many applications.

1.5 Problems
1.1 What are the main differences between relays and contactors?
1.2 What are the differences between an overload device and the circuit
breakers used in traditional home electrical wiring system?
1.3 Apart of the devices described in this chapter, write down 3 electrical
components used in control boards and provide brief description and
some illustrations for each one.

   ! #"

    
      !  #"
 (') 
*   $
" +    !

,
,
, and
are switches. Sketch the electrical
1.4 Assume that
circuits which implement the following outputs:

$%
b) $&
c) $
d) $
"
a)

1.5 Implement a master-slave toggle flip-flop using relays. Hint: You

need 4 relays.